Goals and Methods Matrix

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Goals-and-methods matrix:coping with projects withill defined goals and/ormethods of achievin them

J R Turner and R A ~o~~rane*Projects can be judged against two parameters: how wellde~ned are the goals, and how weil de~ned are the methodsof achieving them. This leads to four types of projects. Adefinition of projects is given which encompasses all fourtypes. This implies three bre~do~~~ str~ct~res~ theproduct-breakdown structure ~PBS~ (the bill of materialsfor the project), the organization-breakdown structure(UBS) (the range of skill types avail~bie~, and thework-breakdown structure (WBS) (the task matrixde~ning the invoIvement of each skiII type in the deliveryof each goal at a given level of breakdown). The OBS isusually well defined; the range of skill types is known.However, the PBS, or WBS, or both, may not be. Methodsof project startup and the use of milestone planning andcon~guration management to cope with these situations isdescribed.Keywords stffrt~~ techniques, milestone planning,~on~guration management

Many traditional definitions view a project as a complexsequence of activities to deliver clearly defined objec-tives. The assumption is that both the goals and themethod of achieving them are well understood at thestart of a project, or at least at the start ,of its executionstage. The resulting methodologies rely heavily on thisHenley Management College, Greenlands, Henley-on-Thames,Oxfordshire KG9 3AU, UK* Coopers & Lybrand Management Consultants Ltd, Sunning Plaza,10 Hysan Avenue, Hong Kong

assumption, and, in particular, the project is planned interms of the activities to be done, and authors suggestfreezing the design of the project at an early stage.However, on some projects, the objectives and/or themethods of achieving them are not clearly defined at thestart of the execution stages. Projects can be judgedagainst two parameters: how well defined are the goals,and how well defined are the methods. The resulting2 x 2 matrix, which is called in this paper the goals-and-methods matrix, implies four types of project:Type-l projects: for which the goals and methods ofachieving the project are well defined,Type-2projects: for which the goals are well definedbut the methods are not,Type-3 projects: for which the goals are not welldefined but the methods are,Type-4 projects: for which neither the goals nor themethods are well defined.

(The spectrum of projects introduced by Briner andGeddes spans projects of Types 1, 3 and 4. Similarmatrices exist in the fields of numerical analysis andinnovation management. In numerical analysis, thenumerical solution to a mathematical or engineeringproblem can be judged against two parameters: whetherthe solution exists, and whether the numerical approxi-mation converges2. Pearson3 describes a similar matrixfor managing innovation.)A new definition of projects is introduced whichencompasses all four types. This definition differentiatesbetween the objectives of a project (the facility it willproduce) and the purpose of a project (the benefitexpected from operating that facility after completion ofthe project), and it implies three types of breakdownstructure for a project: the product-breakdown structure

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(or bill of materials for the facility produced), theorganization breakdown structure (the resource or skilltypes available to undertake the work of the project),and the work-breakdown structure (the cascade of 2-dimensional matrices defining the involvement of eachskill type in the delivery of each element of the facilityat a given level of breakdown).On almost all projects, the OBS is well defined; it isknown what skill types are available to do work.However, the goals-and-methods matrix implies that, onsome projects, the PBS, or WBS, or both, are ill defined.To cope with this situation, project managers must usemethodoiogies which acknowledge that this may be thecase. This paper describes appropriate startup andimplementation techniques to cope with the four typesof project.A bottom-up approach to project startup can be usedwhen both the goals and methods are well defined.However, as either or both become less certain, atop-down approach becomes appropriate. When themethods are uncertain, the startup process shouldinvolve multidisciplinary teams to reach the bestsolution. When the goals are uncertain, the startupshould involve a facilitator to negotiate agreementbetween the parties involved in the project.Similarly, appropriate impiementation techniquesshould be chosen depending on the type of project. It isshown how milestone planning techniques4.5, can be usedfor planning Type-2, Type-3 and Type-4 projects. Thesedefine the plan in terms of known control points,independently of the method of achieving them, allowingthe methods and precise definition of the goals to bedevised as the project progresses. We also show thatconfiguration management4 can be used to refine thedefinition of the goals and methods as the projectprogresses.

TRADITIO NAL DEFINITI ONS OF PR OJ ECTSMany traditional definitions of projects assume that theobjectives of a project, and the methods of achievingthem, are well understood throughout the project. Forinstance, in its body of knowledge, the UK Associationof Project Managers defines a project as an undertakingto achieve a defined objectivej, and goes on to state thatgenerally all projects evolve through a similar life-cycle sequence during which there should be recognisedstart and finish points.Other definitions similarly imply clearly definedobjectives and methods: an activity defined by a clearaim, appropriate objectives and supporting activities,undertaken to define start and completion criteria7, anda human activity that achieves a clear objective againsta time-scale*.This assumption that the objectives and methods canbe clearly defined at an early stage of a project leads toa belief that the projects design should be frozen as earlyas possible. The frozen objectives become part of thedefinition of the quality of the project, and projectmanagers are said to be successful if they deliver themon time and within budget, regardless of whether or notthe product is useful or beneficial to the owners andusers.94

In reality, the project is only successful if it producesa worthwhile product which can be operated beneficiallyfor some time after the completion of the project torepay the investment in it (see Reference 4, Chapters 3and 5). In some cases, this can require the objectives ormethods of achieving them to be changed right up to thecompletion of the project as new information becomesavailable about what will be beneficial or worthwhile.Configuration management is a technique forcontrolling this process.Similarly, the assumption of well defined methodsmeans that projects are usually planned in terms of theactivities, or work, to be done. This can result in planschanging almost continuously as early work changes therequirements for later work. This requires the plan to beexpressed in terms of milestones or deliverables whichare known, with rolling-wave planning4 being used toplan the detail of the work as it progresses.

GOALS-AND-METHODS MATRIXIt can therefore be seen that projects can be judgedagainst two parameters:l whether the goals are well defined,l whether the methods of achieving them are welldefined.This concept leads to the definition of four types ofproject (see Figure 1):

Type-l projects: In these projects, the goals andmethods are well defined. They are typified by largeengineering projects, and are the type of project onwhich many of the authors have gained experience,and hence the definitions above. (The four types ofproject have been named after the four traditionalelements. These projects have been called the earthprojects; they are well defined, with a solid foun-dation.)Type-Zprojects: In these projects, the goals are welldefined, but the methods of achieving them are not.They are typified by product-development projects.Many of the early projects, through which modernproject management was developed9, e.g. Atlas, Po-laris and Apollo, were of this type. (These are waterprojects; like a turbulent stream, they flow with asense of purpose, but in an apparently haphazardway.)Type-3 projects: In these projects, the goals are notwell defined, but the methods are. These are typifiedby software-development projects, in which it is noto-riously difficult to specify the users requirements. Thegoals are known to exist, but cannot be specifiedprecisely until users begin to see what can be pro-duced, often during the testing stages. Many peoplebelieve that the definition of the goals should befrozen at an early stage of the project, and hence theyhave the dilemma of knowing that the goals should bechanged, but believing that good project-managementpractice means they should remain frozen. (These arefire projects; much heat can be generated in thede~nition of the work, but they can burn with noapparent purpose.)

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No

MethodsWell .__-_Defined

Yes

Yes / NoGoals Well Defined

Figure 1. eoal~-a~d-~et~o~ matrixType-4 projects: In these projects, neither the goals,nor the method of achieving them, are well defined.They are typified by organizational-developmentprojects. (These are air projects; they are very difficultto catch hold of, and deliver blue-sky researchobjectives.)

A definition of projects which encompasses all four typesof project, and methods of startup and management thatare appropriate in each case, are therefore required.

NEW DEFINITION OF PROJECTSDefinitionTurner4 suggests a definition of a project which canencompass all four types of project. A project is defined(see Figure 2) as follows:

Figure 2. Five project objectivesVol 11 No 2 May 1993

an endeavour in which human material and financial resources areorganised in a novel way, to undertake a unique scope of work ofgiven specification, within constraints of cost and time, so as toachieve unitary, beneficial change, through the delivery of quanti-tative and qualitative objectives.This definition implies that projects have three essentialfeatures which differentiate them from day-to-dayoperations:l the work is unique,0 the organization is novel,e the change is unitary, being achieved once, on a certainday, although the benefit of the change is long-lasting.It also implies that projects have quality, cost and timeconstraints (the golden icons beloved by projectmanagers), but projects share these constraints withday-to-day operations.

Three breakdown structuresThe three essential features imply the existence of threebreakdown structures, which define the goals of aproject, and the method of achieving them. In reverseorder, they are as follows:

Product breakdown structure: This is a cascade ofdeliverables, in which the overall product or objectiveof the project is broken into subproducts, assemblagesand components. It is a bill of materials for the project.Organization breakdown structure: This is a cascade ofresource types, skill types or activities. At high levels,the names may be similar to what are often called thephases of a project: design, development, procure-ment, production, assembly, and testing. At lowerlevels, they are specific resource types: mechanicalengineers, COBOL programmers etc.Work b~eukdo~n structure: At any level of breakdown,the 2-dimensional matrix of products and activitiesdefine a task matrix, the sequence of activities requiredto deliver each product. The cascade of task matricesis the work breakdown structure for a project.

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Goals-and-methods matrix: coping with projects with ill deJined goals and/or methods of achieving themThese definitions of WBS and OBS differ in emphasisfrom those developed 40 years ago by the USDepartment of Defense in their CjSCSC methodology.However, the authors believe that this changed emphasisreflects the more modern approach to projectmanagement implied by the definition above.

On most projects, the OBS will be given, that is, theavailable resource or skill types will be well defined.However, the PBS and/or the cascade of task matrices,the WBS, may not be:On Type-l projects, the PBS, OBS and WBS areall well defined, and so managers of traditionalprojects can be lax in drawing a distinction betweenthem. Indeed, the PBS and WBS are often treatedas the same thing; that is, people do not differentiatebetween the goals or deliverables and the methodof achieving them. (Indeed, a careful interpretationof the early definitions of WBSO implies that it ismore a bill of materials for the project than a tasklist.)On Type-2 projects, the PBS is well defined, but theWBS is not, that is, the task matrices, or precisesequence of activities involved in achieving eachdeliverable, are uncertain. The work is often identifiedwith the deliverables, as with Type-l projects.On Type-3 projects, the PBS is ill defined, but theWBS is partially defined; the typical sequences oftasks required to achieve the deliverables are wellknown, but the precise form of those deliverables (andhence the precise balance or sequence of tasks) is not.Because, in this environment, the OBS is well defined,people are often lax in drawing a distinction betweenthe OBS and the WBS. They apply the word activityto both skill types, and work to achieve products. Forexample, systems analysis is both a skill type and aphase in the project lifecycle. Often, on Type-3projects, the structure of the PBS is known, that is, theexistence of elements in the structure (configurationitems as they are called) can be predicted. It is onlytheir precise specification, or configuration, thatcannot be predicted,On Type-4 projects, neither the PBS nor the WBS arewell defined.

Project, facility, purposeThe definition of a project above also draws the distinc-tion between the project, the facility that it produces, andthe purpose of the project (see Figure 3):

The project is the work undertaken. It is a collectionof tasks, the WBS, undertaken by all the skill typesinvolved, the OBS.The facility is the projects product. The work is notdone for its own sake, but to produce the facility. Itis all the goals and deliverables in the PBS.The purpose is the benefit obtained from operating thefacility. The facility is also not produced for its ownsake, but to achieve beneficial change. The purpose isthe r&son detre of the project.On some projects, it is the project itself, the WBS, whichis ill defined, and on others it is the facility, the PBS.However, beyond the prefeasibility stage, the purpose or

ProductBenefit/Purpose

I tProjectWork

Figure 3. Project-facility-purpose model

benefit of the project should be well defined, or theproject is pointless. This then becomes the focus formilestone planning and configuration management tomanage Type-2, Type-3 and Type-4 projects.

STARTUP TECHNIQUESTechniques are now considered which can be used formanaging all four types of project, and in particularType-2, Type-3 and Type-4 projects. Startup techniquesare described first. Briner and Geddes proposeleadership qualities for Type-l, Type-3 and Type-4projects, and it is shown where their proposals match theauthors startup techniques,Fangel defines the objectives of project startup as4*follows:to create a shared vision for the project, by identify-ing the projects context, its purpose and its objec-tives,to focus the attention of the project team on theprojects purpose and the method of achieving it,to gain acceptance of the plans, by defining the scopeof work, the project organization, and the constraintsof quality, cost and time,to get the project team functioning, by agreeing itsmode of operation and the channels of communi-cation.On Type-l projects, where the goals and methods arewell defined, and are perhaps based on considerablehistorical experience, these four objectives will alreadybe satisfied at a high level, and so the startup process willquickly slip to ratifying them at a detail level. Theplanning process will therefore appear to be bottom-up.On the other hand, on Type-4 projects, where the goalsand methods are not well defined, and there is perhapslittle previous experience, the startup process must focuson ensuring that the projects context and purpose is welldefined from the start, and only then develop theobjectives and methods from this firm basis. Withoutthis firm basis, it will not be possible to make progress;effectively, there will be no project. This makes theplanning process strictly top-down in nature. Theemphasis on Type-Z and Type-3 projects lies betweenthese two extremes.

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It can therefore be seen that the project manager mustadopt an appropriate startup process that is dependenton the type of project (see Figure 4):Type-l projects: Because the goals and methods arewell understood, the startup process focuses onrefining their definition at a low level. A client-re-quirements definition ar project-definition report4 setsthe basis for the project, Specialists, who bring withthem historical experience, help to launch the projectteam within clearly defined project organization struc-tures which are known to work. Briner and Geddesconsider the readership rofe to be that of a conductor:leading skilled resources in well defined activities. Theconductor follows a score, interpreting it but notehanging it.Type-Zprojects: Here, the purpose and objectives arewell defined, perhaps through a project-definitionreport. The startup process therefore focuses on thethird and fourth objectives, defining especially thescope of work and the mode of operation of theproject team. This requires the project manager topull together a mu~tid~sc~plina~ group who are likelyto have the breadth of knowledge required to definethe projects methods. The group need to start withbrain-storming techniques to ensure that all possibleavenues are explored, An independent facilitator cannow help to ensure that the members of the team arenot too constrained by their experience or ski11base.Once the methods have been defined, the project-or-ganization structure can be frozen, and the projectsimplemented, as in Type-l projects. Briner andGeddes do not consider the leadership role in thiscase. However, it can perhaps be compared to that ofa football coach: the goals are well defined, but theplayers are on their own during the game. The coachcan improve the skills of competent personnel, andtrain them in set pieces, but cannot predict the courseof the game.~~~e-~~r~~~~~~~Here, the goais are not well under-stood, and so the startup process must focus on thefirst two objectives, defining the purpose and ohjec-tives of the project, and converting those into the

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J R TURNER AND R A CUCHRANE

design of a facility which will dehver the requiredbenefits. This requires considerable negotiation withinthe project team, and between the team and theprojects sponsor, and there may be a role for afacilitator to mediate in this negotiation. Once thepurpose and objectives have been defined, the projectis implemented as a Type-l project, using the welldefined methods, within clearly defined organizationstructures. Briner and Geddes consider the leadershiprole here to be that of a sculptor: using well definedmethods to make the sculpture, but adapting the finalshape according to the material worked on.T~~~e-4~~~~~~~~~ere, the startup process fucuses onall four objectives, requiring a mixture of inspirationand creativity to define the methods, and negotiationto define the goals. (Which is defined first depends onwhich is better defined at the outset and is thereforemore likely to provide a firmer basis.) The process isinevitably iterative, cycling between goals andmethods, and between purpose and objectives, as thelevel of definition improves. As it does, the project islikely to move through either the Type-2 or Type-3quadrant, and preferably the former, as the projectis more likely to be successful if the objectives aredefined at an early stage. Briner and Ceddes con-sider the leade~hip role in this case to be that of amole. The authors understand their point, but con-sider an eagle to be a better analogy. The projectmanager must be able to soar above the project, andto see it in its context (purpose), but be able to movedown into the project to solve problems as theyoccur.

~~PLE~~NTAT~~N TECHNIQUESSimilar&, the management of the four types of projectduring implementation requires the use of a balance oftechniques. The use of milestone planning and con-figuration management for this purpose is describedbelow. These two techniques are briefly described, and itis considered how they would be applied to the manage-ment of the four types of project.

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~aais-and-methods matrix: coping ~v~th rojects with ill de~ned goals and~ar methods o f a~h~eu~ng hemMilestone planningOnly on Type-l projects is it possible to plan the projectin terms of the activities to be undertaken. It was seenthat, on the other types of project, the WBS is ill defined(to a greater or lesser extent). On Type-2 projects, oneknows the goals, but cannot say precisely how they willbe achieved. On Type-3 projects, it is known what typesof activities will be undertaken, but, because the goalsare not well defined, it is not known in precisely whatsequence or balance the activities wiil occur. Type-4projects, of course, suffer both these problems. To copewith these situations in which it is not possible to expressthe plan in terms of a sequence of activities, it isnecessary to use milestone planning4.. The plan is ex-pressed instead in terms of control points, or milestones.On Type-2 (and Type-l) projects, these milestones canbe the achievement of the well defined goals orobjectives. The tasks required to achieve each milestone,the methods, are planned on a rolhng-wave basis: thatis, the detail planning is only done as work is about tostart, when all possible information is available. It isshown below that configuration management can beused to manage the refinement of the methods. OnType-3 and Type-4 projects, the milestones must insteadbe decision points where the definition of the goals isrefined and rebaselined. Configuration management isused to manage this refinement.Figure 5 is a milestone plan for a project to rationalizeoffice accommodation using modern technology tochange the way of working within the offices. Thisproject in fact mixes three types of project within one.The accommodation work, being of an engineeringnature, has well defined goals and well defined methods.The technology work, being of a systems-developmentnature, has well defined methods, but the precisespecification of the goals delivered at each milestone isuncertain, being dependent on the interpretation of userrequirements. The operations work, on the other hand,has well defined goals (of people in place), but themethod of achieving them, whether by recruitment,redeployment or retraining, may not be fully defineduntil all the people are in place.

Configuration managementConfiguration management is a tool that can be used inconjunction with milestone planning to monitor and con-trol the evolution of the specification of the goals (Type-3),or the activity plans to achieve the goals (Type-2), orboth (Type-4). Through configuration management, thespecifications or activity plans are rebaselined at succes-sive stages of the project (see Figure 6). There areessentially four steps in configuration management:l configuration identification,0 configuration reviews,0 configuration control,0 status accounting.The steps are detailed below.l Can~guration ide~t~~catian: The configuration isidentified through the PBS. Each element in thePBS is called a configuration item. At the start of each98

stage of the project, there is some uncertainty aboutthe definition of the configuration item, or goal(the lateral dimension in Figure 6) and the method ofachieving it (the longitudinal dimension). Configur-ation management is the process by which the re-duction of this uncertainty is managed.Configuration reoiews: This reduction in uncertaintyis managed through a formal review process con-ducted at each milestone. At the first review, atthe start of the definition stage, the goals andmethods of the configuration items are baselined atthe current level of definition: that is, they are definedas lying within the large rectangle. During the laterstages, the definition is refined, and, at subsequentreviews, the new definition is compared with theprevious baseline. If the new definition fails withinthe envelope of the previous baseline (the tintedrectangles in Figure 6), the new definition is frozenas the new baseline. If it falls outside (thecrosshatched rectangle in Figure 6), then all theparties involved in the project must decide whetherthe previous baseline was incorrect or the refinementwas incorrect.Can~g~rution control: If the latter is the case, then thework of the previous stage of the project must berepeated. If the former is the case, then the newbaseline must be accepted, but only after a process ofchange control, to demonstrate why the previousbaseline was incorrect, and to accept the new. Thepurpose of the project must at all times remain thefocus of this configuration control.Status accounting: For the process to be effective, it isvital to record the current configuration. Status ac-counting must record not only the current baselineconfiguration of all the elements in the PBS, but alsoall previous basehnes and the reasons for anychanges. This can help in two ways:o by keeping people informed of the currentconfiguration in volatile projects,o by ensuring that people joining the projectunderstand the reasoning behind the currentconfiguration, and do not follow previous blindalleys.

Applying concepts to four types of projectHow milestone planning and configuration managementcan be applied to each type of project can now besummarized (see Figure 7):l Type - 1 projects: Milestone planning may be used forplanning the project, but, as with startup, a morebottom-up approach may be taken. The plan isusually expressed in terms of well defined sequencesof activities derived from historical experience.Configuration management need not be used duringimplementation, but may be used to control thedefinition and design of the facility during the feasi-bility and design stages. Down the accommodationpath of Figure 5, quite detailed activity plans andspe~fi~ations can be developed at the start of theproject.



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Goals-and-methods matrix: copitq n,ith projects with ill de$ined goals and/or methods of achieving them

~nee~ain~ ofMethodsOrRange of

Possible Solutions

Figure 6. ~~n~gur~tion m~nugement

~nce~~n~ ofor

Range of PossibleGoalsOutcomes

No

MethodsWellDefined

Yes

-PBS thenWSS

Yes ; No

Figure 7, ~rnp~erne~t~t~~n techniquesGaels ell Defined

l Type4projects: These projects are ideal for the use matrices which are controlled using configurationof milestone planning. The PBS is well defined, at management. Each task itself results in a deliverable,least down to a certain level of breakdown, and so which can be viewed as a subcomponent of thethese configuration items at the higher levels can milestone, and so this can be viewed as controllingthemselves form the milestones. What is not known is the evolution of the PBS to lower levels. Down thethe sequence of tasks required to deliver each item or operations path in Figure 5, the specification ofmilestone, and so it is the definitions of these task the goals can be drawn up at an early stage, but the

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evolution of the activity plans must be managed usingconfiguration management.Type-3 projects: Here, the PBS is not well defined. Inthe early stages of the project, its actual structure isuncertain; at later stages, the structure is known, butthe specification of the individual configuration itemsis poorly defined. The evolution of the PBS and thedevelopment of the specifications is controlled usingconfiguration management. As the configurationitems are unknown at the early stages, the milestonesmust be expressed as more generic control points,derived from the known, typical sequences of activi-ties. At later stages, the delivery of configurationitems can become milestones, even though their spe-cification is unknown. Down the technology path inFigure 5, it is known that the goals exist, althoughthey cannot be precisely specified (they are not welldefined). Activity plans can therefore be drawn up atthe start of the project, but the evolution of thespecification must be managed using configurationmanagement.Type-lprajects: Here, there is very little to use as abasis for either milestone planning or configurationmanagement. It is for this reason that it was suggestedabove that the startup processes should try veryquickly to convert these into Type-2 projects, at leastto produce a draft PBS to be used as the basis formanagement. It might be said that the operationspath in Figure 5 is, in fact, a Type-4 project: it isknown that people must be in place, but it is notknown what their skills (specification) should be untilthe earlier stages of the project have been completed.

SUMMARYIt has been shown that the conventional view of projectsas complex, but well defined, sequences of activities todeliver clearly defined goals and objectives may beinvalid for a large number, if not the majority, ofprojects. Indeed four types of projects can be defined,judged against two parameters:l the level of certainty of the goals,l the level of certainty of the method of achieving thegoals.These different types of project require different startuptechniques:l to negotiate agreement of the goals where they are illdefined,l to brainstorm methods of achieving them where theyare ill defined.Where the goals or the methods or both are poorlydefined, it is not possible to plan projects in the conven-tional way, in terms of the activities to be undertaken.The project must instead be planned in terms of majormilestones, deliverables or control points. The techniqueof configuration management can be used to monitorand control the definition of these milestones, thespeci~cation of the deliverables to be achieved at thesepoints, and the work to be undertaken to achieve thesemilestones.Voi 11 No 2 May 1993

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors thank Arnon Speiser, of IBMs WarwickLaboratory, UK, for his help in preparing this paper, asthis work arose through a joint project on defining theinformation systems requirements of programmemanagers. They also thank Richard Morreale, of Life-Cycle Management Systems Ltd, UK, for guidance onconfiguration management.I Rodney Timer is the Director ofthe Project Management Unit atHeniey Management Cofiege, UK,where he runs the qualificationsprogrammes and short courses inproject manageme~lt. His researchinterests focus on dev&ping pro -ject management as a structureddiscipline and approach, ratherthan as a collection of tools andtechniques. He also undertakesconsultamy work, and lectures in -

ternationally on projeft manage-ment. He is a Council member ofthe UK Association of Project. .Managers. Previously, he was a project -management consul iantwith Coopers and LJjbrand, where he developed audit procedures orconducting project health checks, and an engineering project man-ager with ICI in the petrochemicals industry. Before joining ICI, DrTurner was a postdoctoral research fellow at Oxford University,where he gained a DPhil.

elds of engineer-

Australia, the UK and the FarEast. His experience of projectmanagement includes ci&-engin-eering construction, new productintroduction, major defence pro-jeers, an d the management oforganizationul change in Iargemanaging director of Cooper LLybrands consultancy practice in

REFERENCESBriner, W and Geddes, M Linking project leadershipto a project continuum: different types of projectrequire leaders to concentrate on different dimen-sions of their role in Gareis, R (Ed.) The Handbookof ~a~ageme~r by Projects Manz (1990)Carnahan, B, Luther, H A and Wilkes, J 0 AppliedNumerical Methods John Wiley (1968)Pearson, A W Managing innovation: an uncertaintyreduction process in Henry, J and Walker, D (Eds.)Managing Innovation Sage (199 1)Turner, J R The Handbook of Project Based Manage-ment: Improving the Processes for Achieving YourStrategic Objeciives McGraw-Hili (1992)Andersen, E S, Grude, K V, Haug, T and Turner, J RGoal Directed Project management Kogan Page(1987)

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Goals-and-methods matrix: coping with projects with ill defined goals and/or methods of achieving them6 Morris, P W G (Ed.) APM Body of Knowledge andExperience Association of Project Managers, UK

(1992)7 Gower, D G Project management - an overview

Association of Project Managers, UK (1992) (UKInstitution of Electrical Engineers professional brief)

8 Reiss, G Project Management Demystified E & FSpon (1992)9 Morris, P W G The Management of Projects:

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Lessons From the Last Fifty Years (manuscript inpreparation)

10 Cost/Schedule Control Systems Criteria (CjSCSC)DOD Instruction 7000.2 US Department of Defense,USA

11 Fangel, M The essence of project start-up: the con-cept, timing, results, methods, schedule and applicat-ion in Fangel, M (Ed.) Handbook of Project Start-up:How to Launch Projects Effectively INTERNET (1987)


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Goals and Methods Matrix