GMATReasoning Test 9Passage 91 to 100

Passage 91 (6/15)

A majority taken collectively may be regarded as a being whose opinions and, most frequently, whose interests are opposed to those of another being, which is styled a minority. If it is admitted that a man possessing absolute power may misuse that power by wronging his adversaries, why should a majority not be liable to the same reproach? Men are not apt to change their characters by agglomeration; nor does their patience in the presence of obstacles increase with the consciousness of their strength. For these reasons we should not willingly invest any group of our fellows with that unlimited authority which we should refuse to any individual.

One social power must always predominate over others, but liberty is endangered when this power is checked by no obstacles which may retard its course and force it to moderate its own vehemence. Unlimited power is in itself a bad and dangerous thing, and no power on earth is so worthy of honor for itself or of reverential obedience to the rights which it represents that we should admit its uncontrolled and all-predominant authority. When the right and means of absolute command are conferred on a people or a king, on an aristocracy or a democracy, a monarchy or a republic, there has been implanted the germ of tyranny.

The main evil of the present democratic institutions of the United States does not arise, as is often asserted in Europe, from their weakness, but from their overpowering strength; the excessive liberty which reigns in that country is not so alarming as is the very inadequate security which exists against tyranny.

When an individual or a party is wronged in the United States, to whom can he apply for redress? If to the public opinion, public opinion constitutes the majority; if to the legislature, it represents the majority and implicitly obeys its injunctions; if to the executive power, it is appointed by the majority and remains a passive tool in its hands; the public troops consist of the majority under arms; the jury is the majority invested with the right of hearing judicial cases, and in certain states even the judges are elected by the majority. However iniquitous or absurd the evil complained about, no sure barrier is established to defend against it.1. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage?

(A) The Tyranny of the Majority(B) Democracy: Triumph of the People(C) Abuses of Power(D) The Failure of Democracy in the United States(E) Minority Rights

2. Which of the following best paraphrases the author’s statement in the third sentence of paragraph 1 (lines 7-11)?(A) Individuals do not change their behavior when they act in concert with others who are

likeminded, and, knowing they are acting as part of the group, they are not likely to show greater restraint when opposed than they would if they were acting individually.

(B) Groups are not different from one another, they all show strong impatience when thwarted.

(C) The character of men is formed by the accumulation of their traits, and patience is not a common trait among men of strength.

(D) The leopard does not change its spots no matter how long it lives, and it is, and remains, patient in the presence of obstacles.

(E) Men change their behavior when they act in groups; they are more patient when they are in the company of their fellows than they are when they are alone.

3. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to agree?(A) Democracy is no greater defense against tyranny than is monarchy or aristocracy.(B) Minority rule would probably be more responsive to the needs of all people than

majority rule.(C) No government should be trusted since all governments are equally tyrannical.(D) Since one social power must always predominate over others, it is futile to provide

checks and balances in government.(E) To render itself immune to the germ of tyranny, the United States should strengthen

its political institutions.

4. Which of the following, assuming that each is true, would most weaken the point that the author is making in the last two paragraphs of the passage?(A) The framers of the U.S. Constitution deliberately separated the three branches of the

government to prevent tyranny.(B) There is not a single majority in the United States; there are many majorities, each

composed of a different collection of individuals and each acting as a restraint on the others.

(C) The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution specifically guarantees the right of each citizen to petition the government for redress of grievances.

(D) Even though the United States is not a direct democracy, all U.S. citizens have an equal opportunity to participate in political life and to hold public office.

(E) The framers of the U.S. Constitution had two primary concerns: to prevent the government from exercising tyranny over the people and to prevent the majority from exercising tyranny over the minority.

5. The author’s treatment of the topic of the passage can best be described as(A) ironic(B) neutral(C) logical(D) irreverent(E) diffident

6. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with(A) challenging a commonly held belief(B) contrasting two opposing views(C) advocating a course of action(D) reconciling an apparent conflict(E) proposing a solution to an unrecognized problem

Passage 92 (7/15)

Although much has been written about the theological conflicts with Darwinian theory, little is known of the powerful scientific objections that modified Darwin’s beliefs.

During Darwin’s lifetime, the accepted theory of heredity was not Mendel’s theory of particulate inheritance, which, though published, was unrecognized, but the theory of blending inheritance, which holds that forms intermediate between those of the parents result from mating. Jenkin pointed out that if a rare and favorable mutation occurred, it would soon be blended out by repeated crossings from the wild-type form. Disputing Darwin’s conception of evolution as proceeding through the natural selection of those

with slightly better characteristics that arose randomly, Jenkin concluded that natural selection could not account for the tremendous diversity of life, hypothesizing that large numbers of organisms mutated simultaneously in the same direction—a controlled orthogenetic process resembling a series of “special creations.”

Since “special creationism” was an ideological target of his, Darwin found himself in a quandary. Although he did not abandon his theory, he admitted that natural selection played a much smaller part in evolution than he had previously claimed. He also embraced the Lamarckian concept that acquired traits in parents are transmitted to their offspring, thus providing a mechanism by which an entire population could change in the same direction at once.

Another potent objection came from the physicists led by Lord Kelvin, who contested the assumption of previous geologists and biologists that life had existed for billions of years, if not infinitely. How, they asked, could evolution proceed by slow steps in millions of years, and how could advanced forms recently evolved show such great differences? The Kelvinists, basing their conclusion on the assumption that the sun was an incandescent liquid mass rapidly radiating heat, calculated that the age of the earth was between 20 and 40 million years.

Admitting that their calculations were correct and their premises rational, Darwin was forced to adjust this theory. He proposed that change had occurred much more rapidly in the past than in the present, where species seemed static, and that more advanced forms varied more rapidly than lower forms. This provided further reason to advocate Lamarck’s theory of inheritance, because that could account for the rapid change.

Interestingly, both these retreats of Darwin were later shown to be faulty. The discovery that the sun runs on a nearly infinite amount of atomic fuel totally invalidated Kelvin’s argument, Mendel was “rediscovered” in the twentieth century, when it was pointed out that the particulate nature of inheritance meant that favorable mutation not only could persist, but could rapidly become prevalent.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) outline the process by which Darwin formulated and modified his theory of natural selection

(B) propose a new interpretation of Darwin’s theory of evolution(C) explain how other scientists of the time helped Darwin modify and perfect his

theories(D) defend Darwinian theory against the objections raised by Darwin’s contemporaries in

the scientific community(E) discuss some of the scientific controversy that Darwin sparked and describe his

response to it

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the theory of blending inheritance would predict that the offspring of(A) two strains of snapdragons, one with abnormal, radically symmetrical flowers and the

other with normal, bilaterally symmetrical flowers, would always have normal, bilaterally symmetrical flowers

(B) a white horse and a black horse would always be gray(C) a man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood would always have type A,

type B, or type AB blood(D) a fly with large eyes and a fly with small eyes would always have one large eye and

one small eye(E) two pink-flowered plants would always be red or white

3. It can be inferred from the passage that “wild-type” (line 12) means(A) nonmutant(B) rare(C) abnormal(D) random

(E) favorable

4. Which of the following, if it could be demonstrated, would tend to support the Lamarckian concept that Darwin embraced?(A) Human beings evolved from now-extinct animals much like chimpanzees as a result

of an erratic accumulation of changes in the gene pool through thousands of generations.

(B) Some parental traits disappear in offspring and reappear in the following generation.(C) All species of organisms were immutably created in their present forms.(D) Rats who have had their trails cut off produce tailless offspring.(E) Those hereditary traits that make their owners more likely to grow up and reproduce

become increasingly common in a population from one generation to the next.

5. The author’s attitude toward Jenkin and Kelvin can best be described as(A) respectful(B) contemptuous(C) ambivalent(D) denunciatory(E) adulatory

6. According to the passage, Darwin modified his beliefs in order to(A) bring them into line with the theory of particulate inheritance(B) disprove Lord Kelvin’s view on the age of the earth(C) meet the objections of Jenkin and Lamarck(D) resolve theological conflicts about evolution(E) dissociate himself from those who believed in “special creationism” (line 21)

7. The author sets off the word “rediscovered” (line 51) in quotation marks in order to(A) emphasize that major scientific theories are rarely acknowledged or accepted when

they are first promulgated(B) indicate that the term is somewhat ironic, since Mendel’s work was virtually ignored

when it was published(C) rebuke the scientific community for deliberately suppressing Mendel’s work until

long after his death(D) underscore the similarity between Mendel’s theory of particulate inheritance and the

theory of blending inheritance that was accepted during his lifetime(E) suggest that a scientist of Darwin’s stature should have read Mendel’s work when it

was first published and immediately recognized its importance

8. It can be inferred from the passage that if Mendel’s work had been recognized and accepted during Darwin’s lifetime, it would have had which of the following effect?I. It would have refuted Jenkin’s objections to Darwin’s theories.II. It would have supported Darwin’s theory that evolution proceeds by very slow steps

over millions of years.III. It would have clarified and supported Darwin’s theory of natural selection.(A) I only(B) III only(C) I and III only(D) II and III only(E) I, II, and III

9. All of the following can be reasonably inferred from the passage EXCEPT:(A) The idea that evolution occurs by means of natural selection was not widely accepted

until the twentieth century.(B) Darwin’s theories were originally predicated on the assumption that the earth is more

than 40 million years old.(C) Many of Darwin’s ideas about heredity were later shown to be incorrect.(D) Other scientists of Darwin’s time, including both Jenkin and Lamarck, believed in

evolution.(E) Darwin was the only scientist of his day who believed in natural selection.

Passage 93 (8/15)In terms of its prevalence, obesity is the leading disease in the United States. There is

no universally accepted standard for obesity, defined generally as an excess of adipose tissue, but a common rule of thumb classifies people who are more than 20 percent above their desirable weight as obese. By this measure, 30 percent of men and 40 percent of women in America are obese. Although studies show that few of these people will ever recover fully and permanently from the disease, the incidence of obesity in future generations can be reduced.

Adipose tissue is a triumph of evolution. Fat yields 9 calories per gram, while protein, like carbohydrates, yields only 4 calories per gram. Fat also contains much less water than protein does. Therefore, fat is much more efficient for storing excess energy than is protein. Primitive humans, with uncertain food sources, had a great need for excess fat, and their bodies adapted accordingly. Modern humans, with a predictable food supply and a sedentary life-style, are burdened by this vestige of evolution. Although they need some adipose tissue to provide insulation and protect internal organs from injury, modern humans need much less than their primitive ancestors did.

In an attempt to shed excess adipose tissue, many Americans turn from one fad diet to another, and a billion-dollar diet industry has grown up to aid them in their efforts. Nevertheless, the five-year cure rate for obesity is very low. In fact, by comparison, cancer is more curable. The reasons for this are psychological as well as physiological.

From a physical standpoint, losing a pound or two a week for a few weeks is not difficult because most of the loss is in the form of protein and water, and protein carries four times its weight in water. However, protein is also the only source of nitrogen in the body, and when the body loses too much nitrogen, it acts to correct the imbalance by excreting less nitrogen than it takes in. Hence beyond a certain point additional weight loss must come from adipose tissue, which, because of its compactness, takes longer to shed. The body’s tendency to return to nitrogen balance and to protect its energy reserves can be so strong that dieters may stop losing or even gain weight while still expending more calories than they ingest. As a result, they frequently suffer not only from hunger, weakness, and a decreased metabolic rate, but also from depression and inactivity, all of which lead them to abandon their diets. Probably because of numerous psychological factors as well as physiological factors such as increased lipid synthesis, they then tend to regain weight rapidly.

While vigorous attempts to reduce obesity in America should be aimed at all affected, the most successful efforts are likely to be those directed toward children. If the advertising and food industries stop trying to sell high-calorie, nutritionally deficient food to children, and if parents understand that the feeding patterns they impose on their children can determine the adolescent and adult eating habits those children will develop, the future generation may not be as fat as ours is.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain why prevention is the best defense against obesity(B) criticize the food and advertising industries for encouraging bad eating habits and

thus contributing to the prevalence of obesity in the United States(C) recruit volunteers for a national crusade against obesity(D) discourage dependency on fad diets as a method for losing weight(E) argue that obesity is a genetic disorder that is virtually impossible to cure

2. By the rule of thumb mentioned in the passage, which of the following would be considered obese?I. A 25-pound toddler whose desirable weight is 20 poundsII. A large-framed woman weighting 140 pounds whose desirable weight for her height

is between 112 and 120 poundsIII. A 175-pound man who was 25 pounds over his desirable weight and then gained an

additional 10 pounds(A) II only(B) III only(C) I and III only(D) II and III only(E) I, II, and III

3. Which of the following, if true, best helps to explain why a greater percentage of women than men in the United States are considered obese by the measure mentioned in the passage?(A) The measure is the same for both men and women, but it is normal for women to

carry a greater percentage of fat at any weight.(B) The average man is heavier than the average woman; therefore, men generally need to

gain more weight than women do before they are considered obese.(C) There are more women in the United States than there are men.(D) Because of the influence of the fashion and film industries, many American women

consider themselves obese even though they are not.(E) Women burn off fewer calories than men because their bodies contain a lower

percentage of muscle, and muscle burns calories at a faster rate than fat.

4. According to the passage, modern humans do not need to store as much fat as primitive humans because(A) modern humans work fewer hours than their primitive forebears did(B) the diet of modern humans is higher in protein than was the diet of primitive humans(C) modern humans eat more regularly than primitive humans did(D) primitive humans had to insulate their bodies from the cold whereas modern humans

do not(E) the food consumed by modern humans has a higher nutritional value than that

consumed by primitive humans

5. All of the following statements about protein are supported by the passage EXCEPT:(A) Gram for gram, foods that are high in protein are lower in calories than foods that are

high in fat.(B) The body gets all of its nitrogen from protein.(C) Nine grams of protein yield the same number of calories as 4 grams of fat.(D) Protein is not converted into adipose tissue.(E) Five grams of protein carry 20 grams of water.

6. The author mentions that “cancer is more curable” (line 27) than obesity in order to(A) underscore the point that obesity is the leading disease in the United States(B) support the conclusion that it is easier to keep people from becoming obese than it is

to cure them once they are(C) discourage obese people from trying to lose weight(D) demonstrate by analogy that more money should be spent on obesity research

(E) refute the contention that the causes of obesity are purely physiological

7. The passage contains information that answers which of the following questions?(A) What percent of the total population in the United States is obese?(B) What psychological factors cause people to gain weight rapidly once they go off a

diet?(C) What function does nitrogen perform in the body?(D) How is an individual’s desirable eight determined?(E) If a snack bar contains 130 calories and 4 grams of fat, what percentage of the

calories in the bar come from fat?

8. The author mentions all of the following as factors that cause obese people to abandon diets EXCEPT(A) depression(B) increased lipid synthesis(C) a negative nitrogen balance(D) enervation(E) a lower metabolic rate

9. Which of the following, if it could be demonstrated, would most strengthen the claim that the feeding patterns of children “can determine the adolescent and adult eating habits those children will develop” (lines 55-56)?(A) The incidence of obesity in children whose parents are both obese is 80 percent.(B) Thirty-six percent of infants who are obese during their first half year of life are also

overweight between the ages of 20 and 36.(C) Excessive weight gain during the teen years can set the stage for a lifetime battle

against the bulge.(D) Up to 80 percent of youngsters who are fat as 5-year-olds end up fat as adults.(E) The average child witnesses more than 15,000 commercials a year for snacks, candy,

and soft drinks laden with fat, sugar, and calories.

Passage 94 (9/15)The impressionist painters expressly disavowed any interest in philosophy, yet their

new approach to art had far-reaching philosophical implications. For the view of matter that the Impressionists assumed differed profoundly from the view that had previously prevailed among artists. This view helped to unify the artistic works created in the new style.

The ancient Greeks had conceived of the world in concrete terms, even endowing abstract qualities with bodies. This Greek view of matter persisted, so far as painting was concerned, into the nineteenth century. The Impressionists, on the other hand, viewed light, not matter, as the ultimate visual reality. The philosopher Taine expressed the Impressionist view of things when he said, “The chief ‘person’ in a picture is the light in which everything is bathed.”

In Impressionist painting, solid bodies became mere reflectors of light, and distinctions between one object and another became arbitrary conventions; for by light all things were welded together. The treatment of both color and outline was transformed as well. Color, formerly considered a property inherent in an object, was seen to be merely the result of vibrations of light on the object’s colorless surface. And outline, whose function had formerly been to indicate the limits of objects, now marked instead merely the boundary between units of pattern, which often merged into one another.

The Impressionist world was composed not of separate objects but of many surfaces on which light struck and was reflected with varying intensity to the eye through the atmosphere, which modified it. It was this process that produced the mosaic of colors that formed an Impressionist canvas. “Light becomes the sole subject of the picture,” writes Mauclair. “The interest of the object upon which it plays is secondary. Painting thus conceived becomes a purely optic art.”

From this profoundly revolutionary form of art, then, all ideas—religious, moral, psychological—were excluded, and so were all emotions except certain aesthetic ones. The people, places, and things depicted in an Impressionist picture do not tell story or convey any special meaning; they are, instead, merely parts of pattern of light drawn from nature and captured on canvas by the artist.1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with

(A) explaining how the Impressionists were influenced by scientific studies of light and color

(B) discussing the philosophical implications of the Impressionist style of painting(C) identifying the revolutionary artistic techniques developed by the Impressionist

painters(D) analyzing the influence of thinkers like Taine and Mauclair on Impressionist painting(E) defending the importance of the Impressionist painters in the history of modern art

2. According to the passage, the Impressionists differed from the ancient Greeks in that the Impressionists(A) considered color to be property inherent in objects(B) placed a higher value on the narrative element in painting(C) depicted the objects in a painting as isolated, rather than united in a single pattern(D) treated light, rather than matter, as the ultimate reality(E) regarded art primarily as a medium for expressing moral and aesthetic ideas

3. The author’s quotation of a statement by Taine (lines 15-16) serves which of the following functions in the passage?(A) It furnishes a specific example of an Impressionist painting that features light as its

chief subject.(B) It resolves an apparent contradiction in the philosophy of the Impressionists.(C) It qualifies the statement that the ancient Greeks viewed the world in concrete terms.(D) It summarizes the unique perspective that the Impressionists brought to painting.(E) It provides a concrete illustration of the far-reaching philosophical implications of

Impressionism.

4. According to the passage, the Impressionists believed that the atmosphere(A) reflects light with varying intensity(B) creates the illusion of color in colorless surfaces(C) modifies the shapes of objects(D) is the result of vibrations of light(E) affects the way we perceived color

5. The author’s use of the term “mosaic of colors” (line 32) suggests that Impressionist paintings were characterized by(A) discontinuous dabs of unmixed pigment(B) broad, sweeping brush strokes(C) clearly defined forms and objects(D) subjects devoid of emotive or literary qualities(E) the glowing reds, greens, and midnight blues of stained glass

6. The passage contains information that answers which of the following questions?I. How did the Impressionists perceive matter?II. What is the unifying element in a typical Impressionist painting?II. How did the Impressionists’ view of color differ from that of eighteenth-century

artists?(A) I only(B) III only(C) I and II only(D) II and III only(E) I, II, and III

7. The ideas attributed to the Impressionists in the passage suggest that an Impressionist painter would be most likely to agree with which of the following statement?(A) A picture is significant primarily as a manifestation of the artist’s mental state.(B) The highest purpose of art is to teach religious truths.(C) The quality of a picture has nothing to do with the nature of the objects it depicts.(D) An artist should strive to recreate on canvas the inner nature of objects from real life.(E) It is futile to attempt to paint pictures that aim to copy the optical appearance of the

world.

Passage 95 (10/15)Radiation occurs from three natural sources: radioactive material in the environment,

such as in soil, rock, or building materials; cosmic rays; and substances in the human body, such as radioactive potassium in bone and radioactive carbon in tissues. These natural sources account for an exposure of about 100 millirems a year for the average American.

The largest single source of man-made radiation is medical X rays, yet most scientists agree that hazards from this source are not as great as those from weapons test fallout, since strontium 90 and carbon 14 become incorporated into the body, hence delivering radiation for an entire lifetime. The issue is, however, by no means uncontroversial. The last two decades have witnessed intensified examination and dispute about the effects of low-level radiation, beginning with the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, which reported in 1958 that “even the smallest amounts of radiation are likely to cause deleterious genetic and perhaps also somatic effects.”

A survey conducted in Britain confirmed that an abnormally high percentage of patients suffering from arthritis of the spine who had been treated with X rays contracted cancer. Another study revealed a high incidence of childhood cancer in cases where the mother had been given prenatal pelvic X rays. These studies have pointed to the need to reexamine the assumption that exposure to low-linear energy transfer presents only a minor risk.

Recently, examination of the death certificates of former employees of a West Coast plant that produces plutonium for nuclear weapons revealed markedly higher rates for cancers of the pancreas, lung, bone marrow, and lymphatic system than would have been expected in a normal population.

While the National Academy of Sciences committee attributes this difference to chemical or other environmental causes rather than radiation, other scientists maintain that any radiation exposure, no matter how small, leads to an increase in cancer risk. It is believed by some that a dose of one rem, if sustained over many generations, would lead to an increase of 1 percent in the number of serious genetic defects at birth, a possible increase of 1,000 disorders per million births.

In the meantime, regulatory efforts have been disorganized, fragmented, inconsistent, and characterized by internecine strife and bureaucratic delays. A Senate report concluded that coordination of regulation among involved departments and agencies was not possible because of jurisdictional disputes and confusion. One federal agency has been unsuccessful in its efforts to obtain sufficient funding and manpower for the enforcement of existing radiation laws, and the chairperson of a panel especially created to develop a coordinated federal program has resigned.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain the difference between natural and man-made radiation(B) arouse concern about the risks connected with exposure to radiation

(C) criticize the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation(D) advocate limiting the use of atomic weapons testing, since the fallout is extremely

hazardous(E) publicize the results of British medical survey

2. Which of the following, according to the passage, is a list of three natural sources of radiation?(A) Radioactive potassium in bone, strontium 90, uranium ore(B) Carbon 14 in tissues, cosmic rays, X rays(C) Cosmic rays, radioactive potassium in bones, radioactive carbon in tissues(D) Plutonium, radioactive material in rock, strontium 90(E) X rays, carbon 14, plutonium

3. Which of the following does the author cite in support of the quotation from the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (lines 18-20)?I. Strontium 90 and carbon 14 become incorporated into the body and deliver radiation

for an entire lifetime.II. An abnormally high percentage of patients with arthritis of the spine who were

treated with X rays subsequently contracted cancer.III. A high incidence of cancer appeared among children of mothers who had been given

prenatal pelvic X rays.(A) I only(B) II only(C) I and II only(D) II and III only(E) I, II, and III

4. The passage contains information that answers which of the following questions?(A) How many millirems of radiation from man-made sources is the average American

exposed to each year?(B) Is exposure to radiation linked to any other diseases besides cancer?(C) How many types of radiation are there?(D) What is the maximum level of radiation to which humans can safely be exposed?(E) Why is exposure to the fallout from weapons testing considered by some to be more

hazardous than exposure to X rays?

5. According to the passage, some scientists believe that a dose of one rem of radiation continued over a period of generations would(A) raise the strontium 90 levels in the body but otherwise have little effect(B) relieve the acute suffering of those afflicted with arthritis of the spine without side

effects(C) have the effect of increasing by 1 percent the cases of serious genetic defects(D) have little impact on the regulatory efforts of federal agencies(E) cause an additional 1,000 per million cases of cancer of the bone marrow or

lymphatic system

6. It can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that the chairperson who resigned from the panel to develop a coordinated federal program for radiation regulation most likely did so because(A) he or she disagreed with the findings of the Senate committee(B) his or her agency could not obtain funding or manpower for implementation of

existing laws(C) he or she supported the position of the National Academy of Sciences committee and

opposed regulation of radiation exposure(D) he or she was disorganized and inconsistent in chairing the panel(E) regulatory efforts have been balked by disputes, confusion, and bureaucratic delays

7. The passage contains evidence suggesting that it was most likely written(A) in 1958(B) by a British scientist(C) for the journal of the National Academy of Sciences(D) by a lobbyist for the defense industry(E) in the late 1970s

8. The passage implies that each of the following statements about radiation has been disputed EXCEPT?(A) Even small doses of radiation are likely to cause birth defects.(B) Exposure to low-linear energy transfer presents only a minor risk.(C) Many small doses of radiation are as harmful as a single large dose.(D) Humans can tolerate a certain amount of radiation.(E) Exposure to radiation causes cancer.

Passage 96 (11/15)

Many readers assume that, as a neoclassical literary critic, Samuel Johnson would normally prefer the abstract, the formal, and the regulated to the concrete, the natural, and the spontaneous in a work of literature. Yet any close reading of Johnson’s criticism shows that Johnson is not blind to the importance of the immediate, vivid, specific detail in literature; rather, he would underscore the need for the telling rather than the merely accidental detail.

In other ways, too, Johnson’s critical method had much in common with that of the Romantics, with whom Johnson and, indeed, the entire neoclassical tradition are generally supposed to be in conflict. Johnson was well aware, for example, of the sterility of literary criticism that is legalistic or pedantic, as was the case with the worst products of the neoclassical school. His famous argument against the slavish following of the “three unities” of classical drama is a good example, as is his defense of the supposedly illegitimate “tragicomic” mode of Shakespeare’s latest plays. Note, in particular, the basis of that defense: “That this is a practice contrary to the rules of criticism,” Johnson wrote, “will be readily allowed; but there is always an appeal from criticism to nature.”

The sentiment thus expressed could easily be endorsed by any of the Romantics; the empiricism it exemplifies is vital quality of Johnson’s criticism, as is the willingness to jettison “laws” of criticism when to do so makes possible a more direct appeal to the emotions of the reader. Addison’s Cato, highly praised in Johnson’s day for its “correctness,” is damned with faint praise by Johnson: “Cato affords a splendid exhibition of artificial and fictitious manners, and delivers just and noble sentiments, in diction easy, elevated, and harmonious, but its hopes and fears communicate no vibration to the heart.” Wordsworth could hardly demur.

Even on the question of poetic diction, which, according to the usual interpretation of Wordsworth’s 1800 preface to the Lyrical Ballads, was the central area of conflict between Romantic and Augustan, Johnson’s views are surprisingly “modern.” In his Life of Dryden, he defends the use of a special diction in poetry, it is true; but his reasons are all-important. For Johnson, poetic diction should serve the ends of direct emotional impact and ease of comprehension, not those of false profundity or grandiosity. “Words too familiar,” he wrote, “or too remote, defeat the purpose of a poet. From those sounds which we hear on small or on coarse occasions, we do not easily receive strong impressions, or delightful images; and words to which we are nearly strangers, whenever they occur, draw that attention on themselves which they should transmit to things.” If the poetic diction of the neoclassical poets, at its worst, erects needless barriers between

reader and meaning, that envisioned by Johnson would do just the opposite: it would put the reader in closer contact with the “things” that are the poem’s subject.1. The author of the passage develops her points about Johnson primarily by

(A) contrasting Johnson’s critical methods with those of his contemporaries(B) citing specific illustrations drawn from Johnson’s work(C) alluding to contemporary comments about Johnson’s theories(D) quoting Johnson’s remarks about the critical approaches prevalent in his own day(E) emphasizing the fallacies inherent in the most common view of Johnson

2. The passage implies that the judging of literary works according to preconceived rules(A) tends to lessen the effectiveness of much modern literary criticism(B) is the primary distinguishing mark of the neoclassical critic(C) was the primary neoclassical technique against which the Romantics rebelled(D) is the underlying basis of much of Johnson’s critical work(E) characterizes examples of the worst neoclassical criticism

3. The passage implies that the neoclassical critics generally condemned(A) Shakespeare’s use of the “tragicomic” (line 18) literary mode(B) the slavish following of the “three unities” (line 16) in drama(C) attempts to judge literary merit on the basis of “correctness” (line 28)(D) artificiality and abstraction in literary works(E) the use of a special diction in the writing of poetry

4. According to the author, Johnson’s defense of Shakespeare’s latest plays illustrates Johnson’s reliance on which of the following in his criticism?(A) The sentiments endorsed by the Romantics(B) The criteria set forth by Wordsworth in his 1800 preface to the Lyrical Ballads(C) The precedents established by the Greek and Roman playwrights of the Classical Age(D) The principles followed by the neoclassical school of criticism(E) His own experience and judgment

5. According to the passage, Johnson’s opinion of Addison’s Cato was(A) roundly condemnatory(B) somewhat self-contradictory(C) ultimately negative(D) effusively adulatory(E) uncharacteristically bold

6. According to the passage, Johnson’s views on the use of a special diction in the writing of poetry were(A) “modern” in their rejection of a clear-cut division between the diction of poetry and

that of prose(B) “neoclassical” in their emphasis on the use of language that appeals directly to the

emotions of the reader(C) “Romantic” in their defense of the idea that a special diction for poetry could be

stylistically effective(D) “modern” in their underlying concern for the impact of the literary work on the

sensibility of the reader(E) “neoclassical” in their emphasis on ease of comprehension as a literary virtue

7. It can be inferred from the passage that in addition to being a literary critic, Johnson was also a(A) surprisingly modern poet(B) poet in the Augustan mode(C) dramatist(D) biographer(E) naturalist

8. Which one of the following statements best summarizes the main point of the passage?(A) Although many of Johnson’s critical opinions resemble those of the neoclassical

critics, his basic concerns are closer to those of the Romantics.(B) The usual classification of Johnson as a member of the neoclassical school of

criticism is based on an inaccurate evaluation of his critical theories and ideals.(C) The Romantic critics were mistaken in their belief that the critical ideas they

formulated represented a departure from those propounded by Johnson.(D) Although many of Johnson’s critical opinions resemble those of the Romantic critics,

his basic concerns are closer to those of the neoclassical critics.(E) Johnson’s literary criticism represents an attempt to unify the best elements of the

neoclassical and the Romantic schools of criticism.

9. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with(A) defending a reputation(B) reconciling conflicting views(C) comparing two schools of thought(D) challenging an assumption(E) presenting new evidence in support of an established theory

Passage 97 (12/15)The idea of building “New Towns” to absorb growth is frequently considered a cure-all

for urban problems. It is erroneously assumed that if new residents can be diverted from existing centers, the present urban situation at least will get no worse. It is further and equally erroneously assumed that since European New Towns have been financially and socially successful, we can expect the same sorts of results in the United States.

Present planning, thinking, and legislation will not produce the kinds of New Town that have been successful abroad. It will multiply suburbs or encourage developments in areas where land is cheap and construction profitable rather than where New Towns are genuinely needed.

Such ill-considered projects not only will fail to relieve pressures on existing cities but will, in fact, tend to weaken those cities further by drawing away high-income citizens and increasing the concentration of low-income groups that are unable to provide tax income. The remaining taxpayers, accordingly, will face increasing burdens, and industry and commerce will seek escape. Unfortunately, this mechanism is already at work in some metropolitan areas.

The promoters of New Towns so far in the United States have been developers, builders, and financial institutions. The main interest of these promoters is economic gain. Furthermore, federal regulations designed to promote the New Town idea do not consider social needs as the European New Town plans do. In fact, our regulations specify virtually all the ingredients of the typical suburban community, with a bit of political rhetoric thrown in.

A workable American New Town formula should be established as firmly here as the national formula was in Britain. All possible social and governmental innovations as well as financial factors should be thoroughly considered and accommodated in this policy. Its objectives should be clearly stated, and both incentives and penalties should be provided to ensure that the objectives are pursued. If such a policy is developed, then the New Town approach can play an important role in alleviating America’s urban problems.

1. The passage contains information that answers which of the following questions?(A) Where did the idea of New Towns originate?(B) How does Britain’s New Town formula differ from that of other European countries?(C) What is the purpose of building New Towns?(D) What incentives and penalties will be necessary to make a New Town formula

workable?(E) Why have European New Towns been financially successful?

2. The author believes that New Towns are not being built where they are genuinely needed because(A) the government offers developers incentives to build in other areas(B) the promoters of New Town are motivated chiefly by self-interest(C) few people want to live in areas where land is still cheap(D) no studies have been done to determine the best locations(E) federal regulations make construction in those areas less profitable

3. According to the author, ill-considered New Towns will tend to weaken existing cities in which of the following ways?I. They will cause an erosion in the tax base of existing cities.II. The will divert residents from existing cities to other areas.III. They will increase the number of low-income residents in existing cities.(A) I only(B) II only(C) I and II only(D) II and III only(E) I, II, and III

4. According to the passage, as compared with American New Towns, European New Towns have been designed with greater concern for(A) social needs(B) financial factors(C) urban congestion(D) the profits of developers and builders(E) the environment

5. The author’s tone in discussing “developers, builders, and financial institutions” (lines 25-26) can best be described as(A) critical(B) pedantic(C) evasive(D) captious(E) vitriolic

6. It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes which of the following about suburbs?(A) They are a panacea for urban problems.(B) They will soon be plagued by the same problems that now plague cities.(C) They are poor models for New Towns.(D) They drive up property values in inner cities.

(E) They alleviate some, but not all, of America’s urban problems.

7. It can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the present American New Town formula to be(A) thoroughly considered(B) insufficiently innovative(C) potentially workable(D) overly restrictive(E) financially sound

8. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with(A) arguing for a change in policy(B) exploring the implications of novel idea(C) comparing and contrasting two manifestations of the same phenomenon(D) proposing a radically new solution to an old problem(E) summarizing recent research on a topic

Passage 98 (13/15)In reaction to a rigid, overrefined classical curriculum, some educational philosophers

have swung sharply to an espousal of “life experience” as the sole source of learning. Using their narrow interpretation of John Dewey’s theories for support and spouting such phrases as “Teach the child, not the subject,” they demand an end to rigorous study and insist that only through doing can learning take place. While not all adherents to this philosophy would totally eliminate the study of great books, the gradual subordination of literature in the school curriculum reflects their influence.

What is the purpose of literature? Why read if life alone is to be our teacher? James Joyce tells us that the artist reveals the human condition by re-creating life out of life; Aristotle, that art presents universal truths because its form is taken from nature. Thus, consciously or otherwise, great writers extend our understanding of ourselves and our world. We can soar with them to the heights of aspiration or plummet with them to the depths of despair. How much wider is the understanding we gain from reading than from viewing life through the keyhole of our individual experience.

This function of literature, the enlarging of our life sphere, is of major importance in itself. Additionally, however, literature suggests solutions to social problems. The overweening ambitions of political leaders—and their sneering contempt for the law—did not appear for the first time in the writings of Bernstein and Woodward. The problems and behavior of the guilt-ridden did not await the appearance of the bearded psychoanalysts of the nineteenth century.

Federal Judge Learned Hand wrote, “I venture to believe that it is as important to a judge called upon to pass on a question of constitutional law, to have at least a bowing acquaintance with Thucydides, Gibbon, and Carlyle, with Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and Milton, with Montaigne and Rabelais, with Plato, Bacon, Hume, and Kant, as with the books which have been specifically written on the subject. For in such matters everything turns upon the spirit in which he approaches the questions before him.”

How do we overcome our dissenter? We must start with the field of agreement: the belief that education should serve to improve the individual and society. We must persuade our dissenters that the voices of human experience stretch our human faculties and open us to learning. We must convince them of the unity of life and art. We must prove to them that far from being separate, literature is that part of life that illumines life.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) list the writers who make up the backbone of a great literature curriculum(B) explain the function of literature(C) advocate the adoption of a new philosophy of education(D) plead for the retention of great literature as a fundamental part of the school

curriculum

(E) overcome the opposition of Dewey’s followers to the inclusion of contemporary literature in the curriculum

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author considers those who believe in “‘life experience’ as the sole source of learning” (line 3) to be(A) practical(B) progressive(C) misguided(D) inflexible(E) ignorant

3. Based on the information in the passage, with which of the following statements about education would John Dewey be most likely to agree?(A) Education should be a continuous reconstruction of living experience, with the child

the center of concern.(B) Education is the imparting of knowledge, not the drawing out of what is already in

the child.(C) Though rigid, the classical curriculum has served us well for centuries and should be

restored.(D) The purpose of education is to correct the inequalities brought about by the rise of

civilization.(E) Children should be taught only the skills and knowledge they need to get ahead.

4. The author implies that children who learn exclusively by doing are likely to(A) be good problem solvers but poor judges(B) be more guilt-ridden than those who learn both by doing and reading(C) have below-average reading skills(D) believe that art has nothing to do with life(E) have a myopic view of themselves and the world

5. Which of the following best describes the organization of the third paragraph of the passage?(A) An idea is reiterated, a new idea is introduced, and two supporting examples are

given.(B) The preceding paragraph is summarized and conclusions are drawn.(C) A new idea is introduced, the idea is qualified, and the implications of the idea are

analyzed.(D) The main idea of the preceding paragraph is restated, and evidence is given to support

it.(E) Two functions of literature are identified, and an example of each is given.

6. The author quotes Judge Learned Hand (lines 32-41 primarily in order to(A) call attention to the writing of Thucydides and Carlyle(B) support the point that literature broadens the reader’s understanding(C) point out that constitutional law is a part of the great literature of the past(D) show that everyone, including judges, enjoys reading(E) give specific examples of writers who have suggested solutions to social problems

7. Which of the following could best be substituted for the words “the subject” (line 39) in the quotation from Judge Hand without altering the meaning of the quotation?(A) The question of constitutional law before the judge

(B) The contempt of political leaders for the law(C) Social problems(D) The liberal arts, specifically history, literature, and philosophy(E) The human condition

8. The passage supplies information to suggest that the author and the educational philosophers mentioned in the first paragraph would agree that(A) learning is the key to adaptability in an ever-changing environment(B) the traditional classroom should be transformed into a learning laboratory(C) the purpose of education is to improve society as well as the individual(D) one must know history in order to understand the present and the future(E) the primary aim of education is the transmission of culture

9. It can be inferred from the passage that the author makes which of the following assumptions about his readers?(A) They believe that schools should reflect society.(B) They believe that the subject, not the child, should be taught.(C) They favor a return to the classical curriculum.(D) They share his view that the study of great books is essential to education.(E) They believe that only through reading can learning take place.

Passage 99 (14/15)Methods for typing blood were developed around the turn of the century, about the

same time that fingerprints were first used for identification. Only in the last decade or two, however, have scientists begun to believe that genetic markers in blood and other bodily fluids may someday prove as useful in crime detection as fingerprints.

The standard ABO blood typing has long been used as a form of negative identification. Added sophistication came with the discovery of additional subgroups of genetic markers in blood and with the discovery that genetic markers are present not only in blood but also in other bodily fluids, such as perspiration and saliva.

These discoveries were of little use in crime detection, however, because of the circumstances in which police scientists must work. Rather than a plentiful sample of blood freshly drawn from a patient, the crime laboratory is likely to receive only a tiny fleck of dried blood of unknown age from an unknown “donor” on a shirt or a scrap of rag that has spent hours or days exposed to air, high temperature, and other contaminants.

British scientists found a method for identifying genetic markers more precisely in small samples. In this process, called electrophoresis, a sample is placed on a tray containing a gel through which an electrical current is then passed. A trained analyst reads the resulting patterns in the gel to determine the presence of various chemical markers.

Electrophoresis made it possible to identify several thousand subgroups of blood types rather than the twelve known before. However, the equipment and special training required were expensive. In addition, the process could lead to the destruction of evidence. For example, repeated tests of a blood-flecked shirt—one for each marker—led to increasing deterioration of the evidence and the cost of a week or more of laboratory time.

It remained for another British researcher, Brian Wrexall, to demonstrate that simultaneous analyses, using an inexpensive electrophoresis apparatus, could test for ten different genetic markers within a 24-hour period. This development made the study of blood and other fluid samples an even more valuable tool for crime detection.1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with describing

(A) how advances in crime detection methods have led to new discoveries in science(B) various ways in which crime detection laboratories assist the police(C) the development of new scientific tools for use in crime detection

(D) areas of current research in the science of crime detection(E) developments in genetic research and their application to crime detection

2. It can be inferred from the passage that electrophoresis resembles fingerprinting in that both(A) provide a form of negative identification in crime detection(B) were first developed by British scientists(C) may be used to help identify those who were present at the time of a crime(D) were developed by scientists at around the same time(E) must be employed almost immediately after a crime to be effective

3. The author sets off the word “‘donor’” (line 18) with quotation marks in order to(A) emphasize that most of the blood samples received by crime laboratories come from

anonymous sources(B) underscore the contrast between the work done in a crime laboratory and that done in

a blood bank(C) call attention to the fact that, because of underfunding, crime laboratories are forced

to rely on charitable contributions(D) show that the word is being used in a technical, rather than a general, sense(E) indicate that the blood samples received by crime laboratories are not given freely

4. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following questions?(A) Is evidence of genetic markers in bodily fluids admissible in court?(B) Can electrophoresis be used to identify genetic markers in saliva?(C) How many subgroups of blood types are currently identifiable?(D) How accurate is the process of electrophoresis?(E) How many tests for genetic markers must police scientists run in order to establish the

identity of a criminal?

5. According to the passage, all of the following may reduce the usefulness of a fluid sample for crime detection EXCEPT(A) the passage of time(B) discoloration or staining(C) exposure to heat(D) the small size of the sample(E) exposure to contaminants

6. The passage implies that electrophoresis may help scientists determine(A) whether or not a sample of blood could have come from a particular person(B) the age and condition of a dried specimen of blood or other bodily fluid(C) when and where a crime was probably committed(D) the cause of death in homicide cases(E) the age, gender, and ethnic background of an unknown criminal suspect

7. According to the passage, Brian Wrexall’s refinement of electrophoresis led to(A) more accurate test results(B) easier availability of fluid samples(C) wider applicability of genetic analysis(D) increased costs of testing(E) more rapid testing

8. Which of the following statements about genetic markers can be inferred from the passage?I. They carry an electrical charge.II. They cannot be identified through standard ABO blood typing.III. They were of no use in crime detection before the invention of electrophoresis.(A) I only(B) II only(C) III only(D) II and III only(E) I, II, and III

Passage 100 (15/15)The delegates to the Constitutional Convention were realists. They knew that the

greatest battles would take place after the convention, once the Constitution had already been drafted and signed. The delegates had overstepped their bounds. Instead of amending the Articles of Confederation by which the American states had previously been governed, they had proposed an entirely new government. Under these circumstances, the convention was understandably reluctant to submit its work to the Congress for approval.

Instead, the delegates decided to pursue what amounted to a revolutionary course. They declared that ratification of the new Constitution by nine states would be sufficient to establish the new government. In other words, the Constitution was being submitted directly to the people. Not even the Congress, which had called the convention, would be asked to approve its work.

The leaders of the convention shrewdly wished to bypass the state legislatures, which were attached to states’ rights and which required in most cases the agreement of two houses. For speedy ratification of the Constitution, the single-chambered, specially elected state ratifying conventions offered the greatest promise of agreement.

Battle lines were quickly drawn. The Federalists, as the supporters of the Constitution were called, had one solid advantage: they came with a concrete proposal. Their opponents, the Antifederalists, came with none. Since the Antifederalists were opposing something with nothing, their objections, though sincere, were basically negative. They stood for a policy of drift while the Federalists were providing clear leadership.

Furthermore, although the Antifederalists claimed to be the democratic group, their opposition to the Constitution did not necessarily spring from a more democratic view of government. Many of the Antifederalists were as distrustful of the common people as their opponents. In New York, for example, Governor George Clinton criticized the people for their fickleness and their tendency to “vibrate from one extreme to another.” Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, who refused to sign the Constitution, asserted that “the evils we experience flow from the excess of democracy,” and John F. Mercer of Maryland professed little faith in his neighbors as voters when he said that “the people cannot know and judge the character of candidates.”1. The author is primarily concerned with

(A) contrasting the opposing sides in a battle(B) analyzing the effects of an event(C) urging a reassessment of history(D) criticizing the opponents of a plan(E) describing the background of conflict

2. According to the passage, the delegates to the Constitutional Convention did not submit their work to Congress for approval because(A) they knew that most members of congress would want to broaden the powers of the

national government(B) it was unclear whether Congress had the legal right to offer or withhold such approval(C) they considered it more democratic to appeal directly to the citizens of the separate

states(D) they believed that Congress would not accept the sweeping changes they had

proposed(E) Congress was dominated by a powerful group of Antifederalist leaders

3. According to the passage, in contrast to most state legislatures, state ratifying conventions were(A) elected(B) unicameral(C) characterized by strong leadership(D) nearly unanimous in their support of the new Constitution(E) opposed to states’ rights

4. The author characterizes the leaders of the Constitutional Convention as(A) shrewd and visionary(B) liberal and enlightened(C) radical and idealistic(D) clever and pragmatic(E) eloquent and persuasive

5. In stating that the Antifederalists “were opposing something with nothing” (line 28), the author suggests that the Antifederalists(A) based most of their arguments on their antidemocratic sentiments(B) lacked leaders who were as articulate as the Federalist leaders(C) were unable to rally significant support for their position among the populace(D) had few reasonable arguments to put forth in support of their position(E) offered no alternative plan of government of their own

6. Which of the following statements about Elbridge Gerry can be inferred from the passage?(A) He was a delegate to the Massachusetts state ratifying convention.(B) He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention.(C) He was the architect of the “policy of drift” (line 30) advocated by the Antifederalists.(D) He claimed to have a more democratic view of government than the Federalists.(E) He was one of the leaders of the Antifederalist Party.

7. The author’s quotation of John F. Mercer (lines 43-45) serves which of the following functions in the passage?(A) It summarizes the last paragraph.(B) It furnishes a concrete example.(C) It articulates the main point of the passage.(D) It clarifies the preceding quotation.(E) It expresses a general conclusion.

8. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage?(A) Divided Leadership at the Constitutional Convention(B) How the Constitution Became Law(C) The U.S. Constitution: Its Strengths and Weaknesses(D) The Battle for Ratification of the Constitution(E) The Views of the Antifederalists on Democracy

ANSWERS

Passage 91 (6/15)1. A 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. C6. A 7. 8. 9. 10.

Passage 92 (7/15)1. E 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. A6. E 7. B 8. C 9. E 10.

Passage 93 (8/15)1. A 2. C 3. E 4. C 5. D6. B 7. E 8. B 9. D 10.

Passage 94 (9/15)1. B 2. D 3. D 4. E 5. A6. E 7. C 8. 9. 10.

Passage 95 (10/15)1. B 2. C 3. D 4. E 5. C6. E 7. E 8. D 9. 10.

Passage 96 (11/15)1. B 2. E 3. A 4. E 5. C6. D 7. D 8. A 9. D 10.

Passage 97 (12/15)1. C 2. B 3. A 4. A 5. A6. C 7. B 8. A 9. 10.

Passage 98 (13/15)1. D 2. C 3. A 4. E 5. A6. B 7. A 8. C 9. D 10.

Passage 99 (14/15)1. C 2. C 3. E 4. B 5. B6. A 7. E 8. A 9. 10.

Passage 100 (15/15)1. E 2. D 3. B 4. D 5. E6. B 7. B 8. D 9. 10.