GM Small Scale Agriculture

8/13/2019 GM Small Scale Agriculture

1/19

vV AgroecologyandSmallFarmDevelopment

Editors

Miguel A. ltieriDivision ofB iologicalControlUniversity of California BerkeleyAlbany CaliforniaSusannaB HechtGraduateSchoolof PlanningUniversity of California Lo s AngelesLos Angeles Califo rnia

CR CPressBoca Raton Ann Arbor Boston


2/19

9 SMALL-SCALE AGRICULTURE INSOUTHEAST ASIAGerald G M arten

INTRODUCTIONSoutheast Asia is aregionofimpressive cultural, envi-ronm ental, and agricultural diversity. Much of the region ismountainous,and there is abroad rangeof temperaturesfrom tropical in the lowlands to temperate in thehighlands.There isalsoa broad range oftopographicconditions, fromflat alluvial valleys and coastal plains in the lowlands toundulating terrain,hills,and mountains n the uplands andhighlands. M ost of Southeast Asia is in thehumidtropics,bu tthere is great v ariation in the distinctness anddurationofthe dryseason.M ost of the land is now under agriculture(TableI).1MuchofSoutheast Asiaisblessedwith fertilevolcanicoralluvialsoils.Suchareas,particularlythe rivervalleys,havehighhumanpopulations.Manyof them ountainous areashave been dominated by forests u n t i l recentdecades,bu ttheyare rapidly being transformed to agriculture as aconse-quenceof logging and the m ovement of expanding hum anpopulations into landavailableforfarming.Some areas ofSoutheast Asia have extremely poorsoils.Until recently,most of those areaswere forested and had small humanpopulations,usually practicing shifting agriculture. Com -mercial loggingand colonization projects are now trans-formingthelandscapein man y of those areas to agriculture.The overriding themeo fSoutheast Asian agricultureischange. In addition to the spread of agriculture into forestlands, recentdecadeshave seen major changes in agricul-tural technologies as aconsequence of international an dnational programs for agricultural development In fact,throughout the centuries therehas beena n influx of newgriculturaltechnologiestoSoutheast Asiaasvarious worldpowershaveassertedtheirinfluencein the region.Farmersintheregionhavealwaysbeen receptiveto newag ricultural'technologies that promised to improve theirlot, and thepresent time is no exception. However, the pace of changeM S quickened.M any farmersinSo utheast Asianowworkwitha mix oftraditionalandmodern technologies.Alongwiththeadoptionofmodern technologies, there

has been a rapidtransformation to a cash econom y. W hileeven remote areas of Southeast Asia bartered for certaingoods e.g.,saltorcooking utensils) throu ghoutthecentu-ries,mostfarmersin the regionproduced almost entirelyforhome consumption untila fewdecades ago. Meeting basichousehold food needs isstillthe priority of m ost SoutheastAsian fanners. H owever,mostalsoproduceasm uch surplusas possible to meet cash needs generated byexpandingpublic education , ruralelectrification,modemcommunica-tions(e.g.,radio andtelevision), andm odern transportthathastiedfarm families tomajorcitiesintheirregion.Somehouseholds now specializein one or two high -value cropsand purchase most of their food.Scientistsin theSoutheast Asian U niversitiesAgroeco-system Network (SUAN) have been particularly concernedwith theimplications ofthese changes Ca nlarge humanpopulations and intensive agriculture be sustained inhillyormou ntainous areas that haveha dforests u ntil recently?Canintroduced high-yield varieties and high-yield technologies(based on high levelsof energy and chemical inputs) beexpected tocontinuetoprovide high yieldson along-termbasis? SUAN scientists have addressed these questionsconcretely in terms of the specific environm ental conditionsand agricultural technologies in their areas.SUA N scientists havealsobeen concernedwithinterac-tionsbetween the agriculture in their areas and the socialsystems offarmersw ho practice theag riculture. The sci-entists wa nt to understand thefanners'living circumstancesandtheirbasesform aking agriculturaldecisions,inordertoknow w hat kindsof improvements inagricultural technol-ogy will be relevant and appropriate to the fanners' needs.The scientistsalso have come to appreciate the need tocomprehend the majorsocial forces (e.g., transformationfromasubsistencetocash economy) thataredrivingagricul-turalchanges,sotheycananticipate needsandguidetheirresearch accordingly.Three broad typesofsmall-scale agricu lturearepromi-nent throughout the region: [icefields, rainfed fields, an d

8


3/19

84 Agroecology anaSmallFarm DevelopmentTABLE 1

LandUse inSoutheastAsia 1980)1thousands ofhectares

Coun t ryBurmaIndonesiaiCifnpucheaLaosMalaysiaPhilippineThailandVietnamToul

ToUlUo darea65,774181.13517.65223,08032.85529.81751.17732436434.026

A n n u a lcropland*9.57314,2002,9008601.0007.05016 50549557,428

Perennialcropland*

4505300146203310

2.8701.720460

14.276

Permanen tpasture*

36112.00058080027

1.000308

4.87019.946

Foresta ndwoodland*32.167121.8001337213.000123001230015.79010330

241.149Landundertemporary crops doublecrapped area*arecountedonlyonce , temporary meadows formowingpasture,landundermarketandkitchen ardent,and landtemporarilyfallow orlying idle.Landcultivated with crop* thatoccupythe land forlongperiods and neednotbe replantedaftereachharvest,suchtscocoa,coffee,andrubber,it includes land underthrobs, r u i ttrees, nuttrees,and vinebutexcludeslandundertreesgrownforwoodortimber.Landin permanent 5yeanor more)herbaceous foragecrops, either cultivated or growing wild wildpnirieorgrazing land).Landundernaturalorplanted standsoftrees,productive ornot,includesland from which forests havebeen clearedbutwillbe reforested intheforeseeablefuture.

bomegardens. Rice is the staple food of most SoutheastAsians, and flooded rice paddies dominate most agriculturallandscapes in SoutheastAsia.Rice is particularlyprominentin floodplains andalluvialvalleys,but terracedrice isalsocommoninupland areas wherever irrigation waterisavail-able.Rainfed fields arealso common, p articularly inuplandareaswhereirrigationisnotavailable.Rainfed fields consistprimarily ofannualfieldcrops,oftenseveraldifferentkindsinterplanted inthesamefield.Sometimes thereare r u i ttreesorother perennial crops scattered throug hthe field aswell.Manyrainfedfields arepermanent; othersarerotatedwithaforest fallow. Paddy fields can functionas rainfed fieldsduringthe dryseason ifthey havefieldoopsattha t time.The third major form of agriculture, homegardens,thoughless extensive in area than ricefields andrainfedfields,isnolessubiquitous. Nearly every bouse in the regionis surrounded by some k ind of garden, usually a mixtureofshade trees and fruit trees and sometimes containing aselection ofvegetablesorother annua lcrops.H omegardensare almost alwaysrainfed,thoughselectcropsin thegardenmaybe handirrigated.Thischapter will describetheagricultureofthreeSouth-east Asia locations that have been studied by SUANscien-tists (Figure 1): theCordillera highlandsin thePhilippines;theuplands of West Java.Indonesia;andC hiangmai Valleyinnorthern Thailand. These three areasrepresentnot only aprogression fromhighlands to lowlands butalsoa progres-sionfrom highlytraditionalandsubsistenceagriculturetoagriculturethatism ore modemandinvolvedin amarketeconomy. Eachofthese areashas allthree typesofagricul-turementioned above(i.e., ricefields, rainfed fields, and

homegardens), thoug hthedetailsoftheir organizationaredifferent ineach area.Eachofthese areashasbeen selected becauseitsagricul-turehasfunctionedsowellA t thesame ime,theagricultureineachofthese areasischanging rapidly.Thechangesare aresponse to compellingneeds, but as we shall see, thchanges hav eruninto ecological andsocial problems.Thechallenge presentedby these p roblems cannotb eignoredwhensettinganagendaforag ricultural researchanddevelopment.n.PHILIPPINECORDILLERA BONTOK)TheBontokarehighlytraditional subsistence farmersatan altitudeof600to2100mintheCordilleraofthePhilip-pines.Villages have 600 to 3000 inhabitants who occupy aterritoryof 10 o 30 squarekilometers.TheBontoksprovidean exampleofagriculture thathasbeen sustainedonsteepmountainslopesforcenturies without ecological degrada-tion.Th efollowing description isbasedonstudiesby theCordillera Studies Center (Universityof the Philippines,Baguio) and the Institute forEnvironmental Science andManagement(Universityof thePhilippines,LosBates).510

There are five major landuses:ricepaddies,swiddenfields,grazing areas,forest, andvillages(including home-gardens). Most agricultural laborisdevoted to thepaddyfields,whichareterracedandoccur prima rilyon thelowerportions of mountain slopes wherever streams arelargeenoughtoprovideirrigationwater.Thefrontsof theerracesareheldinplacebystone walls.Themaincropistraditionalrice, which iscultivated during NovembertoJuly, whensunshineis at amaximumduringthe dryseason.Asecondcrop,rice or fieldcropssuchassweetpotatoes,isgrownir


4/19

mall cale gricultureInSoutheast sia 85

FIGURE1 Locationofthe PhilippineCordillera WeJava tadQuang-mtiValley inSoutheastAlia

paddy fields during the wet season July to December).Swiddenfields are located higher on theslopesand areprimarily rainfed. Th eswidden fields contain interplantedcrops such as millet,sweet potatoes, beans, squash, corn,bananas,and fruittrees.Plantingstartswithth efirstrains inApril, and harvests c ontinue totheend of the rainyseasoninDecember.Th etimingofeach swidden cropiscritical, so itdoes no tovershadeorotherwise interfere with othercropsinthe samefield. Swidden fieldsan d traditional ricecompetefor laborduring Aprilto July, but th e ricealwayshas priority.The swidden fieldsarenot terraced,butthey usually haveearthen or wooden fencestohokl thesoilan dexclude wildanimals.Logsan dsticksareoften aligned along the contourto help holdth esoil.Aswidden fieldiscultivatedforseveralyears until yields start todecline.It isthen l e f t tofallow forabout 5years before resuming cultivation.Higheron theslopesare pineand oak forests,whicha reexploited fortimb er for house constructionin thevillage),medicinal plantsandherbs, mushrooms,wildanimals,raoanvines,and bamboo. Level p ortions of the h illtops often havepastureland, which is used for grazing water buffalo an dcows and as a source ofgrassfor thatched roofing. Whilericefields and swidden fieldsareownedindividually,forestan d pasturelandsareowned comm unallyby thevillage.The agricultural calendar an d cultivation practices ofthese fanners are amatterof long-stan ding tradition, inter-preted and enforced by village elders.The elders organizelabor formaintaining irrigation canals an dmake decisions

on thetimingofland preparation, transplanting, an dotheractivitiesfor thetraditional ricecrop.Pigs occupy acentral rolein thevillage economy. Theyare the majorsourceof meatforreligious ceremonies an dthemajor source ofanimal manurefor paddy fields. Pigsarekeptin stone-lined pits between th ehouses,wh ere theyarefed kitchen garbage, cooked sweetpotatoes,and raw sweetpotatotops.Th epitsare slanted som anure falls tooneend,whereit is composted with drygrass,rickhusks,straw, andhuman wastesthatarethrownintoth epitSomeofthe sweetpotatoes are grown between the housesand constitute themajorcom ponent of village homegardens.A Terraced icePaddiesPaddy field preparation begins in October by usingaspade toturnover weedsand ricestalks f r o m thepreviousharvest,trampling them intothe m udtorotTh efieldisthenharrowed.A manstandson thespike ha rrowin g boarda s ab u f f l o pulls it through th e m u d , scattering decaying ricestalks sotheycannot takerootThe field is then flooded sothefarmersca nlevelthe mudwithth epalmsoftheir hands.Communal labor groups clean out irrigation canals at thistime.M ud f r o m the paddy fields is packed on top of the bund ssurrounding thefieldsandagainstallpaddyfieldmarginstoplug holesand improvethemoisture seal of thefield. Tarois planted alongtheterracetop or lacedon the rims of thepaddy field.Beansorsw eet potatoes may beplantedat the

V*.


5/19

sidesof thebunds.A f e wweeks laterit istimetoweedth eempty p addy fields again.Thestone wallsof theterracesarealso weeded (withatrowel),and ratholes are s t u f f e d withweeds.Weedsa recollectedfrom slopesimm ediately abovethe field,thrown intothefieldsan dtrampled intoth em u d .Pig m anure compost isbroughtf r om the village inbasketsan d mixed intothem u d .Seedbedsareestablished inpaddy fields w ithahistoryofhigh fertilityand aw ater supply that willnot beinterruptedby pa ddy field preparation an dcleaningofirrigationcanals.A small section of afieldi sblockedoff for theseedbed, soit can be drained even whentherestof thefield is flooded.The seedbedis strewn with rice husks, dried bean pods, andsunflowerleavesan dstems,whicharetrampledintothe mudto ro t Ricepanniclesw ith the largest qua ntity of grain arechosen for the seedbedd uring the previous harvest.Seedbeds are planted in Novem ber to January, panniclesaboutafootinlengtharepushed intoth emu dan dbentso therice grains lie flat on the ground. Water is temporarilydrained f r o m the seedbed so the pannicles do not float Theseedbed is floodedwith 1 to 2 cm ofwater, w hich discour-ages animals suchas ratsand birdsf r o m eating the seedlings.If the seedlings do not appear healthy,ashes are spreadaround them toincreasethefertilityof the bed.Seedlings are ready fo r transplanting in February an dMarch. In preparation, paddy fields receive their finalsmoothing, kn eading, and leveling. The earth is reworkedwith a harrow or spading f o r k an d subjected to anotherpuddling with the feet The field isdrained,and the top 12 to 5cm ofsoilisgivenafinalworkingandlevel ingeitherwiththe handsorwithaboardthatisdragged aroundthe field bya buffalo. Farmers believe thatm ud in shallower water iswarmer and enhances growth and flowering of the riceplants.Women do the transplanting in groups. While someplastermu don them arginsof thefields, others bring bundlesof fiveor six pannicles (approximately100to IS Oseedlings)f r o m the seedbeds.(Seedlings f r o m seedbeds with nema-todes are notused.)D ifferent rice varietiesare planted indifferent fields. For exam ple, one varietydoesbest in pad dyfields that were drained duringthe fallow while anothervariety doesbetter infields th at couldnot be drained.The wom en tear the top leaves off the seedlings as theyplant them.Thisis said tomaketh ericeplant m ature faster,perhaps by reducingtranspirationand makingth eseedlingsmore resistant to drought Shorterseedlingsa re alsomoreresistant to being blown over by wind. The seedlings arepushed intothe mud 10 to 15 cmapart with only the top 10to 12 cm aboveth esurface.Hightillering varietiesand h i g hfertility paddiesare p lanted less de nsely (i.e., 15 cm spac-ing).Seedlings that di e after transplantingare replacedbyseedlings f r o m other partsof thefield or f r o m other fields.A cont inuoussupplyofwaterisessentialoncethe rice istransplanted. There is a village system of water rotationamongth e fields, buteach household finds itadvisabletooversee personally th edeliveryof waterto its fields, inorder

to ensureit sfairshare.Disputesm ay arisean dtempers wearthin as theseasonprogressesand the supply of water dimin-ishes.The paddy fields are weeded 1 mo nth after transplanting.This is the only weeding after transplantingand m u s t becompleted before appearance of ricefruitheads, wh ich ar esusceptible to damagebybodycontactAzol la,wh ich fixesnitrogen, as wellasotherfloatinga q u a t icplants likeLemnaan d Spirodela . have spread overthe surfaceof thewaterbythis time and are allowed to coexist with the rice plants.These floatingplants suppress thegrowthof rooted weedsthatcompete withthericecropfo rsoil nutrients. Fresh watersnails and edible plants growing in the paddy(e.g.,Mono -chr ia vaginal is are gathered as food.Once the rice heads begin to form, the main activity issetting up scarecrows. However, after a few weeks thescarecrows are nolonger so effective,as thebirds becomeaccustomed to them and the ma turing rice grains becomemore attractive. Sometimes the scarecrows are strung to-gether with long strings attached to a paddle placed in astream to move thestringan dmaketincansb u m peach otherto produce a clanging sound Village elders may f i n d itnecessary to announce a special day f o ra coordinated villagee f f o r t to rid the rice fields of ratsan dbirds. Ra t holes areplugged withgrass.Childrenand elder ypeople stayinsmallhutsaround the fields so they can operate noisem aker linesthroughout th eday.The rice is ready for harvest by lateJuly.Thisis a time ofparticular hazard because the typhoon season is about tostartA nentireseason'scropcan bedestroyed by typhoonsiftheharvest is not onschedule. M oreover, oncethe crop isready, it must be harvested quic kly, because even a fewdays 'delay can lead to sha ttering andlossof over-ripe grain.S u f f i c i e n t labor fo r harvesting is assured by staggeringactivitieson thedifferent fieldso fdifferent householdsan ddeploying cooperative labor groups on each field at theproper time.Each harvester wearsaringwithabladethatisused to cu tthe top 30 to 35 cm f r o m the ricestalks.Bundles of thec u tpannicles (3to5 cm indiameter)aretiedwithabambo o strippulled tightb yth efrontteeth.The bundlesar espreadonth eground to dry in the sun for at least 3 days before placingthem in the granery. It is important for the grain to becompletely dry to prevent molding or premature germina-tion. Properly stored grain can last for as muchas 8 to 10years.Yields are high , typically 6 t/ha,even though m any ofthese paddy fields havebeen usedcontinuously forcenturieswithou t chemical fertilizer. Soil fertility is maintainedthroughorganic matterandmineral inputsf r o m p igm a n u r ecompost, forestsoil.weeds,an dricestraw,as wellasdetritusan d dissolved m ineralsin theirrigation water. In pu tsof 260kg/hanitrogen and 1 20kg/haphosphorus hav e been meas-ured f r o m p igm anure compost alone.Abouthalfthepaddyfields aredrainedafter harvestan dl e f t t ofallow the rest of theyear.The other halfisplanted to


6/19

a second rice crop or a f i e l d crop such as sweet potatoes,peanuts, beans, or garlic. The second rice crop employsvarieties that mature m orequickly than the first They areready for harvest 4 monthsafter transplanting,but yieldsfrom the second rice crop are correspondingly low er. C ulti-vationproceduresfor thesecondricecropar esimilarto thefirst,but labor groups are smaller and there is no coordina-tion oflaborby thevillageelders.Adisadvantageofasecondricecropis thatitma ycompetewithlaborforswiddenfields.It isalsod i f f i c u l t to harvest the second rice crop in time toprepare fieldsfor thefirstricecrop. Adelayinstarting thefirstcan beparticularly seriousif it is notharvested beforetyphoons begin.Sweet potatoes are the most common crop in drainedpaddy fields during the rainy season.The field is prepared inSeptember by ditch m ounding soilover beds of rice straw.Sweet po tatocutt ingsar e inserted intothemounds,whichare weeded as soon as new roots have form ed and runn ersappear. Farmers sa ythat dryingout thepaddy soil withasweet potato crop is im portant because itreduces stuntingandm ortalityof riceseedlings du ringthefirstcritical weekafter transplanting.The sweet potatoesareharvestedinDecember. Theyarestored in acomer of thehouse without washingo ff soilclinging to the surface becausei tissaid the soil protects themfrom deterioration. Y oung runn ers on sweet po tato vines aregathered for human consumption, and mature leaves areused tofeed the pigs.B Contemporary ChangesBontokfanners have triedtobeselectiveinadopting onlythose outside agricultural practices they can control, thusavoiding dependence that might interfere with village af -fairs.Non etheless,there has been an increasing imp act fromthe outsideworlddue togreater cashneeds,outm igrationofvillagers, their invo lvem entinnontraditionalem ployment,an da growing presence of the national governm ent. Villag-ers are now selling some of their surplus of swidden anddrained paddy-field cropssuch asbeans,eggplant,an dfruit.They have started to plant garlic in their drained paddyfields. Garlic comm andsahigh price in the urban market bu tis sold locally to middlemen who pay amuchlower price.Villagers at higher altitudes are growing vegetable cashcropssuchaspotatoes,cabbages,om atoes,stringbean s,andcarrots in any paddy fields that lack sufficient irrigationwaterfor a rice crop.A scash ha s become moreessentialto pay forcollegeeducations, hospitalbills,ba dbusinessdeals,lawyers'fees,andconstructionof m odem houses, villagersar eworkingaway from the village m ore(e.g.,in nearby copper and goldmines).T heresulth asbeenanagricultural labor shortageinthe villages, especially durin g harvest tim e. Farmers em -ployed away from thevillage ar eincreasingly lendingou ttheirpaddyfields onshare-croppingarrangementsorsellingthem for cash, and reciprocal labor groups are beg innin g tobe paid in cash when the owner of a paddy field is employed

outside the village an d cannot reciprocate the labor ex -change.Apaddyfieldthatisl e f tunfloodedand uncultivatedform ore than a year develops an overgrowth of grass andbushes wh ose rootsm aybreakup thestone walls holdinguptheterraces.Th eterracesm aycollapseif the mud at theedgeof the field dries out and starts to crumble. Some of theswidden gardens have been neglected in recent years due toinsufficient labor, and an increasing n um ber have passedintofallow.Com mercial fertilizers w erenottakenup by thevillagersduring the1960san d1970s,but chem ical fertilizers are nowbeingadoptedbyfarmerswhohaves u f f i c i e n t cashbut areshorton thehousehold labor tocarry bulk y compostto thefields.Some farmersw hohave adopted com mercialfertiliz-ers in thepast5years ar ebeginning tocomplain aboutachangein theconsistency an dstabilityo ftheir paddyfieldsoil. Although they agree that yields have increased, theyalso say they are able to m aintain higher yields on ly byincreasing the am ount of fertilizer they apply each y ear.Farmersin thenearbyLooValleyno wdevoteall oftheirland tocabbages an dpotatoes for theurban market Wideswingsin them arket prices ofthesetwocrops(asmuchasfivefold in a fewm onths)offeran oppo rtunity forenormo usprofits if alarge harvestisrealizedwhenthepriceishigh,bu ttheexperienceofm ost fannersin theValleyismuchmoremodestThe costsofinputsfor LooValley have become oppres-sive,as it hasbecome necessary toapply m assivequantitiesof chicken m anure (averaging7t/ha/year)andNPK fertil-izer (averaging 1t/ha/year). The fertilizers have causedseveresoilacidity,and thelarge areasincontinuousm ono-culture of these vegetables have led to severe pest anddisease problems. Pest control, which has changed f r o mtraditional remo valbyhandand use ofextractsofavocado,tobacco,an dchilipepper leavestomodempesticides,isfarf r o m satisfactory.Thediamondback m oth,forexample ,ha salready evolved resistanceto m alathion, methylparaihion,DDT,diazm on.mevinphos,an dcarbaryl,forcingthe f a rmers toemploy restrictedinsecticidesthata rehazardoustotheir health andtoconsumers.Cabbage yields in the Loo Valley are double w hat theywere20years ago,b utinputcostshav e increased 20-fold;input costs fo r potatoes are ten times as great with noincrease inyields. Because thefarmers must borrow moneyto coverth ecostsofthese inpu ts,theyhave been forcedintoa cycle of high interest paym ents and cum ulative debtthatrecently has led some of them to turn to lower-value crops(e.g.,sweet potatoes) that dono tdem and such costlyinputs.Severe erosion, due to the lack of ground cover undercontinuous vegetable productionand the f a c t thatfarmerscanno t spare their laborfo rterracingorother erosion co ntrolmeasures, com bined with dim inishing water supplies f r o mmountain streams that serve as irrigation sources, haveplaced indoubttheentire f u t u r e ofcommercialf a r m i n g intheV alley.


7/19

88 groecologyandSmallFarmDevelopmentT A B L ELandUse inWest Java(1980) T A B L E3L a n d h o l d i n g s ,CropDivers i ty, Inco meCharacteristicsof Householdsin theJatigede Area,WestJava11

URicefitld.PlantationsForeaUpUnd fwldi sndhomcjtrdouTool

Are* ha)1 168 691

67 979968 166

1 6 9 5674 417 4 3

UPLANDSOFWESTJ A V AW est Javais anareaof fertilevolcanic soilsandexcep-tionally high population density, typically 600 to1200inhabitants per square kilometer. The terrain is hilly in theuplands(500to 1200 m in altitude), where gently terracedricefieldsoccupy thelowerand flatterareas.Villages areusually located onslightlyelevated land a t the edges o f thericefields.Land above thevillageis dominated byrainfedupland fields that containavarietyo f interplantedannualandperennial crops (Table 2). The highest parts of the hillsusually have forest or woodkxs. West Java provides ex-amples of high ly intensive agriculture that h as been main -tained forcenturies on anecologically sustainable basis,despitesevere land scarcity.Thefollowing description isbased onstudiesby theInstituteofEcology, PadjadjaranUniversity,Bandung.11 'Virtuallyeveryfamilyin theuplandsofWest Javahas agarden around its house, and most families have at leastsomericepaddiesorupland fields (Table 3). Thetotal a reaofland available to each householdissmall,however.F ewhaveaccessto more than a hectare of land and for most it islessthan halfahectare. Eachh ousehold'sland isusuallyscattered inparcelsonetenthhectareorlessinarea.Thericepaddyzonehas aratheruniform appearance,but theland-scapeabovethericefieids hasmoreof a patchworkappear-ance because each o f the upland fields may contain dif ferentcrops.Mostvillages have several hundred differentcropspeciesintheir homegardensanduplandfields(Table 4).Thesingle mostimportantcropisrice.Most pad dy fieldsareirrigated an dplantedto two ricecrops each year, on eduring th erainy season (September toFebruary) and oneduring the dryseason.Some irrigatedpaddiesare plantedcontinuously to rice, five crops every two years.Rainfedpaddiescanbeplantedtoriceonlyonceeach year, durin gtherainy season.They may be planted to other cropssuch astobacco, beans, corn, or vegetables after the rice.

Most farmers put the bulk of their labor into theirricefields. They work their homegardens in th eir spare time.Labor demands in r icef ie lds . upland f ie lds , andhomegardens competeatsome times o ftheyearand comple-menteach othera tother times (Figure 2) .Productionisfirstandforemostforhome consumption,butth esurplus productionofmost ho useholds is sufficientfor them to sell about half of their total production onaverage. Riceis themainsourceofcalories,protein,an d

Poor Wtll-offNear Farfrommarket market Near Farfrommarket market

Percentage ofhouseholdswiihhomegarden*Percentage ofhouseholdswithupland fieldsPercentage ofhouseholds

with rice fieldsAveragesizeofhomegardensAveragesizeofupland

fields (m1)*Avengesize ofrice

fields (m2)*Totalareafarmed m*)Avengenumber of plantspeciesin homegardensAveragenumbero fplantspeciesin upland fields

Avengeannualcostoffarm inputs xl,000rupiah)*Avengeannualgrossfarmincome xl,000rupiah)*Average ann ualo ff-farmincome x1.000rapiah)*Avengefamily size

975773

2231.1202.0502.25414.3

4.148

11 41084.6

10089

100297

2.6042.4265.037

20.410.8

781431034.8

998291

417 9

6.8539.96220.010.71566545504.9

979797

3947.1745.240

12,36621.911.42235082363.9

' Averagebasedonlyuponhouseholdshavingthatagriculturalsystem. OneUS dollar approximately670nipiah.

certain vitamins (e.g.,niacinan dthiamin e),butupland fieldsandhomegardens producethe fruits,vegetables,an dpulsesto compensate for amino acid d eficiencies in rice and pro-vide vitamins and minerals (e.g., vitamin A, vitamin C,riboflavin,calcium,andiron)forwhichrice is insufficient(Figure3) .Manyhouseholdsearnanannualnetincomeofabout$500 r o m their farming,butmany other householdsearnconsiderably less(Table3). Atypical household pur-chases aboutoneq uarterof thefood itconsumes.A. HomegardensHomegardensare amixtureo ftrees,fieldcrops,orna-mentalplants,medicinal plants, and animals on the landsurrounding a house (Figure 4). Ornamentals are morefrequentlyplantedin r o n tof theh ouse, while valuable crops(e.g.,clove, oranges, and mangoes) arealsoplanted in the r o n tyard wheretheownerscan k eepaneyeon them.Co ffeemaybeplantedalong thesideandbackas ahedge. Vege-tablesa reusually grownin the r o n t an dsideyards,wherethere issufficientlightbecausetalltreesrarely are plan ted inthoseareas.Spices,taro, andvegetables (e.g.,chayotean deggplan t) are plantedcloseto the latrine and fish pond wheresoil moistureishigh. Crops with highnutrientrequirements(e.g.,banana, mango,jackfruit, an dother fruit trees)are


8/19

Small ScaleAgricultureinSoutheast sia 89TABLE 4Crops O bserved in Hom egarde ns and UplandFields of Jatigede Area, WestJava13

LatinnameGrains,starchyroots,andsugar Amorpnophallus campanulalus Amorphophallus variabillis*ArengapinnataA. saccnarifera*Canna edulis**Colocasiaesculenla*Coloctuia nigrum**Dioscoreaalata**Dioscorea bulbifera**Dioscoreaesculenla

Ts**:C - - - >:*+Dioscoreahispida**Ipomoea batatas**Manihot glaziovii'*Manihot ulilissimaMaranta arundinacea'Oryza salivaOryza salivavar.glutinosaSaccharum offtcinarumSorghum vulgare'ZeamaysFruitsAchraszapola'Anacardium occidental**Ananas comosus*rAnnonamuricataAnnona reticulalaAnnonasqmmosaArtocarpuscomminisArlocrapus champeden*'Artocarpus Integra*Averrhoa carambola**CarciapapayaCitrus aurantifolia Citrus aurantium CitrusmaximaCocoa nuciferaDuriozibethinusErioglossum rubiginosum EugeniaaqueaEugeniacuminiEugeniacymosaEugeniama laccensisSyzgium malaccensisFragariaxananasaGarcinia mangaslanaLansiumdanesticumLansium sp.Mangiferafoetida**Mangifera indicaMangifera odorata

Localname

Suweglles-ilesArenKawungGanyongTaleus,KeladiTolasUbimanisUbitiangUbialasGembiliUbi kamayungGadungKetelarambat.UbijalarSingkong karetSingkong,UbikayuSagupatat,ArutPadiBeras kelanTebuGandrung,CanlelJagungSawoJambu monyetNenasNangka belanda,SirsakBuahnonaSarikayaKeluwihSukunNangkaBlimbingPepayaJeruk nipisJeruk manisJeruk ballKelapaDurumKilalayuJambuairJuwelKopoJambubolArbenManggisDukuPisilanLangsatLimitsBacangManggaKuweni

English name

Elephant yamElephantyamSugarpalm

TareTareYamYamY amYamSweet potatoManicobaCassavaArrowrootRiceStickyriceSugarcaneSorghumMaize,comSapodilla,NaseberryCashew nutPineappleSoursopSweetsopCustardappleBreadfruitBreadfruitJack fruitStar fruitPapayaLimeTangerinePomeloCoconut palmDurianRose appleJava plumTeste foureMalayroseappleStrawberryMangosteenLansehHorse mangoMangoMango

LatinnameMorusalba**Musa paradisiaca,M .sapientum Nephelium lappacetunPerseaamericanaP.gratissimaPhyllanthusacidusZalacca edulisSpondias dmlcisS.eythereaTatnarindus indica

Vegetables(Including legumes)'Amaranthus hybridmsApiumgraveolens**Arachis hypogaeaBenincasahispidaB. ceriferaCajanus indUcusC. cajanCucumissalivasCucurbita atoscnataCucurbila pepoDolichoslablabGlycine maxGnetum gnemonIpomoea reptansKaempferia rotundaLagenaria leucanthaLimnocharu flava u a acutantgulaMomordica charantiaMoringa oietfera*Nolhopanax sc-Mellarium,N.fruticosumPangiumedkde 'Parkia speciosaPhaseolusianatusPhaseolus radiatusPlanchonia validaPolysciasfruticosa

Psophocarpms telragonolobusRaphanus smlivufSauropus amdrogynusSechium edade*Solanum lycopersicam*Solanum melongenmSolanum nigrumSolanum Ionium'Vigna cylinulricaVignasinensis

Local nameMurbaiPisangRambutanApokatCeremeSalakKedongdongAsamBayamSeledriKacanglanah,SuukBeligoKacang kayuHirisBonteng,KelimunWaluhWaluh.LabubesarKaraKedeleBelinjoKangkunglemukunciKukuk.LabuairputihGenjerErnes,OyongGambasParia,PareKelorMangkokanPicungKeluwakPete,PelaibesarKacang uciKacang hijauPutatKedongdongpagarKecipir,JaatLobakKatukLabusiamTomalTerongLeuncaTakokak,CepokaKacang panjangKacang panjang

English nameMulberry while)BananaRambutanAvocadoGooseberrySalaciaOtaheite-applcTamarindSpinachCeleryGroundnutPeanutWax gourdPigeonpeaCucumberSquashSweet gourdPumpkinHyacinthbean.BonavistabeanSoybeanr-UnchoyBottlegourdHermit'swaterRaggourdWildpetolaBittermelonHorseradishFalse panaxPangiLocustbeanRicebeanMungbeanPlanchoniaHedge panaxWing beanGoabeanChineseradishSweet shootQiayoteTomatoEggplantBlack nightshadeEggplantCowpeaCowpea


9/19

19 AgroecologyandSmallFarmDevelopmentTABLE 4 (continued)

CropsObserved inHomegardensand Up land Fields ofJatigede Area, West Java13Latin name

SpicesAleurites moHuccanaAllium cepa'Allium fistulosumAlliumsativum*AlliumschoenoprasumAmomum kepulagaCapsicum annum* CapsicwnfrutescensCnysopogon nardusCymbogoncitratus 'Curcumadomestica*EugeniaaromaticaOcimumcanumPhoeomeriaspedosaPipernigrum

. . rr . titeVMjhWiT JZjiSffmK,

Scsamum indicumSyzygium polyanthumEugenia polyantha*Zingiber qfficinale

MedlcinalsAreca catechuBlumea balsamiferaCassiafistulasaC.sappansCitrushystrixCoffea arabicaC.robustaCostusspeciosiusErythrina lithospenma**Kaempferia galanga**LanguasgalangaMorinda cilrifoliaMucunapruriens

NicolianatabacumOnhosiphonslamineus

Localname

KemiriBrangbamg,Bawang rnierahBawangtiaunBawangputihBawangkucaiKopulagmCabeLombokCengek.Lombok KawitSerehKoneng.KunirCengkehSurawung,KemangiHonjeLada,Pedes, . ,


10/19

Small ScaleAgricultureInSoutheastAsia 9

10

July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July

FIGURE2. Seasonal labor patterns in ricefields, upland fields, andhomegardensof the uplands of WestJava From Iskandar,J and Abdoellah,O.S.,inAgroecosyslem Research for Rural Development Rerkasem, K. andRambo, A. T., Eds., Chiang Mai University, Thailand, 1988. 237. Withpermission.)

.0006

.0004

a 2

omog rdensUp4and fieldsHce k)s

; EFIGURE3. Comparison of theaverageproduction of human nutrientsfromasquare meterofricefield, uplandfield,orhoanegardenin the JatigedcareaofWestJava FromMarten,G G andAbdoellah,O.S.,Ecal.FoodHutr..21,17,1988.Withpermission.)

year while otherperennialshaverestrictedfruitingseasons.Forexample,duku Lansium domesticum) fruits inDecem-ber toJanuary,j mbu semarang Syzygium javanicum)inApril to June, mango in September to November,anddurianinOctober to February. This pattern of harvesting providesa continuous supply of food for daily subsistence needs,minimizes risks of failure, and increases a household sfinancial stability byspreading cash income over the year.B RainfedUpland Fields

Upland fields are typically a mixtureof interplantedcrops of various heights. The lowest layer consists ofcreep-ingplantssuchaspeanuts, soybeans, cucumbers, andmelon.Above them are taller vegetables such aschilipeppers andeggplant The top layer is occupied bymaize, tobacco,cassava,or leguminous vines(e.g.,wingbeanor longbean

supported by bamboo poles. The field may also containscatteredfruit or other trees(e.g., Albizia).

Fieldpreparation is inAugust Farmers firstweed thefield andtillthesoil witha hoe. They cutdownanyunwantedperennial vegetation and leave the slash todry.Litter, leaves,and slash are burned in smallpiles at the end of August.Differentfieldsmaycontain completely differentgroupsofcrops,but each consists ofcropswhichthe farmershavefound by experience to be compatiblewithoneanother.Forexample,bananas;sweet potatoes, peanuts, com,andbeanscan begrown together, but cassava cannot beincludedbecause it willcrowd out the other crops.The following is an example of how an upland fieldconsistingofbitter melon,hyacinthbeans,cucumbers,bittersolanum, chili peppers, andcassava is organized. Bittermelonseedsareplantedat the beginningofSeptember, jus t


11/19


12/19

Smatl ScaleAgricultureInSoutheastAsia 93has returnedorganic matterto thesurface soilat itspreviouslevel.A sh from the bumprovides mineralnutrientsand aliming effect Perhaps most important are the numerousfinerootsof trees or bamboo that havepermeatedthe soil anddecompose torelease mineral nutrients duringthe first 2yearsof fieldcrops.The m at oftreeorbamboo rootsat thesoilsurface, alongwithslash leftaroundthe field,helpstoprotectthesoil fromerosion.C Contemporary Changes

Government programs to modernize rice productionhave broughtm ajorchangesin recentyears.Traditionalwet-ricevarietieshave disappearedfrom all but themost remoteareas,and large quantities ofpesticidesand chemicalfertil-izersareessential torealize expected yields. Insect pests(e.g.,the brown plant hopper), which were of no conse-quence several decades agowhentraditionalvarietieswerein use, can now cause total crop failure unless intensivecontrolismaintained.Aswealthier peoplein thevillage (particularly thosewhoow n larger amountsof paddy land) have become morecommercially oriented, theirsense of obligation toothervillagershasdeteriorated. Traditionally, villagerswhopar-ticipatedin theharvest received ashareof thecrop,but thelarger landowners are now evading sharing their harvestwithother villagersbyselling their croptom iddlemenw hobring in their own crews to do theharvestMany homegardens and upland fields arestill largelytraditional. Most still feature an interplantingof local cropvarietiesand use chemicalpesticidesonly when absolutelynecessary.However,inareas with readily available trans-porttourban markets, many upland fieldsare now am ono-culture ofhigh-value vegetablesgrown from introducedseed,andlarge quantitiesof chemicalfertilizersandpesti-cidesareessentialAn increasing number of households inareasconnectedtooutside markets arealsodevotingam ajorpan of their homegardens to treecropsof high commercialvalue, suchashybrid dwarf)coconut,cloves,oranges,orguava.While the rest of thehomegardenmay still functionwithoutthebenefitofpesticidesandchemical fertilizer,thehigh-value tree crops generally require substantial quanti-tiesofthesechemical inputs. Many orange plantations havebeenwipedout by theCVPDvirus, thoughthevirushas notbeena problemfororange trees interplantedwithother cropsinhomegardens.Clove plantations have had a seriousprob-lem withleafdisease.IV CHIANGMAIVALLEY

TheChiangmai Valleyisafloodplain at300m altitude innorthern Thailand.Therural populationof900,000peoplefarms 150,000 ha, one half of which is irrigated by acombinationoflocal (traditional)andgovernm ent irrigationsystems.AgricultureinChiangmai Valleyis representativeofthatinmanyfloodplainsand riverbasinsin thelowlandsof Southeast Asia.The following description is based onstudies by the Multiple Cropping Centre at Chiangmai

University.1*'Doublecroppingis thenorm(Figure5). The firstcropis

traditional glutinous rice for home consumption, grownduringthe wetseason July toOctober). Theglutinousriceisfollowedby acashcropduringthecool season (NovembertoMarch). Them ajorcool-season crops are improved varie-tiesofnonglutinousrice,soybeans,garlic,tobacco, shallots,chilipeppers, peanuts,or vegetables.

Most households farm a bitlessthanahectare oflandspread over a number of small plots. About one third aretenant farmers. Yields and farm incomes on the fertilealluvialsoilsof Chiangmai Valley are relatively high. Theaverage annualnetincomeisabout$500per household. Atypical household grows nearly all of its own rice butpurchases most of its meat and vegetables. Homegardensprovide most of the fruit aswellassome local vegetables andherbs.There are usually some pigs and chickens as well.A Rice Cultivation

Atraditionalricevariety that matures quickly inabout3months)is used before earlycool-seasoncrops suchaschilipeppersorgarlic (Figure5).Late-maturing traditionalricevarieties areoften cultivated in sequence with soybeans.MostpeopleinnorthernThailandprefertoeatglutinousrice,butricepurchasesby agovernmentm arketingagencyhavestimulated thecultivationofimproved varietieso fnongluti-nousriceasacash crop duringthecoolseason.R.D.7rice isalsogrown in the hotseason (April toJune),whenmostfieldsareinfallowbecauseofinsufficientwater. Hot-seasoncrops(e.g.,R.D.7rice orvegetables like Chinese cabbage)mustbe irrigatedorplantedinwaterloggedareaswherethereissufficient soil moisture.

About halfthefanners apply chemical fertilizertotradi-tional rice 20 to 25 daysaftertransplanting, and some makea second application. Most apply chemical fertilizers toimproved varieties.The farmers consider animal manureandlime tobethemosteffectivetreatmentsfo rsoil problems(Table 5), but they often use chemical fertilizer insteadbecause animal manureis notavailable.Heavyrain during the wetseasoncan leadtoricediseases e.g.,blast,stem rot,or collar rot) thatis followed by anattackofcutworms.A dryspell duringtheho tseason canlead to an outbreak of thripsor armywormson the rice.Abouthalf the fanners use chemical insecticides, andall usepoisonsfor birds, rats, andcrabs.The averageannualex-pense fo ragricultural chemicals andother cash inputs isabout$200per household.

Most householdshaveabuffalof orplowingandharrow-ing. Nearly all farmers use the traditional method of weed-ing;few useherbicides.Thetraditional methodis topulltheweedsbyhand, layingthelargeroneson thepaddybundandtrampling thesmall weedsintothesoil.Thebulkof thelaborfor al lfarmingactivities comes from household members,sinceevery effort is made to m in imize cash outlays fo rproduction.


13/19

94 AgroecologyandSmallFarm evelopment

V WWswoon X\ Glutinousrice\ Glutinousrice\ Glutinous rice

oolseason X season XX Improvedric \Tobacco |

Soybean\ Glutinous rice Peanut\V Glutinous riceGlutinous rice P | Garlic j Tobacco \_\Glutinousrice |VegetableEarlyglutinous rice| hilipepper ]

[ arly glutinousrice| X Garlic arlyglutinousrice| Garlic Improved rice| arly glutinousrice] | -Sadie | [ Mung bean |[ arly glutinousrice | Garlic | | Vegetable|

July ug Sept Ocl Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar A p May June July

FIGURE 5. Common double cropping andtriplecropping sequences inChiangmaiValley. Hgures counesyo fMultiple CroppingProjectexperimentstationatChiangMaiUniversity,Thailand.

Table5Farmers Perceptionsof theValuesofVarious Soil

TreatmentsforDealingwith Different SoilProblemsatChiangmai Valley,Thailand18Problems

TreatmentsDifficulttoplow

Lowsoilfertility

Sandysol

Soilpests

Apply animal manureApplylimeIrrigate before plowingApplychemical fertilizerApplygreen manurePlowand sun dry

HLL

o

HLLOO

HOOLO

LO

L ote H = Higher value.L = Lowervalue.O = No value.

B.FieldCrops Cool Season)The crops selected for cultivation in the cool seasondependto alarge extenton themarketpriceandavailabilityof water. Plantingdecisionsgenerally arebasedonpricesfrom theprevious year.A keyquestionis alsowhetherth eirrigation canal will provide enough waterin the dryseason

to sustain thecrop. This dependsupon thelocation of aparticular fieldin theirrigation networkand can bejudgedonly from previous experience withdifferentcrops.Chilipeppers,garlic, tomatoes, vegetables, watermelon,and tobacco demand large amountsof water labor, fertil-

izer,andpesticideinputs. Farmersusuallygrow these cropsonlywhen they have enough capitalan dlabor. Soybeansandpeanutsneed: smaller amountsof all these inputs,are lessrisky,and addnitrogento thesoil.Soybeans have becomeparticularly popular inrecentyears Figure6 .Cucumbersalsoneedfewer inputsbut are riskyunlessareliable supplyofwaterisavailable.Low-inputcropscan begrown fartherfromthehouses because theyhavealower valueand do notneed t bewatched socarefully.Thepricesof low-valuecrops like soybeans, peanuts, and nonglutinous rice arerelatively stablefrom yeartoyear, bu tpricesof the high-valuecropsfluctuate considerably.

Each field is a monoculture,bu t farmers tend tohavedifferentcropson differentfields. Thiswa y theyspread theirrisks, whilealso spreading out their labor as mu ch aspossible.Thereare twobasic strategies thatthefarmerscanfollow. One strategyaimsatminimizing risks in thepres-enceof constraintsonwater, chemical inputs,orcrop secu-rity;ttieother strategyaimsatmaximizing profits when noneof these constraints is a serious problem. Most farmersfollowamixed strategy. They typically cultivateaquarterhectarewithhigh-input high-valuecropsan dthree quartersof a hectare with saferbutlower-value crops. Other thingsbeingequal,acrop thathasworkedsuccessfully in thepastwillbe the one ofchoice.C.ContemporaryChangePopulation growthhasreduced the sizeof landholdingsinth eValley. Twenty years ago,approximatelyonehalfthefarmers hadmore than a hectare of land. Now only one


14/19

mall cale gricultu re In Southeast sia 95100

FIGURE 6 Changesintheland area planted tomajorcool-season cropsin ChiangmaiValley.(FromRerkasem ,B. andShinawatra, B.,inAgroeco-system Researchfor RuralDevelopment Rerkasem, K. andRambo,A. T.,Eds.,ChiangM aiUniversity, Thailand, 1988, 124.Withpermission.)quarterof thefarm ers have thismuchland.Thepercentageoflandless villagershas increased.Cultivationpracticesfor thetraditionalricecrop hav enotchangedm uch.Mostfarmers stilluse fewchem ical inputs,andyieldshavebeenconsistently around4t/ha overthepast10years.However,thediversityoftraditionalricevarietiesin the Valley is diminishing rapidly. While there werehundredsoflocal varietiesa fewdecadesago, thereare nowonly a few dozen,and m any farmers no longer usethem atall.Buffalosarebeginningtodisappear fromthesceneas thefarmers acquire handtractors.

Thecostsof inputsforcashcropshaveincreaseddramati-callyinrecentdecades.Thereare notenough nutrientsin thesoil to generate satisfactory yields unless fertilizersareapplied, and pests are m uch m ore serious than before.Chem ical inputs for soybeans haveincreasedfromvirtuallynothing15yearsago to thepresentaverageofmore than 407ha. Soybean yields have increased 40 duringthe sameperiod,but netincom eislowerbecauseofhigherinputcosts.Insectpestsarem oreof aproblem withim proved varietiesofrice than w ith traditional varieties, and b irds are m ore ofaproblemforearly-maturingimprovedvarietiesw hen theirharvestis out of synchrony withtherestoftherice crop in thearea.Some of the differences between traditional and intro-ducedcultivationpracticescan beillustratedwith soybeans.The traditional method is to sowsoybeans into the ricestubble immediatelyafterburningthericestraw, coverthemwithash,andfloodthepaddy.This m ethod involvesnootherland preparation. Most farm ers apply chem ical fertilizerstotheprecedingricecropon fields of lowfertilityand do notapplychemical fertilizer to thesoybeansbecausetheybe-lieve thereisenoughleftoverfromthe rice tom eettheneedsofthesoybeans. Weeds arenot aproblem because w eedsandweed seedsare killed whenthe rice strawis burned.Themain problems arefungiand insects, andm a n yfarmers who

otherwise follow traditional m anagem ent practices nowcontrolinsectswithsprays.Recentlyintroduced practices for soybeans differ fromthetraditionalin tw om ajorrespects: preparation of raisedbeds and use of chem ical fertilizers. The new practices haveallowed soybean cultivation to expand to problem areas(e.g.,infertileor waterlogged soils) where soybeans werepreviouslynot feasible. Ho w ever, m ost farmers, particularlythosew how ere grow ing soybeansalready,havenotadoptedthenewpractices because ongoodsoilsthe new practicesprovide only sligh tly higher yields than traditional method s,despite substantially higher costsfor laborand chemicalinputs.Farmers inChiangmai Valleyareintensely interestedinany new agricultural practices that will increase their in-come. Most farmers listen to agricultural programs on theradio for inform ation concerning new technologies, m ar-kets, and w eathe r. Chem ical fertilizers are discussed withextensionagentsandneighbors more thananyother aspectofsoil m anagem entbecausefarm ers do not feel they kno wpreciselyw hichformulasandlevelso fap plicationarebestfor eachoftheir cropping systemson thed ifferent kindsofsoils.A dditional problem s perceived by thefarmers includea shortageof irrigation waterin the dryseason,rice stemborers,andweeds in theirrice fields.S ome problems thatconcern agricultural scientists are nematodes in the ricefieldsandthe lowqualityof improved-varietyriceseeds.Recently triple cropping (Figure 5) has been practiced insome areas where there is a reliable supplyof irrigationwater throughoutthe year. Whilethethird crop (usually afast-maturingvarietyofnonglutinousrice)offers anoppor-tunity for extraincome,it isalso somewhat marginalbe-cause risks arehigherandyields generally low er thanwiththesecond crop.Aseriousdifficultywi ththethird cropis thelargequantityoflabor necessary tosqueeze three crops intoa year,and thepossibility th atthetraditionalricecrop(i.e.,thefirstcrop)willbedelayedif thethirdcropfinishes late.There havealso been social effects from triple cropping.Villageswithtriple cropping hav e experienced reductionintheir religious festivals becausepeoplen o longerhavethet ime. Cooperative labor has also declined for the samereason,andpaid laborhasreplaced exchange labor.Perhaps the m ost serious consequence of triplecroppinghasbeenareductioninyields(often asmuchas50%) aftertriplecroppingfor 5years(Figure7). Allcropsare affected,includingthe first andsecondcrops.Two of theproblems arcsoilacidityandborondepletion,thecorrectionofwhichcanreturn some field crops to their normal yields,but so far acom plete solution has not been foundfor some of the othe rcrops, inc luding rice. As a consequence, manyfarmersthatventured into triple cropping have no w abandoned it toreturntodouble cropping.V.S A L I E N T F E A T U R E S OFS M A L L -S C A L EA G R I C U L T U R E I N S O U T H E A S T A S I AA. Farm In tegrat ionMost sm all-scalefarmsinSoutheast Asiaarem anagedby


15/19

96 Agroecologyand Smal lFarmD evelopment

cf5

4

1969 1971 1973 97 977 979FIGURE 7. Increasein rice yieldsdue to modem technology(19691971)followed b y declineundertriplecropping(19711979). Thesefigures are from the MultipleCroppingProject experim ent stationat Chiangmai University; th e sam e changes occurred on farmers fields.

extended-family households. Because a household mayhaveseveral parcelsof land, each with its unique capabili-ties, most households plant different crops on differentparcelsand on the sameparcelatdifferentseasonsof theyear. When deciding whichcropsto plant inwhich parcels,andduring whichseasons of the year, the first priorityofmosthouseholdsis tosatisfy thebulkoftheir foodneeds.Thesecondpriorityis toproduce additional cropstogener-ate asmuch incomeaspossible from available householdlabor.

The basic strategy is toselectcrops with (a) an assuredmarket at reasonably highprices,(b)reliable yields, and (c)lowcash inputs for hired labor, fertilizers, pesticides, andother costs such as rental of tractors or draft animals.Conditions for farming m ay be more favorableduring someseasons of the year thanothers,but an effort is made tospread fanningactivitiesacrossthe year in order to takefulladvantage of household labor throughoutasm uc h ofthe yearaspossible.A tthesame time, the total demand for labor fromvariousoverlapping farmactivitiesat any one timemustbekeptwithin bounds so itdoesnot exceed the capacity of thehousehold to do thework.

A prominent feature of small farm organization is fullutilizationof allproducts.Forexample,rice is not theonlyproduct from ricepaddies.They arealsoa major source offish, and in many areaspaddies are public domain forharvesting animals suchasrice rats and aquatic invertebrates(e.g.,crabs).This practice not only leads tofullutilization ofanimal production in thepaddiesbutalsoprovides an incen-tivefor keepingthenumbersofedibleanimalpests(e.g.,ratsthatfeed on rice grains or crabs that cut the stalks of riceseedlings)below the point where they do serious damage totherice.Thesame principle applies in swidden fields, wheretraps may be set for bush pigs that are attracted to the crops.

The various crops employed by a single household are

often mutually reinforcingby providing materials or serv-ices to one another. Residuesfrom one crop may be used asgreen manureforother crops that followon the samefield orforcropson different fields.Livestockare used to transfercrop residues from one field to another by grazing th elivestockon one field afterharvest, collecting manurein thecorral, and distributing it to other fields.Chemicalfertilizersapplied to one crop(e.g.,rice) may also provide nutrientsforthecropthat follows (e.g.,vegetables). Irrigationfor rice canprovide residual soil moisture fo r vegetables that follow.Mineralnutrients(from chemicalor organic fertilizer appli-cations) that a re lost from an irrigated field as water drainsfrom the field arecarriedby the same wateras inputsto otherfiel s

iversityPerhaps the most conspicuous feature ofsmall-scaleag-riculture in Southeast Asia is its overwhelming diversity.Variation in environmental conditions from lowlands to

highlands andfrom flatlandsto hilly or mountainous landsleads to a corresponding variationin cropsto fit the condi-tions. Even in one placethe landscapei s usuallya patchworkof hundreds of small fields, each withitsowncroporm ixtureofcrops. Lowland areasof extensive rice cultivationm ay notpresent such a varied landscape,b u toncloseinspection eventheseareashave considerable diversity. A variety of fieldcrops or trees may be planted along the bunds, and thegardens around the houses may present a diversity of dozensor even hundreds of plantspecies.Once the rice season haspassed,paddies may be converted to a patchwork of dozensof different field crops.

Even a continuous expanseof rice m ay not be as uniformas itappears. M a nytraditional villagers maintain dozensoflocal rice varieties, each adapted to perform best underparticular environmental conditions.A single household


16/19

mayplant halfadozen different varieties duringthesameseason,a monoculture of each variety in each paddy butdifferent varieties in different paddies, basedonexplicitknowledgeof thecharacteristicsofeach varietyand howeach fits intoatotal cropping strategy.Asimilar varietaldiversity exists formostof theothersof thehundredsofcrops in Southeast Asia, though very littleof it hasbeendocumented.C.Flexibility

ThediversityofSoutheast Asian agriculture translatesintoflexibilitythat underlies 1)adaptionof theagricultureto local environmental and social conditions and 2) adap-tivenessof theagriculture through time.

The particular crops and crop varieties, and details ofcultivationpractices,aredifferentineach regioninaccordwith topography, soil conditions, and seasonal weatherpatterns.Equally important,thecrops,varieties,andprac-tices are tailored to each agricultural field and even tovarying conditions withinafield.Thisisessentialfordeal-ing with the heterogeneity of soil conditions on undulatingorhilly topography,asituationinwhichalarge percentageofSoutheast Asian agriculture mustbepursued.Decisionson thesematters derive largely from the knowledge andexperienceof each farmer.

Theagricultureisalsoadaptive through time.Thereisnothing unusual about this. Southeast Asian agriculture hasalways beenin astateofevolution, evenin themostremoteandsubsistence-orientedsocieties. Most farmers are con-stantly seeking informationfrom other farmers and an yother available sources)on newcropsand new productiontechnologies that enable themtoimprovethereturnsfromtheir agricultural activities.Manycontinuously experimentwithpromisingnewpossibilitieson asmall portionoftheirland and cautiously expand thescalewhenresults are en-couraging. Keeping openasmany optionsaspossibleis thekey to their flexibilityassuring that they canmodify theiragriculture inresponsetochanging needsor opportunitiesand withdrawfromchanges that do not workoutD Intensification

Themost significant trend throughout SoutheastAsiainrecentyearshasbeenanincreaseinagricultural production.Thisincrease hasbeen drivennotonlyby theincreaseinhumanpopulation butalsoby the spread of a market econ-om ythat has created a demand forcashearnings. The areaunder cultivationhas increased immensely. Only a fewdecades ag omanyparts ofSoutheast Asia had agricultureonlyin the flatterareas.Slopingor hilly areas were coveredbyforest.Nowagricultureismoving progressivelyup thehillsas new settlementsand newfieldsdisplacetheforestOne of the major consequences of this trend is an increas-inglyquantity of agriculture on land that is marginalwithrespecttosoilqualityorwater supply, where yields andreturns to labor) are lower and permanent cropping may notbepossible.Soilerosion on steeply sloping landscan be

severe,andland degradation isexacerbated by the manyfanners inhilly areaswho arerecent immigrantsfrom thelowlands andlacktheknowledge and sometimesthemoti-vation)to practice sustainable agriculture under these con-ditions.

Theother way that agricultural productionhasbeenincreasedhasbeenthrough higherproductionpe rhectare.Amajorpan o f the strategy hasbeen moreintensivechemicalinputsfertilizers toincreasesoilfertility an dpesticidestoreducecropdamagealongwithimprovedcrop varietiestotakefulladv antage of theinputs.Thiskindof intens ificationhasbeen most pronouncedfor rice, but it isalso becomingcommon forother major food crops e.g., com, peanuts,potatoes,andvarious kindsofbeans)andcommercial vege-tables e.g.,cabbage).In general, tropical fruittrees haveexperiencedlessintensificationof thissort,withlocal varie-tiesstillprevailinginmanyareas,butanumberoftemperatefruitsand a fewselecttropical tree crops e.g., cloves andsomecitrusfruits have experienced considerableintensifi-cation because of their high commercial value.Multiple cropping i.e.,a sequence of crops on the samefieldduringa year) has been another common means of in-creasing total agricultural production per hectare. Inrainfedareaswitha distinct dry season, where until recently therewas onlyonecrop a year e.g.,rice during therainyseason),many farmersare now attempting to grow a second crope.g.,vegetables)afterthe rice. In manycasesthe secondcrop is risky because of unreliable watersupplies.21Inirrigatedareas, where wateris not aproblemandwhereuntilrecentlythereweretwocropsayear, somefarmersare nowattemptingtosqueezein athirdcrop.Manyar erunningintothekindsof difficultiesdescribed fo rChiangmaiValley.

In upland areas whereswidden cultivation prevails, acommonmeanso f intensificationhasbeen toshortentheforest fallowbetween croppingperiods.Forexample,in thehills around Chiangmai Valley,thetraditionalfallowis 10years in duration. However, an increasingnumberoffarmersinthatareadonothave enough landattheir disposaltoleavetheirfields in fallow so long. Many are returningtheirfieldstocropsafterafallowofonly2 or 3years, insufficienttimetocomplete soilregenerativeprocessesperformedby thefallow.

While intensification hasincreasedthe quantity of agri-culturalproductionfromavailable land,itoftenhasreducedthe efficiency of production with regard to labor or cashinputs. It is common for nationalpoliciesto place a toppriorityonincreasing theproductionof rice orother basicfoodcrops,inorderto attainnationalselfsufficiencyorevenproducesurplusesforexportHowever,suchpoliciesmayno tbe in theinterestso ffanners whose productionis lim itedprimarily by the supply of household labor or cash foragricultural inputs.E.Autonomyvs.Dependence

Aprominent featureofmost small-scale agricultureinSoutheast Asia isitsecological self sufficiency.One of thekeystones is mineral nutrient recycling.22In traditional sub-


17/19

98 AgroecologyandSmallFarm Developmentsistcnceagriculture,wherenearlyall of ahouseh old's agri-cultural production isusedforhomeconsumption,kitchenw astes (and th em ineral nutrientstheycontain)arereturnedto the fields,thereby com pletingth ecycle.A field's lossofnutrientsthroug h harvests, leaching, or erosion is balancedby nutrient inputs from kitchen wastes, animal manures,weeds, and other organic m aterials that are throw n onto thefield. Much of the agriculture is also energetically selfsufficient. Energy fo r land preparation, harvesting, weed-ing, an d other agricultural activities comes from humanlabor an d draft animals, wh ich derive their energy frompasture an d farm produce. The traditional f r m is alsogenetically self sufficient, employing local crop varietiesadapted tolocal environm entalan dsocial conditions.Much ofthisischanging today w ithagriculturalintensi-fication andm odernizationan dexpansion of a cash econ-om y. Cash incomes of h ighland farmers depend to a largeextent on urban demands fo r temperate vegetables. Cashincomes can even depend upon international marketingarrangements,suchascassavainnortheast Th ailand,w h i chis sold to Europeforanimal feed. Farm ers are adoptinghigh

yieldingvarietiesand need to purchase the various chem icalinputs necessary to realize th eir potential. B ecause pesti-cides have rendered many ricefields u n f i t for fish, manyfarm householdsnowhavetopurchase fish toreplace th eones theynolong er obtainfrom theirow nfields. Petroleumenergy is replacinganimal energy as minitractors replacewater buffalos. A sbuffalo disappear from the scene, theirmanure alsodisappears,increasing th e need to purchasechemical fertilizers as a substitute. Buffalo wallows aredisappearing, and with thema variety ofecological servicesthey have performed, such asreservoirs for ricefield fishduring the dryseason.F Risk ManagementMost fa rm ers operatein thefaceofnumerous risks suchas short-term droughts, attacks bycrop pestso r diseases,typhoons, or uncertain prices fo r their products. They dealwith these risks, first, by employing crops and croppingpractices thatare explicitly directed tow ard ameliorating thehazards.Local varietiesareadapted todrought,frost,pests,etc. The planting of crops is timed to avoid periods ofdroughtsortyphoonsandtoavoidseasonsofth eyearthat areparticularly favorablefor keypests.Almosteveryoneemploysadiversifiedcropping strategyto reducerisks.W ith fallback crops,atleast some produ c-tion isl ikely even un dertheworstofcircumstances. Somerice varieties are more resistant to drought than others.Shorter varieties arem ore resistant to lodging while tallervarieties aremore resistant to flooding. At least on ew i llsurvive whetherth eyearisunusuallydry orunu suallyw etFor cash returns, fanners wh o grow severaldifferent kindsof vegetables haveahedg e against price fluctuations.In padd y fieldsonelevatedtopography,wheretheirriga-tion supply is unreliable, vegetables may be planted toreplace the ricehalfway throughthe we tseason ifthereh asnot been enough water to expect a good rice harvest In

rainfedfields,th eh ighest yieldsofcorncan berealized fromvarieties that taketh elongest tim etomature, varieties th ariskfailurebecausetheymustbeplantedat thebeginningoth egrow ing season w h e nrainfall isunreliable. Ho w ever,ia long-term variety f i l s at the beginning of thegrowingseason,it can be replacedw ithafastermaturing (but loweyielding)varietyfor the rest of theseason.G . S u s t a i n a b i l i t yMosttraditionalagriculture inSouth east Asiahas continued forcenturieson asu stainable basis.Byrecycling planresidues and animal manure to the fields, soil quality ismaintainedw ithout dependingonm aterialsorenergy f r o moutside the farm. Pest damage to crops is maintainedatolerable levels byusingpest resistant crop v arieties, inter-cropping different cropspecies sopestsdo not f i n d largequantities oftheir host plantsin any oneplace,and relyinguponna tural enemiesof thepeststokeep themfromgettingoutofhand.21W eedsare removed from thefieldbyburningor bylettingitfallow.Weedsa realsoused toprovide soilcover fo r preventing soil erosion. In general, traditionalagriculture h as been structured asmuchaspossibleto mimicnatural ecosystems, so farmers expend as little e f f o r t aspossiblestrugglingagainstnaturalecological processes.*-29Thetrendin mode rnizing and intensifyingagriculturehasbeen to make thefields less like natural ecosystems so ahighershare of ecosystem production can be channeled tohumanuse.Thebenefitsareindisputable,buttheyhavebeenachieved at acost A s a rule, higher yields ca n only besustained bymeansofcostly chem ical inpu ts. More inten-sive croppingoftenm eans that the soil is exposed to erosionand leaching moreof theyear,andmore mineral nutrientsareremoved in the harvestA reduction in soil fertility can be compensated bychemicalfertilizer applications,but theorganic matter con-tentof thesoil o f t e ndeclinesa schemicalfertilizersreplaceorganic fertilizers. Withconsequentreduction in theso il 'scation exchange capacity and moisture storage capacity,even heav ier chemical fertilizer inputs become necessaryWith some of thefertilizers in common use, this leads toprogressive soil acidification, wh ich m ayaffect th ecropno tonly directly, but also indirectly if there is phosphorusfixation by ironoraluminum oxides, leadingtoaneedf orincreasingly heav y phosphorus fertilizer applications.The same cycle of increasing ch emical applications canalso occur with pesticides. Pesticides often kill naturalenemies(e.g., predatorsandparasitoids) m ore e f f e c t i v e l ythanthepeststhem selves andthiscanleadto alossofcontrolby these naturalenemies.As pests evolveresistanceto thepesticides, th e quantity an d n um berof different kinds ofpesticides that are applied continually increases. As thequantities of chem ical fertilizers and pesticides increasescash outlaysf orthese inpu ts also increase.This trendh asbeen exacerbated because the chemical inputs are tied toincreases in thepriceofpetroleum energy.In theend,it maybe necessary toabandon the crop.

hereisalsothe r iskt h a tmo d ern izedagricul turecannot


18/19

mal l cale gricultureInSoutheast siabe resilient to sudden and unexpected hazards such as theappearance of a pesticide resistant pest biotype, a drop inmarket prices (or loss of the market if it depends uponcontractual arrangements),unusually severe weather condi-tions (e.g., drought, floods, or typhoons), or sudden in-creasesin the cost of inputs. T his trend reflec ts the generalprinciple thatincreases in production, and improvements inthe stability of production, often reduce resilience becauseof (a) dependence on outside resources that are not reliableor (b) a failure to exercise a capacity for dealing withparticular hazards.As an example of the latter, if irrigationis brought to a rainfed area, farmers can realize higher andmore reliable yields w ithout resorting to their traditionaldroughtresistant varieties o r specialized cultivation tech-niques for coping with vagaries of rainfall. These varietiesand techniques may eventually drop bom the scene, eventhough they could be highly useful if siltation or some otherproblem should someday prevent the irrigation system fromproviding a reliable w ater supply.VI. CONCLUSIONSWhile the modernization of Southeast Asian agricultureis generally increasing agricultural production and farmincomes,in many instances there are serious doubts as tohow reliably and for how long the gains can be sustained.There arealso doubts about their costs insocial andenviron-mental terms.Resisting changeis not arealistic option; modernizationis a fact of life in SoutheastAsia. Population growth of thepastSO years had rendered yesterday s agriculture obsolete,and aspirations aroused by the universal spread of a casheconomy mean that farmers will change their agriculture toincreasetheir earnings in any w ay available to them. It is aresponsibility of agricultural scientists to provide farmerswith new technologies that offer no t only high er yields andhigher incomes bu t also sustainable yields and prudently lowlevelsof environmental degradation and social disruption.

Itisnotreasonable toexpect centrally developed agricul-turalpackages tosatisfy these criteria.29The environmentaland social conditions in w hich agriculture must be appliedare so variable that new technologies must be tailored notonly to a region of the country but also todifferent villages,differenthouseholds, and even different fields. W hile agri-culturalresearch and extension can offer farmers some of thetoolsthey need to improve their agriculture, a major part ofthe research and development process w ill have to lie withthe farmers themselves. Most fanners arc well prepared f e wsuch a task by virtue of their experience experimenting withnew crops and techniques to fit their farm operation.Effective agriculture should b e adaptive through lime.One major way to maintain the flexibility necessary foradaptiveagricultural develop men t is to retain as much of theexisting agricultural diversityin Southeast Asia as possible.Thisincludes m aintaining the wealth of crop varieties andproduction technologies in the region s traditional agricul-ture. Traditional agriculture in most areas cannot be ex-

pected to meet modem needs without modification, but itsproven record of sustainability is a strength that fannerscannotafford to ignore. Agricultural scientists and farmershave a responsibility to ensure that this valuab le heritage isnot lost in the course of modernization. The challenge is tocombine the best of traditional and mo dern technologies.Thereis ample experience that high-yield agriculture isnot sustainable when it is socially or environmentally ex-ploitative,bu t there is also ample evidence that griculturecan be organized to make increased productivity and sus-tainability mutually reinforcing. 1* Although the use ofchemicalfertilizer can lead to soil degradation if the fertil-izer is used to compensate for soil-degrading agriculturepractices, higher yields from chemical fertilizers can in factbe used to improve and sustain soil fertility if a significantproportionof the crop biomass is returned to the soil. To takeanothere xam ple, multistory intercropping mat makes full-est use of space, soil, and water (as described forhomegardens and rainfed fields in West Java) can alsoprovide an environ me nt where crop pests are not a seriousproblem even without the use of p esticides. Identifying waysto improve production on a sustainable basis may involveretentionor adaptation of agricultural design features (e.g.,recycling crop residues or intercropping) that are still com -mon in Southeast Asia. It may also involve new designsappropriate to chang ing conditions and changing needs,butthe prospects for new designs will be m ost promising if theybuild on insights from past experience with agricultural andnaturalecosystems.

REFERENCES1. Caplstraoo, A. D. nd Marten, G. G., Africulture in SoutheastAtia,in TraditionalAgriculturei n SoutheastAr ia , Manen, C. G .,Ed.,WcitvicwPitts.Boulder.CO. 1986.6.

2 Rmbo,A.T.*ndSJtae,P.E,Develapin|iregio(ilnciwori;forirnerdi*aplinry research an rural ecology - < h < Southeast AsianUniversities Agroecosytum Neiwork (SUAN) experience, TntEnvironmentProfessional 7,289. 198S.

3. Rambo, A.T. Human ecologyresearch on tropical agroecosys-lems inSoutheast Asia, SingaporeJ Trap.Ceogr. 3.86.1982.

4. Rambo, A. T. and Sajise, P. R, Human ecology research ontropicalagriculture inSoutheast Asia, in AnIntroduction to Hum anEcology Kesearch on Agricultural Systems in Southeast Asia.Rambo.A. T. andSajise, P. E _ Eds.,University ofthePhilippines,Los Banoj,1985,1.

5. Tapang,B.,ThecashflcwmatypicalfaiminghouseholdinlheLooValley rural ecosystem, in Agroecojystem Rese arch for RuralDevelopment Reritasem,JC andRambo,A. T.,Eds., Chiang MaiUniversity.Thailand, 1988.224.

6. Brett, J. P., Stone walls and waterfalls: irrigation and ritual regu-lation in theCentral Cordillera, northernLuzon, Philippines, inCultural Values and Human Ecology in SoutheastAsia HuUerer,K.L.Rambo. A. T.,and Lovelace, G. W., Eds.. Center forSouthandSoutheast Asian Studies, University ofMichigan, AnnArbor,


19/19

2 Agroecology and SmallFarmDevelopment1985.125.

7. Brett,J.P.,TheBontok: traditionalwet rice andswiddenculliva-torsofthePhilippines,inTraditional AgricultureinSoutheastAsiaMarten, G. G.,Ed..WestviewPress , Boulder. CO, 1986, 54.

8. Omengan,E, NitrogenandPhosphorus Cyclesin aBontocPaddyRice System, M.S.thesis.Univers ity of the Philippines, LosBanos,1981.9. DeRaedt,C Relations between autonomyandsolidarityin anuplandcommercial vege table growing village inBenguetprovince,in Agroecosystem Researchfo r RuralDevelopment Rerkasem,K .

and Rambo, A.T.,Eds., Chiang M ai Univ ersity, Thailand, 1988,194.10. Alcantara,A.,S ustainabilityofcommercial vegetable production,in Agroecosystem Research or RuralDevelopment Rerkasem,K .and Rambo.A.T.,Eds.,ChiangMaiUniv ersity, Thailand, 1988,211.

11. Soemarwoto,O. and Soemarwoto,I.,TheJavanese rural ecosys-tem, inA n Introduction to Human EcologyResearch on Agricul-turalSystems in So utheast Asia Rambo,A. T. andSajise,P. E.,Universityof the Philippines, LosBanos,1985,254.

12. Christanty,L,Abdoellah,O. S,M arten,G.G,and Iskandar,J. Traditional Agroforestry in West Java: the pekaranganhomegarden)a nd kebun-talun annual-perennial rotation)crop-ping systems,inTraditionalAgricultureinSoutheastAsia Marten,G. G.,Ed..Westview Press. Boulder.CO.1986.132.

13. Marten,G. G. and Abdoellah,O.S.,Crop diversityandnutritioninWestJava,Ecol.FoodNutr..21,17.1988.14. Iskandar,J.andAbdoellah,O.S.,Agroecosystemanalysis:acasestudy in West Java, in Agroecosystem Research for RuralDevelopment Rerkasem, K. and Rambo, A.T.,Eds.,Chiang MaiUniversity, Thailand, 1988,237.

15. Hadikusumah,H .V.,D evelopment of traditional agriculture inWest Java:acase studyinCihampelasvillageand Sadu village,Third SUAN Regional Symposium o nAgroecosystem ResearchChiang Mai, Thailand,October. 1986.

16. Gypmantasiri, P.,Wiboonpongse,A., Rerkasem, B.,Craig,I.,Rerkasem,K,Ganjanapan, L-,Titayawan,M.,Seetlsarn,M.,Than),P., Jalsaard,R,Ongprasert,S,Radenachaless,T andConway,G.,An interdisciplinaryperspectiveofcropping syste msin the Chiang M ai Valley, key questions forresearch.Facu lty ofAgriculture,University of Chiang Mai, Chiang Mai, Thailand,1980.17. Rerkasem,B. andRerkasem, B.,The agroecologicalnicheandfarmer selection of rice varieties in Chiang Mai Valley, in An

Introduction to Human EcologyResearch onAgricultural Systemsin SoutheastAsia Rambo,A. T. andSajise, P.E.,Universityof thePhilippines,LosBanos,1988,303.

18. Srimongkol, K. and Marten, G. G. Traditional agricultureinNorthern Thailand,inTraditional Agriculturein Southeast AsiaMarten,G. G.,Ed.,Westview Press, Boulder,CO,1986,85.

19. Rerkasem,B. andSh inawatra ,B.,On the system s propertiesofthe Chiangmai Valleyagroecosystem: implications fordevelop-ment , in Agroecosyslem Research for Rural D evelopmentRerkasem, K. and Rambo,A.T., Eds., Chiang Mai University,Thailand,1988, 124.20. Ramitanondh,S.,Impactofdevelopmentonhumanactivity sys-tems in a Northern Thai village, in Impact of Development onHuman Activity Systems in Sou theast Asia Soemarwoto,O. andRambo,A .T.,Eds.,InstituteofEcology,Padjadjaran University,Bandung,Indonesia, 1987, 123.

21. Polthancc,A. and Marten,G.G.,Rainfall cropping systemsinNortheast Thailand, inTraditionalA griculture in Southeast AsiaMarten,G.G.,Ed., W estview Press, Boulder, CO,1986,103.22. Marten,G. G. and Vityakon,P.,Soilmanagementintraditionalagriculture, inTraditionalAgriculturein Southeast Asia Marten,G. G.,Ed..Westview Press, Boulder,CO, 1986, 199.

23. Brown,B. J. andMarten,G.G.,Theecologyoftraditional pestmanagem ent inSoutheast Asia,inTraditionalAgriculture in South-eastAsia Marten, G.G.,Ed., We stview P ress, Boulder, CO, 1986,241.24. Marten, G. G., The tropical rainforest as an ecosystem, inA nIntroductiontoHuman Ecology Research o n Agricultural Systemsin SoutheastAsia Rambo, A. T. and Sajise, P.E.,Eds.,UniversityoftheP hilippines, LosBanos, 1985.61.25. Mar ten, G.G.,Traditionalagricultureand agricu ltural research inSoutheast Asia, in Traditional Agriculture in Southeast AsiaMarten,G. G.,Ed.,Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1986, 326.

26. Marte n, G.G.,Productivity stability sustainability equitabililyandautonomy as properties for agro-ecosystem assessment, Agric.Syst. 26,291,1988.

Documents

GM Small Scale Agriculture