Glossary of Abbreviations - Springer978-0-230-37313-6/1.pdf · Glossary of Abbreviations ARP* Air-Raid Precautions ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic BGSO Be Ready for Medical

Glossary of Abbreviations

ARP* Air-Raid Precautions ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic BGSO Be Ready for Medical Defence BGTO Be Ready for Labour and Defence BSSR Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic CC* Central Committee FZS seven-year industrial school FZU industrial apprenticeship school gorono municipal education authority/department/office GSO Ready for Medical Defence GTO Ready for Labour and Defence KFSSR Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic kolkhoz collective farm Komsomol Communist League of Youth MASSR Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic MPT* military and physical training MPVO local air-raid defence/ARP Narkompros People's Commissariat of Education NKVD People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs obkom regional party committee oblono regional education authority/department/office Osoaviakhim Society for Furthering Defence, Aviation and Chemical War

fare PT* physical training PVKhO anti-air-raid and anti-chemical defence rabfak workers' faculty raiono district education authority/department/office RAO Russian Academy of Education RSFSR Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic ShKM school for peasant youth; [from 1930] school for collective-farm youth ShKS seven-year community school ShRM school for working youth ShSM school for rural youth sovkhoz state farm Sovnarkom Council of People's Commissars SSR Soviet Socialist Republic UPM training and production workshop voenruk military training instructor vuz higher educational institution

* English convention

204

Notes and References

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS SECTION

Archives

BA Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archives, Koblenz and Potsdam) GARF Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (State Archive of the

Russian Federation, Moscow) PRO Public Record Office (Kew, London) RTsKhlDNI Rossiiskii tsentr khraneniya i issledovaniya dokumentov noveishei

istorii (Russian Centre for the Conservation and Study of Modern Historical Documents, Moscow)

WA IWK Wirtschaftsarchiv des Instituts fur Weltwirtschaft (Economics Archive, Institute for World Economy, Kiel)

Note: The system of citing Russian archives is here strictly numerical, avoiding repeated use of abbreviations for fond (group), opis' (series), delo (file) and list (page or folio). Thus GARF, f.2306, op.70, d.2933, 1.92 becomes GARF, 2306/70/2933, 92.

Books, Newspapers and Periodicals

BSE BoVshaya sovetskaya entsiklopediya KP Komsomol'skaya pravda NKhMSSR Narodnoe khozyaistvo Moldavskoi Sovetskoi Sotsialisticheskoi

Respubliki NKhSSSR... 1941-1945 gg. Narodnoe khozyaistvo SSSR v Velikoi

Otechestvennoi voine 1941-1945 gg. NONK Narodnoe obrazovanie, nauka i kul'tura v SSSR SIM Sbornik informatsionnykh materialov Akademii pedagogicheskikh nauk

RSFSR UG UchiteVskaya gazeta

Note: Newspaper items are not listed in detail. Full details of other references are located under AUTHOR (or SHORT TITLE if no author is stated) and thereafter YEAR DATE in the Bibliography following this section.

CHAPTER 1

1. UG, 1 January 1940. 2. The broad course of events outlined here is generally well known. For

finer points, however, I am endebted to: Werth (1964); Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt (1979); Gross (1988); Hiden and Salmon (1991).

3. PRO, F0371/29267/N258. 4. Kolychev (1985). 93.

205

206 Notes and References to pp. 7-13

CHAPTER 2

1. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 141, 142. Obuchenie is here translated as 'teaching and learning' to make the point that it is seen as a two-way process.

2. The principles and practices of integrated subject teaching and free activity methods in the early Soviet period are briefly described in Dunstan and Suddaby (1992), 1-5.

3. The chief differences between boys' gymnasia and real schools were that the former prepared exclusively for universities, had longer courses more intensively taught, and provided Latin and sometimes Greek, but not natural history. Real schools gave more time overall to foreign languages, physics and drawing, and prepared for higher technical education (Board of Education (1909), 140-1).

4. The reality was much more complex than can be presented in this short summary. Hans (1931) retains its value as a detailed overview.

5. Kerblay (1983), 149. The maximum was nine years in 1914. We have derived a similar percentage, 79.6, for January 1939 (Vsesoyuznaya perepis'. .. 1939 goda (1992), 28, 55), using 60 per cent of the 15-19 cohort.

6. Cited in Eklof (1986), 292-3. To convert attendances to total enrolments one should perhaps add to the overall rate 7 per cent for absences and 3 per cent for confessional schools (Eklof (1984), 564, 578).

7. Vsesoyuznaya perepis'. . . 1937 g. (1991), 78, 100-5 (derived). 8. Ibid., 100-i (derived). 9. Hans (1931), 208-9.

10. Vsesoyuznaya perepis'. . . 1939 goda (1992), 55 (derived). 11. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 18-19, 133-4. 12. Ibid, 105, 146. 13. Ibid., 110. Remote localities were allowed up to two years' grace in in

troducing compulsory primary education. 14. Seregny (1993), 139-40. 15. For a graphic panorama of teachers' problems and reactions, see Holmes

(1991), 14-19. 16. Ibid., 80-3; Fitzpatrick (1979), 36-9, who has much on the social studies

syllabus. 17. Ibid, 97-102. 18. Holmes (1991), 101. 19. Fitzpatrick (1979), 122, 133, 196-7 and derived. 20. Ibid, 188. 21. Ibid, 134, 235. 22. For a detailed account of these innovations, and also the FZU (fabrichno-

zavodskie uchilishcha, industrial apprenticeship schools) for senior pupils, see Anweiler (1964), 200-3 and especially 204-7. See also Holmes (1991), 85-6.

23. Ibid., 96. Holmes is enlightening on contemporary estimates and surveys and their quality.

24. Ibid, 117. 25. For a close analysis of Shul'gin's views and the politics of education at

this time, see Anweiler (1964), 408-36.

Notes and References to pp. 14-23 207

26. Ibid, 369-70; Fitzpatrick (1979), 166-7; Holmes (1991), 121-2. 27. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 157-8. 28. Ibid, 158, 160. 29. Ibid., 163-4. Detailed legislation and/or instructions followed on 'stable'

textbooks, a four-point marking system, end-of-year examinations, history and geography teaching, and so'on.

30. Ibid., 115. It was not actually made compulsory until 1949. 31. Ibid., 167. For the effect of this on the FZU (apprenticeship schools) see

Fitzpatrick (1979), 225-6. 32. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 279. 33. Ibid., 173-5; Dunstan (1978), 22-6. The standard treatment of the contro

versies at the interface of Soviet politics and developmental psychology in this period remains Bauer (1952); see especially 80-6, 108-14, 123-7.

34. Krupskaya, 1 (1978), 33-8; Baumann (1974), 143, 232 n.55. Baumann makes the date 1909.

35. Krupskaya, 2 (1978), 46; Baumann (1974), 133, 230 n.176. I cannot check Baumann's German source so am assuming that this is the passage in question.

36. Krupskaya, 3 (1979), 154, 225; date from 429, 438. 37. Baumann (1974), 145-6; Froese (1956), 158-9. 38. Makarenko himself refers to two such interpretations of 'conscious discip

line' in The Road to Life, 2 (1951), 359-60. 39. Baumann (1974), 134. 40. Pravda, 17 March 1940. The ascription of iconic status is closely inves

tigated in Hillig and Kriiger-Potratz (1986), 308-47. Hillig and his colleagues at the Philipps University of Marburg have conducted a massive amount of research on Makarenko; it is reviewed in Dunstan (1981), 27-32.

41. UG, 17 April 1940. 42. Hillig and Kruger-Potratz (1986), 339-41. 43. Vsesoyuznaya perepis'. . . 1939 goda (1992), 245. 44. Brooks (1985), 4. 45. Krupskaya (1960), 290-1. 46. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 382, 384, 387. 47. Rosen (1964), 159. 48. Narodnoe obrazovanie, nauka i kuVtura v SSSR (1971), 21. (Hereafter

NONK, to distinguish this statistical collection from the 1974 collection of laws.)

CHAPTER 3

1. NONK (1971), 22. 2. Brysyakin (1974), 178. 3. Ibid, 177-8 (derived). 4. Details in Beckherrn (1990), 267-71. 5. Gross (1988), 3-4, 7. 6. Ibid, p. 32. 7. Vakar (1956), 121-5. 8. Konstantinov (1939), 15; Stepanov (1940), 36; Vakar (1956), 131 (re 1938).


9. Ibid, 124-5; Konstantinov (1939), 16-17. 10. Ibid., 15; Stepanov (1940), 36-7. According to Belorussian writers, all

seven years of primary schooling might be spent in covering four, six or seven years of the curriculum, with the lowest targets mainly in rural areas (Il'yushin and Umreiko (1961), 180).

11. Konstantinov (1939), 16-17; Il'yushin and Umreiko (1961), 179-81. 12. Gross (1988), 77; PRO, F0371/37017/N4354. 13. PRO, FO371/31104/C7122. Polish 'repression' in Western Ukrainian edu

cation is cited in F0371/34599/C14829. 14. UG, 11 July 1940. Percentages derived. 15. Konstantinov (1939), 16-17. 16. Belorusskaya Sovetskaya . . . (1978), 340. This appears to mean the schools

inherited from the old regime. 17. Deduced from data in later reports: UG, 23 August and 18 September

1940. 18. Konyakhin (1940), 192. 19. Il'yushin and Umreiko (1961), 175, 179. 20. Ibid, 184, 186; Stepanov (1940), 37-8; UG, 5 June and 11 July 1940. 21. Grudzinska-Gross and Gross (1981), 243, n.13. The book depicts the

experiences of Polish children from these territories under Soviet rule. 22. Krasuski (1992), 130. 23. PRO, F0371/24472/C5744. 24. Godden (1941). (Wiener Library, London, microfilm PC5/30/126). 25. UG, 11 July 1940, and derived. 26. UG, 23 April 1940. 27. Described in Karol (1986), 32-7. He had spent seven months in L'vov. 28. UG, 16 August 1940. A slightly later report, by the President of the

Belorussian Academy of Sciences, yields data from which a total of 5643 may be derived (UG, 18 September 1940).

29. Deduced from Belorusskaya Sovetskaya. . . (1978), 340. 30. UG, 16 August 1940. Percentages derived; due to rounding they do not

total to 100. 31. UG, 23 August 1940. A subsequent total of 725 000 includes the rolls of

a further ten Belorussian schools (UG, 18 September 1940). 32. UG, 18 September 1940 (derived). 33. Stepanov (1940), 38-9. 34. Gross (1988), 128. 35. Ibid; Stepanov (1940), 38. 36. Ibid, 40. 37. Gross (1988), 127-8. Comment on the last point in UG, 23 May 1940,

can largely be taken at face value. 38. Stepanov (1940), 37; UG, 11 July 1940; Gross (1988), 126-7. 39. Ibid, 128. 40. Stepanov (1940), 37-8; UG, 23 April 1940. 41. Stepanov (1940), 39. 42. Ibid, 38. 43. UG, 23 April 1940. 44. Gross (1988), 139-40. 45. PRO, F0371/24471/C2946.


46. Gross (1988), 138-41. 47. Ibid, 140. 48. See also PRO, FO371/24470/C1764; F0371/24471/C2946; F0371/24472/

C5744; and, for Lutsk, Grudzinska-Gross and Gross (1981), 195. 49. Gross (1988), 130, 134. 50. Godden (1941). For such testimonies by Polish pupils, see Grudzinska-

Gross and Gross (1981), 77, 195. Further details are in PRO, F0371/ 24470/C844.

51. Gross (1988), 127n. 52. Ibid, 279 n.15; Stepanov (1940), 40-1. 53. Gross (1988), 128-30, 133-4. 54. UG, 23 August 1940. Earlier, resistance to joining the Komsomol in

L'vov is reported in PRO, F0371/24471/C2946. 55. PRO, FO371/24470/C1784. 56. Stepanov (1940), 41. 57. UG, 23 August 1940. 58. Stepanov (1940), 41. 59. Ibid, 38-9. 60. Ibid, 38; UG, 27 September 1940. 61. Konyakhin (1940), 189-92. 62. UG, 27 September 1940. 63. Stepanov (1940), 39. 64. Vakar (1956), 153-4; Novik (1981), 248, 251-2. 65. UchiteVskie instituty, set up from 1935 to train secondary school completers

for teaching at the middle stage of general education, with two-year full-time courses.

66. Stepanov (1940), 39; UG, 18 September 1940; Il'yushin and Umreiko (1961), 188; Novik (1981), 237-8.

67. UG, 18 September 1940. 68. UG, 23 August 1940. 69. UG, 1 July 1940. 70. UG, 16 August 1940. 71. Gross (1988), 134. 72. Stepanov (1940), 39; UG, 23 April 1940; Vakar (1956), 162. 73. Stepanov (1940), 40. 74. UG, 23 April 1940. 75. Stepanov (1940), 40. 76. UG, 27 September 1940. 77. UG, 5 June 1940. 78. UG, 16 August 1940. 79. UG, 23 August 1940. 80. This appears to have been the most usual picture, as elsewhere in the USSR,

although according to Lubachko ((1972), 89) compulsory seven-year education had been introduced in BSSR towns and workers' settlements in 1931, and Il'yushin and Umreiko ((1961), 186) apply it to Western Belorussia from January 1940. They are probably referring to the beginning of its introduction.

81. UG, 5 June, 11 and 18 August 1940. 82. UG, 1 June and 18 August 1940; Karel'skaya ASSR. . . (1967), 125;

and derived.


83. UG, 1 June 1940. 84. Carrere d'Encausse (1978), 22-4. 85. Ibid., 27-9. 86. UG, 18 August 1940; Karel'skaya ASSR. . . (1967), 125, derived (29.3

per cent of primary schools, 5.2 per cent of incomplete secondary and 20.7 per cent of secondary; 27.7 per cent of total).

87. UG, 18 August 1940. 88. UG, 1 June 1940. 89. Kunnapas (1961), 89; Schwabe (1953), 201. 90. Rauch (1974), 133. 91. Salkauskis (1928), 241. 92. Poeld (1927), 93-106; Kunnapas (1961), 89-91, 94. 93. A Nazi teacher referred from the vantage point of 1942 to the Latvians'

'exaggerated' urge for education (BA Koblenz, R92/85 B1.2). 94. Kunnapas (1961), 90, 97; Rauch (1974), 131. 95. UG, 1 September 1940; Kunnapas (1961), 90, 95-6. 96. Ibid, 96-8. 97. Ibid., 91. Kunnapas, a champion of independent Estonia, is critical of

this. 98. Kabin (1975), 126-7. 99. Kunnapas (1961), 91, 94.

100. Vakar (1956), 134. 101. Kunnapas (1961), 86. 102. Hiden and Salmon (1991), 47. They had been able to revive German

schools after 1905 (23). 103. Ibid; Simkuva (1992), 352. 104. Ibid, 353-4, 362, 371; Hiden and Salmon (1991), 56. 105. Nielsen-Stokkeby (1990), 95. 106. Ibid.; Simkuva (1992), 354. The total of Russian schools and Russian

sections at Latvian ones declined from 259 in 1933/34 to 151 in 1938/ 39 (BA Koblenz, R92/103, B1.30).

107. Hiden and Salmon (1991), 56. 108. Rauch (1974), 131. 109. Nielsen-Stokkeby (1990), 92-3, 96-7. Reference is to the BDM's origi

nal uniform, which was later altered. 110. Hiden and Salmon (1991), 115. 111. BA Potsdam, 49.01/10536. 112. Nielsen-Stokkeby (1990), 131-41. See also Oras (1948), 149. 113. Kaubrys (1992), 405. 114. Ibid, 407, 414. 115. Ibid, 413; cf. Hiden and Salmon (1991), 47. 116. Kaubrys (1992), 409, 411, 414. 117. Ibid, 407, 414-15. 118. Hiden and Salmon (1991), 56. 119. For a potted biography see PRO, F0371/24761/N6484. 120. Ostsee-Zeitung, 26 June 1940 (WA IWK, 115/289). 121. Ostsee-Zeitung, 13 July 1940 (WA IWK, 115/289). 122. Rahva Haal, 1 August 1940, abstract (WA IWK, 115/291). 123. Ostsee-Zeitung, 23 July 1940 (WA IWK, 119/517).


124. Darbo Lietuva, 24 and 25 August 1940 (WA IWK, 119/518); also re Estonia: Postimees, 8 August 1940, abstract (WA IWK, 115/291).

125. BA Potsdam, 11.01/1 B1.166. 126. UG, 1 September 1940. Lacis, who had been in the transitional People's

Government, was later arrested and died in 1941 (Misiunas and Taagepera (1983), 37). On school attendance in Latvia, see also UG, 8 September 1940.

127. UG, 1 September 1940. 128. Misiunas and Taagepera (1983), 36. 129. Cina, 29 June 1940, translation (WA IWK, 117/464); UG, 29 June 1940.

The substitution of Russian for English as first foreign language had just been decided (PRO, F0371/24761/N5889).

130. UG, 16 and 30 August, and 1 and 6 September 1940. 131. UG, 16 August 1940. 132. UG, 6 September 1940. The figure may well be an overestimate, since

NONK (1971), 63, gives the figure of 9000 teachers in 1940/41. A contemporary German source, however, asserts that Lithuania had 12 093 teachers at all levels before the war (BA Koblenz, R6/402 B1.38).

133. Ostsee-Zeitung, 11 July 1940 (WA IWK, 115/289). 134. Ostsee-Zeitung, 13 July 1940. 135. Misiunas and Taagepera (1983), 274. This excludes mobilisation into

the Soviet army and involuntary evacuation (e.g. of railway workers). Much higher estimates are found: Hiden and Salmon (1991), 115, cite nearly 60 000 for Estonia and 75 000 for Lithuania, while a contemporary source makes the Lithuanian figure 200 000 (PRO, F0371/29267/N7244).

136. Misiunas and Taagepera (1983), 38-42. 137. BA Koblenz, R6/402 B1.38; Deutsche Ukraine-Zeitung, 8 April 1942;

percentages derived. Another German source refers to the deportation and murder of 'several hundred' Latvian teachers (BA Koblenz, R92/85 B1.5).

138. BA Koblenz, R6/177 B1.182 Forts. A further estimate here, 70 per cent in villages, seems far too high to square with the other sources, given that the great majority of primary teachers worked in rural localities; but it may be true of specific areas.

139. Ibid. 140. UG, 29 June, 9 and 23 August, and 6 September 1940. 141. Cina, 16 July 1940 (WA IWK, 117/464) and 11 February 1941 (WA

IWK, 117/466); UG, 8 September 1940. 142. UG, 6 September 1940. 143. Oras (1948), 112-13, 119. 144. UG, 1,6 and 15 September 1940. 145. Kunnapas (1961), 101 (re Estonia). 146. UG, 8 and 11 September 1940. 147. UG, 6 September 1940. 148. The curriculum subjects for Lithuania are listed in Darbo Lietuva, 24

August 1940 (WA IWK, 119/518). For contemporary specimen timetables for non-Russian schools of the USSR, see King (1937), 314-15. Note, however, that manual work largely disappeared from the Soviet general school curriculum in 1937.


149. UG, 15 September 1940. 150. For examples, see Misiunas and Taagepera (1983), 35-6. 151. Oras (1948), 135. 152. BA Potsdam, 11.01/1 B1.159. The reference is to Janis Rainis (1865-

1929), poet (and Education Minister under independence). 153. BA Koblenz, R92/85 B1.3. 154. BA Potsdam, 11.01/1 Bl. 177-8. 155. Ibid, Bl.171-3. 156. BA Koblenz, R92/85 B1.3. 157. BA Koblenz, R92/103 Bl.24-6. The Scouts had Russian groups, but, in

rural areas especially, these had been much displaced by Ulmanis's Mazpulki (R92/85, B1.39).

158. Oras (1948), 135-6. 159. Bourdeaux (1979), 18-19. 160. Ibid, 9-10; BA Koblenz, R6/402 B1.40. 161. BA Koblenz, R6/177 B1.182 Forts. 162. Brysyakin (1974), 164, 182. 163. Ibid., 161, 172-3. Most percentages derived. 164. Ibid, 166. 165. Krachun (1969), 222, 225. 166. Brysyakin (1974), 173. 167. Krachun (1969), 227, corrected and derived. 'Probably' because the fig

ures reproduced by Krachun contain several misprints, or miscalculations, or both.

168. Brysyakin (1974), 164, 176-7. 169. For a comment on Romanian attitudes to Bessarabians, see Eyal (1990),

125. 170. Brysyakin (1974), 173, 192 (n.92). 171. Krachun (1969), 224, 239-40. 172. Ibid, 111, 111, 230-1; Brysyakin (1974), 172, 179-82. The figure of

0.66 per cent in Brysyakin's original, along with the rest, seems to be very slightly understated. Why 16-18 is apparently cited as the leaving age for both courses is not explained either.

173. Ibid., 186. On nationalism in the curricula see also Krachun (1969), 234-7. 174. Ibid, 238, 241-4. 175. PRO, F0371/24856/N6424. 176. Savin (1974), 259-60. 177. UG, 9 July 1940. 178. UG, 17 July 1940; Savin (1974), 261. 179. Ibid, 263; Krachun (1969), 248. 180. Ibid., 246. In vocational schools they were actually moved down two

years. 181. UG, 21 August 1940; Savin (1974), 262. 182. Eyal (1990), 126-7. 183. NKhMSSR (1957), 158; NONK (1971), 64. Krachun (1969), 247 gives

1896 schools (1478 primary, 327 incomplete secondary and 91 secondary) for 1 January 1941. He also gives a total of 465 059 pupils, but this includes those in evening schools (page 248).

184. NKhMSSR (1957), 158; NONK (1971), 65, 85.


185. Savin (1974), 263. 'Right Bank' refers to the Dniester. 186. NONK (1971), 64-5. 187. The districts of the MASSR which came into the MSSR were Dubossary,

Grigoriopol', Kamenka, Rybnitsa, Slobodzeya and Tiraspol' (Sovetskaya istoricheskaya. . . (1966), col. 569). The Moldavian State Archive contains a list of all 14 districts with a breakdown of schools and teachers (but not pupils) at 1 January 1939; from this we can derive a total of 239 schools for the six districts, nearly half the grand total (TsGA MSSR, 2947/1/14, 98; in KuVtura Moldavii. . . (1975), 132). In (?September) 1940 the MASSR contributed 214 schools (92 primary, 83 incomplete secondary, 39 secondary) to the MSSR (Krachun (1969), 247).

188. 436 800 less 45 000 ex MASSR (rounded from 44 986 in Krachun (1969), 247).

189. Bessarabian elementary and higher elementary pupils 365 448 plus secondary pupils 9451 (ibid., 2277 230; Brysyakin (1974), 172, 181), total 1939/40 enrolments 374 899. Less elementary pupils in counties going to Ukraine: Akkerman 48 866, Izmail 27 613 and Khotin 39 127, sub" totalling 115 606, also less guesstimate of 2.6 per cent of sub-total to allow for secondary pupils 3006, new sub-total 118 612, thus 1939/40 total within new borders 256 287. (County totals in Krachun (1969), 227.)

190. UG, 23 August and 18 September 1940.

CHAPTER 4

1. The sources used here are mostly from 1940 since the outbreak of war interfered with the usual stocktaking at the end of the 1940/41 school year.

2. Heer (1980), 65. 3. NONK (1971), 45, 47. Following percentages derived. 4. Ibid. 5. Rosen (1964), 156, 163 n.6. 6. UG, 3 January 1940. 7. UG, 5 April 1940; Kashin and Chekharin (1970), 38. 8. UG, 11 April 1940 and derived. 9. UG, 5 and 11 April and 1 September 1940; 'Ob itogakh . . . i zadachakh

(1940), 9. 10. UG, 11 August 1940; 'Ob itogakh . . . i zadachakh . . .' (1940), 9. 11. UG, 11 January, 5 April and 11 August 1940; percentage derived, using

also NONK (1971), 80. 12. UG, 11 April 1940. 13. PRO, F0371/24856/N6422. 14. UG, 1 June 1940. 15. UG, 25 August 1940. 16. Danev (1948), 239-40. While Kazakhstan had put up 314 new school

buildings in the past four years, 126 had been diverted to other purposes (ibid.).

17. UG, 1 June and 25 August 1940. 18. Karol (1986), 2.


19. UG, 11 January 1940. 20. 'Ob itogakh . . . i podgotovke . . .' (1940), 10. 21. UG, 25 May 1940. 22. UG, 16 August 1940. 23. 'Ob itogakh . . . i zadachakh . . .' (1940). 24. UG, 11 January 1940 (3 items). 25. PRO, FO371/24850/N3288; Crown copyright reserved. N3575 also re

fers to this mission. 26. Koutaissoff (1953), 115, 123-6; Matthews (1982), 67-73. For further

details during the war period, see Matthews, loc. cit. For a Soviet case study, see Shteinberg (1975), especially 39-40.

27. PRO, F0371/29478/N523. 28. UG, 14 July 1940. 29. Danev (1948), 456-7. 30. PRO, F0371/29478/N523. 31. Trud, 23 November 1940, cited in Matthews (1982), 71. 32. PRO, F0371/29478/N523. 33. Meissner (1972), 49. 34. Ibid, 51-2. 35. PRO, F0371/29478/N523; Anweiler (1972), 185. The German original

was published in 1966. 36. BA Potsdam, 11.01/1, Bl. 185-6 (dated 21 November 1941). 37. UG, 1 and 5 July 1940. 38. UG, 11 April 1940. 39. UG, 15 June and 5 July 1940. 40. Skatkin (1942), 34-5. 41. Ibid, 34; King (1937), 311-13 and derived. 42. UG, 23 February and 2 and 3 July 1940; Medynsky (1942), 22. For the

later history of furcation, see Dunstan (1978), 151-7. 43. Goncharov (1958), 21. 44. Karol (1986), 64. 45. Sagaidachny (1963), 161 and passim. 46. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 162. 47. Schiff (1966), 20. 48. King (1937), 312-15. 49. UG, 11 September 1940; German text of decree in Schiff (1966), 153-4. 50. UG, 11 September 1940. 51. Danev (1948), 88. 52. Kolychev (1985), 20, 24, 47, 63-4. 53. Podorozhny (1930), 13; Kolychev (1985), 65. 54. Ibid, 64-5. 55. Svadkovsky (1931), 54, 57-60. 56. Kuebart (1987), 91. 57. King (1937), 312-15. According to De Witt (1961), however, boys at

the middle stage also received one period per week at this time, usually integrated with PT.

58. Berman and Kerner (1955), 21, 36 (in translation of law); Kuebart (1987), 91-2; Kolychev (1985), 95.

59. Ibid. 60. We shall use 'physical training' (PT) instead of the now customary 'physical


education' (PE); the contemporary terms in Britain were 'physical training' or, at primary level, 'drill'.

61. UG, 25 June 1940; Skatkin (1942), 34. But the law had specified two weekly periods from class V (Berman and Kerner (1955), 36).

62. Kolychev (1985), 95-6, 100-1. The defence club organised by Petya Sagaidachny in February-March 1941 had an enrolment of 27, but the highest recorded attendance was nine (Sagaidachny (1963), 151-3).

63. UG, 25 February 1940. 64. Ibid.; UG, 25 March, 9 July and 15 September 1940. 65. References as in previous note. 66. UG, 25 March and 15 September 1940. 67. UG, 25 March and 15 September 1940. 68. Riordan (1977), 130, 144. 69. Sagaidachny (1963), 137, 145-61. 70. UG, 30 August 1940. 71. UG, 3 January 1940. 72. UG, 1 April 1940. 73. UG, 1 September 1940. 74. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 350-2. 75. NKhSSSR.. . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208. 76. Weitz (1990), 162-3, pointing out the return to pre-1918 usage. 77. Grand (1961), 51-2. 78. UG, 1 April 1940. 79. Ibid. 80. UG, 3 January 1940. 81. UG, 29 June and 30 August 1940. 82. Hillig and Kruger-Potratz (1986), 312, 322. 83. Kuebart (1987), 91. 84. Medynsky (1942), 22. 85. UG, 23 February 1940. 86. Kolychev (1985), 83-4. 87. Karol (1986), 64. 88. Sagaidachny (1963), 33. 89. Ibid, 76. 90. Ibid, 129, 134 et seq. 91. Ibid, 206-7.

CHAPTER 5

1. This summary of the military events is developed from an earlier account in Dunstan (1992), 31-2, with additional data from Forster et al. (1989). For a recent fuller treatment see Barber and Harrison (1991), 26-38.

CHAPTER 6

1. Maksakova (1977), 300; Chernik (1984), 67. 2. Konstantinov et al. (1954), 2. Sviridov (1977), 120, omits the welfare

goal.


3. Chernik (1984), 19-20. 4. Sviridov (1977), 126. 5. M. Skatkin (1942), 52-3. 6. Main (1985), 93. 7. BSE 20 (1975), 427. 8. Yakovleva (1984), 11. 9. Ibid.

10. 'O vyvoze detei . . .' (1941), 24. 11. Salisbury (1969), 143. 12. Lieberman (1985), 67. 13. Likhomanov et al. (1985), 11, 18. 14. Ibid, 18; Sinitsin (1969), 23. 15. Salisbury (1969), 143. He gives 392 000 as the target figure and 162 439

for those sent into the Region. 16. Likhomanov et al. (1985), 19. 17. Raskin (1965a), 23. 18. Salisbury (1969), 263; Barber and Harrison (1991), 66. 19. Maksimova (1984), 94. 20. For an example see Polyanovsky (1984), 301; he paints a vivid cameo

of the unreal atmosphere in pre-blockade Leningrad. 21. Likhomanov et al. (1985), 15. 22. Sagaidachny (1963), 212. 23. Werth (1942), 45. 24. 'Iz istorii. . .' (1990), 207. 25. Likhomanov et al. (1985), 22, 24 (derived). 26. Inber (1971), 9; Porter and Jones (1987), 74. 27. Sinitsin (1969), 21. 28. Likhomanov et al. (1985), 12. 29. Sinitsin (1969), 21; Sovetskii tyl. . . (1989), 268-9. 30. Likhomanov et al. (1985), 27, 30. 31. Ibid, 11,14 (derived). 32. Sinitsin (1969), 21, 23. 33. Philippov (1947), 4. 34. Potemkin (1943), 2; Chernik (1984), 33. 35. Mar'yanovsky (1984), 29-30, 32. 36. Chernik (1984), 94; Vavilov (1988), 91. 37. Kumanev (1965), 9; Shcherbakov (1975), 13-14. 38. It was 1.27m on 1 September 1940 and 1.2m on 1 September 1941

(NKhSSSR. .. 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208). Children's homes in Uzbekistan normally provided schooling as well (Vavilov (1988), 58).

39. Shcherbakov (1975), 13. 40. Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 5. 41. Gushchin and Popova (1984), 94, 99. 42. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 194-5. 43. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 10. 44. Vavilov (1988), 58. 45. Yakovleva (1984), 15-16. 46. Kumanev (1965), 9; Chernik (1984), 34. 47. Novikov (1945), 9-13; Uhlig (1985), 110.


48. Prewar testimonies are in Grudzinska-Gross and Gross (1981); the story is continued to 1943 in Wasilewka (1946). For a detailed Soviet view of a changed situation from 1943, when a new line was taken on the education of young Poles, see Novikov (1945).

49. 'Iz is tori i . . . ' (1990), 206-8. 50. Potemkin (1942b), 11. 51. Ibid, 8. 52. UG, 1 October 1941. 53. Potemkin (1942b), 10; 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 10. 54. Prikhod'ko (1977), 115. 55. Golant (1942), 16. 56. Sinitsin (1969), 26. 57. Evacuation is specifically cited, for example, in Shamakhov and Trofimov

(1975), 4-5 (re Siberia). See also Ivanova (1972), 164. 58. Chernik (1975), 49. 59. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 207. 60. Maksakova (1977), 216; Chernik (1984), 205. 61. Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 5; this and the following percentages

are derived. 62. Kumanev (1965), 9. 63. Ivanova (1972), 165. 64. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 1. 65. Ibid, 50. 66. Ibid, 183. 67. Ibid, 175-7. 68. Potemkin (1942b), 9. 69. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 41, 43-9. 70. Ibid, 191. 71. Potemkin (1942b), 10-11. 72. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 117. A RSFSR Narkompros or

der of 27 November to its regional offices sought to tighten procedures for the transfer and recovery of school buildings (Danev (1948), 240-1).

73. Potemkin (1943), 3, borrowing the epithets from a Moscow city council executive committee decree of 21 January. Chernik (1984), 107, however, seems to present the 1095 returned by August as a notable achievement.

74. Chernik (1984), 107, derived. 75. Kumanev (1965), 12; Sovetskii tyl. . . (1989), 313. 76. Barber and Harrison (1991), 61, 223. 77. PRO, F0371/29532/N5983. See also Barber and Harrison (1991), 127. 78. PRO, F0371/29491/N5813. 79. Cited in Armstrong (1964), 403. For several other references to general

destruction by the retreating Red Army, see Moskoff (1990), 28. 80. Hoffmann (1986), 110-11. 81. Potemkin (1942a), 6-7; Chernik (1984), 116-17. 82. Ibid, 107-8. 83. Kobysh (1943), 60; Polzikova (1943), 50-1; Fadeyev (n.d. [1945]), 46;

Raskin (1965a), 23-5; Chernik (1984), 110-11. 84. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 71, 137, 146; partly derived.


85. Porter and Jones (1987), 99. 86. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 121-2, 143. 87. Ibid., 146; percentages derived. 88. Ibid, 120, 126. 89. Trofimov (1973), 265. 90. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 36, 143. 91. Raskin (1942), 19; id. (1965a), 23. 92. Porter and Jones (1987), 99. 93. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 3. 94. Arbuzov (1942), 1; Main (1985), 92. For Uzbekistan: Vavilov (1988),

56. 95. Lukin (1942), 5. 96. UG, 26 November 1941. 97. Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 6. 98. UG, 6 December 1941. 99. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 37.

100. Ibid, 36, 143. 101. Ibid, 1; Nelaeva (1973), 257. 102. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 12. 103. Eryzhensky (1978), 90. 104. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 117. 105. UG, 11 August and 3 September 1943. 106. Sviridov (1977), 123. 107. Ivanova (1972), 165; Chernik (1984), 105-6. 108. UG, 26 November 1941. 109. Golant (1942), 16. 110. Medynsky (1942), 22; Chernik (1984), 117. Leningrad's emergency time

table for May-June 1942 is described in Raskin (1965a), 27. 111. Maksakova (1977), 218. 112. PRO, FO371/37057/N7587. 113. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 14-15. 114. Sazonov (1965), 8; Eryzhensky (1978), 91-2. Percentages derived. 115. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 7. 116. Potemkin (1943), 4. 117. Nelaeva (1973), 257. 118. Danev (1948), 78-9. 119. Potemkin (1943), 4. According to Chernik (1984), 42, however, at over

40m copies the target was exceeded. 120. Sviridov (1977), 125-6. 121. UG, 15 August and 15 September 1943. 122. Sazonov (1965), 10; Ivanova (1972), 167. 123. UG, 1 August 1943. 124. Potemkin (1943), 5; Chernik (1984), 42 (percentage derived). 125. UG, 25 August 1943; percentage derived. 126. UG, 15 September 1943. 127. Chernik (1984), 42. 128. Potemkin (1943), 4-5; percentage derived. 129. Chernik (1984), 42. 130. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 12. See also Pravda, 17 August 1942.


131. Ivanova (1972), 167-8 (in 1942/43 the first 200 000 slates and 117 000 slate pencils manufactured in Beloretsk District were sold to schools); Eryzhensky (1978), 91.

132. On this point generally, see Barber and Harrison (1991), 48-50. 133. NKhSSSR... 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 207; percentage derived. 134. Derived from Lapidus (1978), 171-2. 135. Shcherbinin (1980), 195-6; Main (1985), 92. 136. Sergeenkov (1942), 18. 137. NONK (1971), 49, derived. 138. Potemkin (1943), 5. Another source (Yarushina (1992), 273) nevertheless

cites the RSFSR teacher shortage for 1942/43 at over 30 000. 139. Estimated from data in GARF, 2306/70/2869, 11-12. 140. Potemkin (1942a), 4. 141. GARF, 2306/70/2869, 12; Sergeenkov (1942), 18-19. 142. Ibid, 17. 143. Shcherbinin (1980), 200, derived. 144. Ibid, 199. 145. UG, 14 April 1943. 146. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 20; Shcherbinin (1980), 199-200. 147. Sergeenkov (1942), 20. 148. Ibid. 149. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 21. 150. Nelaeva (1973), 261. 151. Sergeenkov (1942), 18; Panabergenov (1977), 41, derived. 152. UG, 1 April 1943. 153. UG, 31 March 1943. See also Sergeenkov (1942), 21. 154. Ibid.; UG, 31 March 1943. 155. Ibid. 156. Instanced by Potemkin (1942b), 9. 157. UG, 1 October 1941. A variant replaces 'studying' by 'school' (Potemkin

(1942b), 9). A similar unacceptable formulation was 'In wartime you must fight, not study' (Konstantinov et al. (1954), 4).

158. Shcherbinin (1980), 196; Main (1985), 93. It is no surprise, therefore, to find Shcherbinin highlighting the educational shortcomings of Chita Region!

159. Pravda, 24 March 1942. Also cited in the standard work by Konstantinov et al. (1954), 5, and others.

160. Potemkin (1943), 3. 161. Potemkin (1942b), 8-9. 162. For example, Arbuzov (1942), 3. 163. Potemkin (1942b), 9-10. 164. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 94. 165. Sergeenkov (1942), 18-19. 166. GARF, 2306/70/2869, 12. 167. Potemkin (1942a), 5; Sergeenkov (1942), 19. 168. Barber and Harrison (1991), 163-4. 169. UG, 31 March 1943. 170. NKhSSSR... 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 206-7. Figures mostly rounded,

percentages derived and rounded, entries for 'others' deduced.


171. Ibid, 208, derived. 172. Ibid., derived. 173. Nelaeva (1973), 258. 174. Yarkina (1965), 110. 175. Ivanova (1972), 165, 177. Ufa rate recalculated from these data: enrolments

40 000-plus, subsequent evacuee arrivals 24 000; end-year attendances 27 200. Dropout therefore over 36 800, say 57 per cent of 64 000-plus.

176. Shcherbinin (1980), 199. 177. Nelaeva (1973), 258. 178. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 71, derived. 179. GARF, 2306/70/2753, 167, derived ('about' because of apparent total

ling errors in original ms.). 180. Potemkin (1942a), 4; 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 7-8. 181. GARF, 2306/70/2753, 167, derived. The figures should perhaps be treated

with a little caution as the recalculated total (used here) differs from the stated total, which is 14 per cent more.

182. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 2-3. 183. Karol (1986), 64. 184. Nelaeva (1973), 258; Main (1985), 92. 185. Levitov and Rybnikov (1942), 110. See also Sviridov (1977), 127. 186. Nelaeva (1973), 258. 187. Panabergenov (1977), 36. 188. Barber and Harrison (1991), 82, 97. 189. Snow (1945), 116, 126-7. 190. Sagaidachny (1963), 208-9, 242-3, 247-9. 191. Kolychev (1985), 130. 192. Ibid, 139-40; Barber and Harrison (1991), 97. 193. Potemkin (1942b), 9. 194. Ivanova (1972), 176. See also Kobysh (1943), 61; Trofimov (1973), 265;

Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 7. 195. PRO, F0371/36944/N52; Crown copyright reserved. 196. Shcherbakov (1975), 16; percentage derived from NKhSSSR... 1941-

1945 gg. (1990), 208. 197. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 3. 198. UG, 1 October 1941; Potemkin (1942b), 9; 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942),

8. Secondary school completers with 'excellent', 'good' and sometimes lower grades were exempted from vuz entrance examinations in 1942 and 1943 (Moskoff (1986), 412).

199. For example, Sagaidachny (1963), 238. 200. Resheniya Partii. . . (1968), 64. 201. Konstantinov (1948), 47, according to whom the government had also

prohibited the mobilisation of senior pupils for labour reserve schools and technicums, though this is not in the edict of 13 February.

202. Sobranie postanovlenii. . . (1942), 66; Nechaev (1942), 4-5, and (1943), 26.

203. Kiselev and Malkin (1938), 315-16. I owe this reference to R.W. Davies. 204. Resheniya Partii. . . (1968), 37-8. 205. Sobranie postanovlenii. . . (1942), 69; Nechaev (1942), 4, and (1943),

26.


206. Resheniya Partii. . . (1968), 68. 207. UG, 11 April 1942. 208. Pravda, 11 June 1942; Arbuzov (1942), 2. 209. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 117. 210. Danev (1948), 33-5. 211. UG, 23 June and 31 July 1943. 212. Chernik (1984), 100. He gives 52 but breaks this down to 26 secondary,

15 incomplete secondary and one correspondence secondary [sic]. 213. UG, 1 April 1943. 214. Ibid. 215. Trofimov (1973), 265; Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 8-9; Sovetskii

tyl. . . (1989), 314. Konstantinov et al (1954), 4, give a minimum of 15 pupils.

216. Chernik (1984), 37; Main (1985), 96. 217. Raskin (1965a), 23; Ivanova (1972), 173; Trofimov (1973), 265. 218. Ivanova (1972), 172. See also Konstantinov (1948), 47. 219. Konstantinov et al (1954), 7. 220. Danev (1948), 34; Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 8. 221. UG, 8 December 1943. 222. Danev (1948), 35-9, 233-5. 223. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 352. 224. Potemkin (1942b), 11. See also 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 6. 225. Barber and Harrison (1991), 216. 226. Chernik (1984), 79. 227. Kufaev (1942), 25-6, 28. 228. Ibid., 28. 229. Danev (1948), 302-3. 230. Sinitsin (1969), 22. 231. Danev (1948), 302-4. Their statute specified the heads of the education

and health authorities (ibid., 305). Some refer to 'the decree on the struggle against child neglect' with this one in mind (Konstantinov et al (1954), 5). The commissions are sometimes cited similarly (for example, Potemkin (1942b), 12).

232. Danev (1948), 305-6. 233. Ibid., 306. These two facilities appear to be conflated by Likhomanov et

al (1985), 52, but Chernik (1984), 85, refers to them separately. 234. Sinitsin (1969), 21-2. 235. Potemkin (1942b), 12. 236. Based on Sinitsin (1969), 28. 237. UG, 23 February 1944. 238. Alpatov (1943), 55; Sinitsin (1969), 28. 239. Ibid. Fedotov (1985), 38, cites a total of about 250 000. 240. For example, Snow (1945), 127. 241. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 93-4. A similarly inactive commission was re

ported from Alma-Ata {UG, 19 April 1944). 242. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208. Variants occur for individual

years. In particular, end-year totals of 0.37m and 0.4m children in 1942 and 1943 can hardly be reconciled with Sinitsin (1969), 23, where a mid-1943 figure of 0.69m appears.


243. Chernik (1984), 88; Fedotov (1985), 37; Likhomanov et al. (1985), 53; Main (1985), 94.

244. Sinitsin (1969), 28. 245. Chernik (1984), 87. 246. Calculated from Sinitsin (1969), 29, and NKhSSSR... 1941-1945 gg.

(1990), 208. 247. UG, 19 July 1944, refuting the assertion by Tschernik [Chernik] (1977),

130, that most Russian homes acquired workshops in the year following the May decree. Was Chernik's writing further sanitised for his GDR readership?

248. UG, 11 December 1943. 249. UG, 8 May 1944. 250. Verzilin (1943), 54. The practical study of Makarenko was also reported,

from a former Moscow special-regimen children's home evacuated to Chelyabinsk Region, by someone bearing the surname of a former pupil and friend of the great educator (Kalabalina (1943), 56).

251. UG, 11 December 1943. 252. Verzilin (1943), 51. 253. Potemkin (1943), 2. 254. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 9; Konstantinov (1948), 53. 255. Chernik (1984), 80; percentage derived from NKhSSSR.. . 1941-1945

gg. (1990), 208. 256. Afanas'ev (1957), 3, 6, 10-11. See also Gushchin and Popova (1984),

94, 97-8. 257. Danev (1948), 34. 258. UG, 20 October 1943; Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 7; Sviridov

(1977), 128. 259. UG, 31 July 1943. 260. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 9; Chernik (1984), 81. 261. Rives (1941), 27-34. 262. For example, UG, 15 September and 8 December 1943. 263. Potemkin (1942b), 11, 13. 264. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 12; UG, 20 October 1943. 265. Danev (1948), 246. 266. Ibid, 34-5. 267. UG, 15 September 1943. 268. UG, 20 October 1943. 269. Nekrasov (1943), 35.

CHAPTER 7

1. Summarised in Hooper (1971), 281-98. 2. Mel'nikov (1943), 53-4. 3. Ibid, 54; UG, 1 August 1943. 4. Gel'mont (1943), 62; Mel'nikov (1943), 53. 5. UG, 1 August 1943. 6. M. Skatkin (1942), 53. 7. M. Skatkin (1942), 53; Mel'nikov (1943), 54.


8. Ibid. 9. M. Skatkin (1942), 53.

10. Ketkovich (1942), 32-3. 11. Documented in Dunstan (1978), whence the allusion to 'egalitarians' and

'differentiators' below. 12. Mel'nikov (1943), 54. 13. Matrosova (1976), 46-7. This was for two periods a week, with a fort

night's production practice at the end of the school year (Ocherki istorii shkoly. .. (1988), 31).

14. Mel'nikov (1943), 53. 15. Khitaryan (1975), 21-2. 16. Gel'mont (1943), 62; Mel'nikov (1943), 53. 17. Izvestiya, 20 February 1942. 18. Chernik (1984), 108. 19. M. Skatkin (1943), 46-7. 20. Ketkovich (1942), 35. 21. UG, 1 August 1943. 22. Based here on Ashby (1947), 48, this in fact resembles the 1940/41 cur

riculum more closely in its detail than the one proposed by the Council in 1942 (L. Skatkin (1942), 34), though the 1942 and 1943 total periods per subject are similar.

23. Shifrin (1942), 41; 'Vospitanie detei.. .' (1942), 8; Chernik (1984), 141-2; Kolychev (1985), 122.

24. Medynsky (1942), 32. 25. Shifrin (1942), 41-2. 26. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 16. 27. 'Prepodavanie pedagogiki . . .' (1941), 37. 28. Though a comment in UG, 12 January 1944 implies that this was not

universal practice. 29. For example, GARF, 2306/70/2781, 15. 30. PRO, FOl 81/966/13, citing KP, 24 and 25 March 1942. 31. UG, 29 October 1942; translation in PRO, F0371/36947/N2258. 32. Chernik (1984), 143. 33. UG, 29 October 1942; M. Skatkin (1943), 46. 34. UG, 29 October 1942; Chernik (1984), 143. 35. UG, 29 October 1942; Kolychev (1985), 125. 36. Details in UG, 14 April 1943. 37. PRO, F0371/36948/N2314; Crown copyright reserved. 38. UG, 1 August 1944. 39. Arbuzov (1942), 4; 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 8-9. 40. UG, 12 January 1944. 41. KP, 1 March 1944; PRO, FO371/43316/N5012. In a somewhat para

doxical report the Ambassador rates school military instruction as 'increasingly efficient', despite the evidence adduced.

42. Shcherbinin (1980), 197;# though referring to Eastern Siberia, this is probably typical.

43. UG, 29 October 1942. 44. Pravda, 12 February 1943. 45. UG, 29 October 1942.


46. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 8. 47. UG, 25 August 1943. 48. UG, 3 November 1943. 49. UG, 12 July 1944. 50. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 15. 51. UG, 12 July and 2 August 1944; Potemkin (1944), 2. 52. Pravda, 1A March 1942. 53. UG, 1 April 1943. 54. RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/1145, 108. 55. UG, 12 January 1944. 56. Potemkin (1944), 2. 57. RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/1145, 108; UG, 19 April 1944. 58. UG, 5 June 1943. 59. Winterton (1945), 110. 60. UG, 12 July 1944. 61. RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/1145, 109. 62. 'Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 8; UG, 12 January 1944. 63. See various comments in Kairov (1943b), 23; UG, 16 December 1943. 64. UG, 12 January 1944. 65. Potemkin (1944), 2. 66. RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/1145, 108. 67. Pravda, 12 February 1943. 68. UG, 1 April 1943. 69. Potemkin (1944), 2 (derived). 70. Myslitsky (1943). 71. UG, 1 April 1943. 72. Koronovsky (1943); Myslitsky (1943). 73. UG, 12 January 1944 (3 references). 74. UG, 29 September 1943. 75. UG, 10 January 1945. 76. UG, 11 November 1941; Potemkin (1942a), 5. 77. KP, 1 March 1944; PRO, FO371/43316/N5012. 78. Arbuzov (1942), 5. 79. KP, 1 March 1944. 80. Vospitanie detei . . .' (1942), 9; UG, 12 January 1944. 81. UG, 10 January 1945. 82. UG, 12 January 1944. 83. Potemkin (1942a), 5. 84. UG, 29 October 1942. With effect from 1 August 1943 voenruks at seven-

year and secondary schools were to receive the same salaries as deputy heads. The rates were on a two-point scale linked to military rank, but also varied by school size and location (Danev (1948), 180, 183-4).

85. UG, 29 September 1943. 86. UG, 12 July 1944. 87. Original syllabuses are used in this section, but appendices in Ashby

(1947) contain translations of four secondary school syllabuses for 1944: biology, from class V, in full (217-41), and, in outline, mathematics from class V (241-3), chemistry (243-4) and physics (244-5).

88. Programmy. . . Matematika (1943), 2.


89. For example, Vladimirsky (1942), 57. 90. Dorf (1942), 35, 37-8. 91. Ibid, 34. 92. Reznikov (1942), 19. 93. Programmy... Fizika. . . (1943), 16-17. 94. Programmy.. . Khimiya (1943), 9-10, 13-15; (1945). 95. Programmy.. . Biologiya (1939), 14-15, 17; (1943), 4, 14-15. 96. Shamakhov and Trofimov (1975), 13. 97. Ibid.; Vladimirsky (1942), 57; Programmy. . . Geografiya (1944), 6-7,

14-15. 98. UG, 31 March 1943 and 15 March 1944. 99. Vladimirsky (1942), 57.

100. Chistyakov (1943), 8, 10. 101. Korenevsky (1943), 18. 102. Chaplina (1942), 91. 103. Programmy. . . Inostrannye yazyki (1943), 5-6, 8-10. 104. Wettlin (n.d. [c.1945]), 41. 105. Chaplina (1942), 91; Raskin (1965a), 24. 106. Raskin (1942), 25 ('Drop your weapons! Hands up!'). 107. Medynsky (1942), 21. 108. PRO, FO371/37057/N6749. 109. Programmy. . . Biologiya (1939), 5; ibid. (1943), 4. 110. Programmy.. . Biologiya (1939), 10, 12-13, 16-17, 22-3; ibid. (1943). 111. Programmy. . . Fizika (1939), 12, 21-2; ibid. (1943). 112. Programmy.. . Khimiya (1943), 4; ibid. (1945). 113. PRO, F0371/43315/N4004. 114. A detailed comparison of wartime and postwar attitudes is presented by

Gallagher (1963), here especially 22-31, 45-6. 115. Revenko and Kostyukevich (1942), 51. 116. Shostakovich (1942), 26. 117. Werth (1946), 63. 118. Korenevsky (1943), 20. 119. PRO, FO371/43316/N5012. 120. Kartsov (1945), 24, 26-7. 121. Programmy . . . Konstitutsiya (1945), 3-5. 122. Ibid, 3, 14-15. 123. Ibid, 12. 124. Gallagher (1963), 35, 39. 125. Pravda, 17 August 1942. 126. Medynsky (1942), 22-3. 127. Potemkin (1943), 7. 128. Programmy. . . Istoriya (1944), 3. 129. PRO, F0371/36949/N3268. 130. Programmy. . . Istoriya (1944), 2-3. 131. Kartsov (1945), 22. 132. Programmy. . . Istoriya (1944), 13. 133. Ibid 134. Pankratova (1942), 147-50; Programma nachaVnoi shkoly (1945), 34;

Kolychev (1985), 118.


135. PRO, FOl81/964/4. 136. Potemkin (1943), 8. 137. Helmert (1982), 15-16. 138. UG, 14 August 1944. The complaint here is actually about dullness; in

the context there is no ambiguity. Shestakov's efforts to be lively appear to have been vitiated by his penchant for long lists of events.

139. Programmy... Konstitutsiya (1945), 3-5, 12, 14-15. 140. Programmy. . . Literatura (1939), 4. 141. Programmy. . . Literatura (1944), 4. 142. Gritsenko (1960), 63. 143. Programmy. . . Literatura (1939), 20-59; (1944), 17-39. 144. Korenevsky (1943), 18, 21-2. 145. Raskin (1965a), 28. 146. Programmy... Risovanie (1943), 3, 11, 13-14. 147. Lutokhina (1943), 13-14. 148. Quoted in Aleksandrova (1984), 39. 149. Smith (1990), 6-7; Duncan (1990), 97. 150. PRO, FO371/43310/N351. 151. Minin (1942), 51. 152. UG, 10 January 1945. 153. UG, 4 October 1944 and 23 February 1945. 154. UG, 6 and 29 October 1943. 155. UG, 17 August 1944. 156. UG, 24 November 1943 (2 items). 157. UG, 29 October 1943. 158. Gallagher (1963), 3-4. 159. Ibid, 14. 160. Ibid, 12-13, 19-20. 161. Pankratova (1942), 152. 162. Programmy . . . Konstitutsiya (1945), 4. 163. Kartsov (1945), 23-4. 164. Pankratova (1942), 151. Stalin had become Supreme Commander on 8

August 1941. 165. Programmy. . . Inostrannye yazyki (1943), 4; (1945), 5. 166. Kartsov (1945), 23, 26. 167. Programmy... Konstitutsiya (1945), 14-15. 168. Kartsov (1945), 22-4. 169. Korenevsky (1943), 19. 170. Gallagher (1963), 57-8.

CHAPTER 8

1. Ehrenburg (1943), 213. 2. Neave (1992), 85. 3. Gerchikova (1941), 54. 4. Kolychev (1985), 110. 5. Ibid. 6. Polzikova (1943), 52.


1. Pravda, 24 March 1942; 'Vospitanie detei . . . ' (1942), 12; Kolychev (1985), 117.

8. Rives (1941), 29. 9. Ibid.

10. Chaplina (1942), 91. 11. Werth (1964), 271. 12. PRO, F0371/29495/N7181 (and 29486/N3461); Barber and Harrison (1991),

29, 70. 13. Karol (1986), 146. 14. Hindus (1943), 160-1. See the whole chapter. 15. Romanovskaya (1942). 16. Ludwig (1976), 189. 17. The Times, 19 October 1942. 18. Levitov and Rybnikov (1942), 112. 19. Karol (1986), 376. 20. PRO, F0371/36952/N6777. 21. GARF, 2306/70/2753, 34-5. 22. Kassil (1942), 27. 23. Yakovlev (1942); Kornilov (1942). 24. KP, 19 November 1942. 25. Pravda, 15 December 1942; PRO, F0181/964/4: Raskin (1965a), 32. 26. See comments by the Ukrainian Komsomol secretary for schools in UG,

1 August 1944. The Leningrad obkom also criticised the under-involve-ment of the Komsomol in pupils' military training, but this seems to have been directed at its district-level subordinates (RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/ 1145, 108-9).

27. Boldyrev (1943); PRO, F0371/36952/N6777. 28. Kairov (1943b), 21-2. 29. Ibid., 23; Esipov (1943a), 18; Rives (1943), 7. 30. UG, 25 August 1943. 31. 'Pravila. . .' (1943). 32. Kairov (1943b), 24. 33. Potemkin, cited in PRO, F0371/36952/N6777; Yarkina (1965), 114. 34. KP, 26 February 1944. 35. Kairov (1943b), 22. 36. Rives (1943), 8. 37. Ibid, 8-9; UG, 25 August 1943. 38. Moskovskii boVshevik, 1 March 1944; criticised in UG, 15 March 1944,

and cited in PRO, F0371/43315/N3407. 39. Kairov (1943b), 25. 40. KP, 26 February 1944. 41. UG, 11 September and 3 November 1943. 42. Ibid.; Esipov (1943b), 23-4; Moskovskii boVshevik, 1 March 1944;

Potemkin (1944), 3. 43. UG, 11 March 1944; Chernik (1984), 175-6. Esipov (1943a), 19, how

ever, mentions regulations on rewards and punishments published in January 1941.

44. Dunstan (1992), 41. 45. Werth (1964), 762.


46. Sinitsyn (1969), 25. 47. PRO, F0371/43371/N612, N951, N1025, N2069; F0371/43314/N2122

refers to press evidence. See also Smith (1989), 213-15, 217-19, 235. 48. UG, 3 November 1943; PRO, F0371/32924/N6354; Martel (1947), 118,

121. 49. GARF, 2306/70/2759, 122. 50. Maksakova (1977), 300, after Chernik (1975). 51. For detailed, positive reports see UG, 11 September 1943; Akhmetova

(1983). 52. UG, 3 January 1940; Zimin (1944), 43. 53. Danev (1948), 100; UG, 26 January 1944; RTsKhlDNI, 17/44/863, 85

(Leningrad Region); Zimin (1944). 54. Danev (1948), 100. 55. Shcherbinin (1980), 204. 56. Potemkin (1944), 4. 57. Chernik (1984), 130. 58. UG, 8 March 1944; emphasis original. 59. Danev (1948), 98. 60. UG, 1 March 1944. The Soviet school year was divided into four 'quar

ters', each of about two months. 61. UG, 8 March 1944. 62. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 163, 171. There were no tests for

the first two (from 1944, three) school years; for these young children promotion depended on the teacher's report alone.

63. Ibid., 182, supplemented by UG, 5 July 1944. For much detail on examinations shortly before and soon after the war, see Beatrice King's two books: (1937), 123-8, and (1948), 40-5.

64. Bolobonov (1973), 62. 65. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 26. 66. Bolobonov (1973), 71. 67. Chernik (1984), 178. Gerchikova (1941), 56-8, provides lists of topics

and suggestions about resources. 68. Bolobonov (1973), 66-7. 69. Ibid, 73-4; Shcherbinin (1980), 197. 70. Shifrin (1942), 47. 71. UG, 12 January 1944. 72. UG, 13 October 1943. 73. UG, 12 July 1944. 74. UG, 1 May 1943. 75. Sobranie postanovlenii. . . (1941), 504-5. 76. UG, 1 October 1941; N.S. (1941). 77. Chernik (1984), 223. 78. Fadeyev ([1945]), 46. 79. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 16. 80. RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/1145, 108. 81. Danev (1948), 243 (RSFSR). 82. UG, 19 May 1943. 83. Lukin (1942), 5. 84. UG, 23 June 1943.


85. Raskin (1965a), 27. 86. For a few more details, see Pletnev (1965), 22. 87. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 23. 88. Nechaev (1943), 25-6; Ocherki istorii shkoly. . . (1988), 31. 89. Potemkin (1942a), 5, and (1942b), 14. 90. Matrosova (1976), 47. 91. L. Skatkin (1942), 33. 92. Khitaryan (1985), 12; Ocherki istorii shkoly. . . (1988), 31. 93. Unfortunately there is danger of confusion here: the English 'brigade' is

conventionally used to translate both druzhina (school-size Pioneer unit) and brigada (work team - also political campaigning team).

94. Nechaev (1943), 29. 95. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 24. 96. Mel'nikov (1941), 62-3. 97. Lukin (1942), 5. 98. Nechaev (1943), 28, 30. 99. Ibid, 29, derived.

100. Konstantinov (1948), 54. A pood is 16.38 kg. 101. Barber and Harrison (1991), 217. 102. Kumanev (1976), 206: Kolychev (1985), 142. 103. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 206-7, 209. The 2m figure is based on

our estimate of primary pupils aged 12-14 (rural) and 14 (urban), thus including kolkhoz children. The technicum total, moreover, includes part-timers.

104. 3 505 348 'over the summer period', with 60.5 per cent of these from classes VI-X (Nechaev (1943), 27, 29 and derived); 3 567 000 'in agricultural artels' (Maksakova (1977), 218); 3 970 866 (Chernik (1984), 208). This compares with 2.5m in summer 1941 (Arbuzov (1942), 5).

105. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208 and derived. 106. Snow (1945), 126-7. 107. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208. 108. Chernik (1984), 211. 109. Bolobonov (1973), 72-3. 110. Ibid., 73; Belyaeva and Rossinsky (1980), 6. 111. Zaretsky (1944), 49-50; Khitaryan (1975), 22. The statute is variously

dated 8 May and 5 December. 112. Zaretsky (1944), 50; Belyaeva and Rossinsky (1980), 7. 113. Zaretsky (1944), 50-2. 114. This list, culled from many sources, is not exhaustive. 115. Khitaryan (1975), 25; Eryzhensky (1978), 94. 116. Zaretsky (1944), 51, 53. 117. UG, 30 June 1943. 118. Sagaidachny (1963), 208-48 passim; Chernik (1984), 215-17. 119. Ibid, 220-1. 120. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 26; Bolobonov (1973), 65, 72. 121. Raskin (1965a), 30; Lyubova (1969), 18. 122. Kozlovsky (1975), 9. 123. Gaidar (n.d.). 124. Kolychev (1985), 142. 125. KP, 11 July 1941.


126. Maksakova (1977), 218. Year not stated. In 1943/44, for example, there were 12.5m pupils in RSFSR general schools (NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208), but this includes children above and below the Pioneer age-range. Our very approximate calculation for the USSR (based on ibid., 206) suggests that nearly two-thirds of schoolchildren were of Pioneer age, and so almost automatically Pioneer members. Applied to the RSFSR, this would mean that about one Pioneer in four was a Timurite. Should Maksakova's figure be cumulative over several years, this of course becomes much less impressive.

127. GARF, 2306/70/2781, 28-9; Mekhti-Zade (1962), 199; Chernik (1984), 229-30; Kolychev (1985), 143.

128. Raskin (1965a), 30; idem (1965b), 20. 129. Vavilov (1988), 79. See also Snow (1945), 127. 130. Kozlovsky (1975), 7 - respectively 7.8m and 30 300. He does not specify

that this was by children alone, but such is the context. 131. Chernik (1984), 222, 226-7. 132. UG, 18 April 1945. 133. Chernik (1984), 214. 134. Ibid, 111; Lyubova (1969), 15. 135. Werth (1964), 352. 136. Sagaidachny (1963), 209, 249; Kumanev (1976), 206. 137. On the influence of N. Ostrovsky's 1935 novel Kak zakalilas' staV (How

Steel was Tempered) see Izvestiya, 18 January 1942. 138. Raskin (1942), 21. 139. Kamenetsky (1984), 83. 140. Ibid, 86, 91. 141. Lyubova (1969), 17. 142. Salisbury (1969), 415. 143. Inber (1971), 167. 144. Lyubova (1969), 17. 145. Werth (1964), 350; Raskin (1965a), 27, 29-30. 146. Polzikova (1943), 51. 147. Raskin (1965b), 14. See also Fadeyev ([1945]), 46. 148. Turovsky ([1943]), 52-4. 149. Ocherki istorii shkoly. . . (1988), 21. 150. Gritsenko (1960), 37-8; Ovchinnikova (1984). 151. Kupriyanov (1972), 228-9. 152. Werth (1946), 63; song re-translated. 153. Malaparte (1957), 179-80. This also confirms the impressions of the 1940

War Office mission (see Chapter 4). 154. KP, 1 March 1944. 155. GARF, 2306/70/2753, 203. 156. Ibid, 201-2.

CHAPTER 9

1. Chernik (1979), 208. 2. Potemkin (1943), 6.


3. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 177. 4. Ibid, 177-8. 5. Danev (1948), 53-6. 6. Solokhin (1943), 110; and later Timofeev (1945), 9. 7. UG, 3 November 1943. 8. UG, 11 August 1943; Solokhin (1943), 111. 9. UG, 11 September 1943.

10. UG, 8 September 1943. 11. Izvestiya, 10 August 1943. 12. Potemkin (1943), 6; Solokhin (1943), 112. 13. Azbukin (1944), 25. No gender-related differences were evident in the

latest wartime syllabus we have seen, but that was for 1943. 14. Protopopova (1943), 120-1. 15. Barber and Harrison (1991), 63-73. 16. Smith (1989), 220-1. 17. UG, 11 August 1943. 18. Protopopova (1943), 123, 125-6. 19. PRO, FO371/36950/N5005; Crown copyright reserved. 20. UG, 29 September 1943. Boys were the main problem also in 1945

(Timofeev (1945), 11-13). 21. UG, 3 November 1943. 22. UG, 16 February and 7 June 1944. 23. UG, 16 February 1944. 24. Stevens (1945), 88, cited in Smith (1989), 220-1. 25. PRO, F0371/36952/N6748 and FO371/37057/N6683. 26. UG, 25 August and 3 September 1943 and 7 June 1944. 27. UG, 8 December 1943. 28. UG, 8 September 1943; see also 15 September 1943 (Kazan'). 29. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 18, 19, 21. 30. GARF, 2306/70/2753, 234. 31. UG, 16 February and 31 May 1944. 32. UG, 11 August 1943. 33. Potemkin (1944), 2; Chernik (1979), 207. 34. UG, 31 May and 7 June 1944. 35. For example, UG, 4 and 16 February 1944. 36. Timofeev (1945), 11, 13; see also UG, 11 March 1944. 37. Timofeev (1945), 10, 13. 38. UG, 1 June 1944; Potemkin (1944), 2. 39. PRO, FO371/43371/N2070. 40. Mel'nikov (1943), 54. 41. UG, 1 August 1943. 42. PRO, FO371/43310/N472. 43. Danev (1948), 28. 44. Ivanova (1972), 173. 45. UG, 30 August 1944. 46. Adrianova and Lyubimova (1945), 48. 47. UG, 26 July 1944. 48. UG, 30 August 1944. 49. UG, 29 March 1944.


50. UG, 1 May 1945; Potemkin (1945a), 2. 51. Main (1985), 97. 52. De Witt (1961), 54. 53. Potemkin (1945a), 2. 54. Uhlig (1985), 123. 55. Figures from Barber and Harrison (1991), 216-17. The respective total

female participation was 4.8m (1945 annual average) and 17.5m (1 January 1945).

56. SIM (1944), no. 1, 2-3. 57. Ibid, 4. 58. Ibid., 4-5, where they are named. 59. Potemkin (1945b), 7. 60. SIM (1945), no. 4, 14. 61. The author was informed by Mr S.G. Stepanov, archivist at the Russian

Academy of Education, in 1992 that these materials had not been preserved.

62. SIM (1944), no. 1, 11. 63. Ibid, 15-17, 21. 64. SIM (1945), no. 2, 7. 65. 'Plan nauchno-issledovatel'skikh rabot . . .' (1945). This is also useful

as a detailed survey of the Academy's structure and staffing. 66. Potemkin (1945c), 4. 67. Kairov (1943a), 55, 57-8. 68. UG, 19 July 1944. 69. For a contrary outcome in 1937, see Holmes (1993), especially 195-8. 70. Kumanev (1965), 12; Sovetskii tyl. . . (1989), 313. This and the follow

ing percentages are derived from Table 4.1. 71. Yarushina (1986), 146n., comments that summation of the data from

individual republics yields a figure of about 50 000. 72. Gritsenko (1960), 51. 73. Kumanev (1965), 12. Another source (Umreiko et al (1980), 77) cites

6177 destroyed and 2648 damaged. 74. Yarushina (1986), 138. 75. Kondakova (1976), 214; Fedotov (1985), 30. 76. Cp. the two previous references; also Yarkina (1965), 110-11. 77. Ibid., 110; Lukin (1942), 4 (signed for the printer on 28 July); Fedotov

(1985), 30. 78. Danev (1948), 241. 79. UG, 26 May 1944. 80. UG, 14 June 1944. 81. Deduced from ibid, and UG, 25 October 1944. 82. PRO, F0371/43372/N6998. 83. UG, 1 January 1945. 84. Eryzhensky (1978), 92. 85. Chernik (1984), 107. 86. UG, 13 December 1944. 87. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 92. 88. Deduced from Lukin (1942), 4, 6. 89. UG, 17 August 1944.


90. UG, 29 March 1944. 91. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 207-8; percentage derived. 92. Deduced from Kondakova (1976), 218, q.v. for other examples. 93. Marples (1992), 61, 101, 164. 94. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 207-8; percentages derived. Con

temporary reports tend to quote other figures, mostly lower. 95. Kondakova (1976), 217. 96. Gritsenko (1960), 56. 97. Khrushchev (1944), 30. 98. UG, 1 December 1943, 30 August and 29 November 1944. 99. Yarushina (1986), 141.

100. UG, 30 August 1944 and 10 January 1945. 101. Misiunas and Taagepera (1983), 110. 102. UG, 26 May 1944. There was, however, no immediate prospect of re

placing or even updating textbooks to accommodate syllabus changes (Ocherki istorii shkoly. . . (1988), 25).

103. UG, 15 May 1944; Gritsenko (1960), 58; Eryzhensky (1978), 93; Umreiko et al (1980), 105.

104. UG, 26 May 1944. 105. NKhSSSR. . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 207. 106. Chernik (1984), 48. 107. Rosen (1964), 156, 163 n.6. 108. Brickman (1961), 45. 109. UG, 1 August 1943; Chernik (1984), 46. 110. UG, 25 October 1944. 111. Chernik (1984), 47-8. At the end of 1944, Western Ukraine had under

25 per cent of its prewar teacher contingents (Yarushina (1992), 292). 112. UG, 17 January 1945. 113. UG, 23 February 1945. 114. UG, 9 August and 6 December 1944, 28 February and 14 March 1945

(reports from Ukraine and various parts of RSFSR). 115. UG, 6 December 1944 (letter). 116. UG, 28 February 1945; Sadyev (1975), 148. 117. UG, 23 February 1945. 118. UG, 1 August 1943, 12 April and 7 June 1944. Contemporary reports of

such promotion are uniformly critical, unlike Ivanova (1972), 170. 119. Oras (1948), 303. 120. UG, 31 May 1944. 121. Ibid.; UG, 23 February and 14 March 1945; Chernik (1984), 38. 122. RTsKhlDNI, 17/43/1145, 132; UG passim. 123. Sadyev (1975), 148-9. 124. UG, 5, 12 and 26 April, 31 May and 9 August 1944, and 23 February

1945. 125. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (1974), 436-7. 126. UG, 29 November and 13 December 1944; Sadyev (1975), 149-50; Fedotov

(1985), 109. 127. Chernik (1984), 47. 128. UG, 1 August 1943. 129. UG, 8 and 26 May 1944; Fedotov (1985), 109. According to the order


of 29 April, the number for re-evacuation included other education workers. Other sources give slightly higher figures.

130. Taldin (1956), 93. 131. Calculated from UG, 30 August 1944. 132. UG, 13 February 1945. Belorussia had been liberated in July. 133. UG, 1 June 1944. 134. Danev (1948), 167. 135. UG, 31 May 1944. Variants are found. 136. UG, 1 August 1943. 137. UG, 9 August 1944. 138. UG, 23 February 1945. 139. Mekhti-Zade (1962), 209; Chernik (1984), 50. 140. Sovetskii tyl. . . (1989), 316-17. 141. UG, 31 January 1945. Rather unnecessarily, the Ukrainian Commissar

for Education was shortly to deny this to a British visitor (PRO, F0371/ 47924/N12531).

142. GARF, 2306/70/2996, 53, 61, 64. 143. UG, 15 November 1944, 24 and 31 January 1945. 144. PRO, FO371/43341/N5018. These reports refer mainly to Russia. 145. Fedotov (1985), 107. In 1992 I was unsuccessful in attempting to obtain

access to party archives on the question of teacher collaboration. The whole matter awaits elucidation.

146. UG, 11 March, 5 April and 25 October 1944. 147. UG, 8 May 1944. 148. UG, 11 March 1944. There were 62 forms, and some contained as many

questions. 149. UG, 5 April 1944. 150. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 94. 151. Potemkin (1944), 5. 152. Danev (1948), 96-7. 153. Potemkin (1944), 5; Chernik (1984), 157. 154. UG, 11 March 1944; see also 26 July 1944. 155. UG, 5 July 1944. 156. NKhSSSR . . . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 206-8; percentages derived. All figures

are for the start of the school year. 157. UG, 14 March 1945. 158. UG, 23 February 1945. 159. UG, 25 October 1944. 160. Yarkina (1965), 110. 161. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 98. The 1941/42 references are: 2306/70/2753,

167; 2306/70/2781, 3. For a detailed commentary on such reasons, see Chapter 6.

162. GARF, 2306/70/2933, 49-50. 163. Ibid, 48. 164. UG, 28 February 1945. 165. GARF, 2306/70/2996, 9. 166. UG, 5 April 1944. 167. Sviridov (1977), 128. 168. UG, 13 December 1944.


169. PRO, F0371/43378/N6424; Crown copyright reserved. 170. UG, 30 August 1944; Chernik (1984), 115-16. 171. Fedotov (1985), 113. 172. UG, 30 August 1944. 173. UG, 31 May 1944. 174. UG, 28 February 1945. 175. GARF, 2306/70/2996, 12. 176. Fedotov (1985), 123. 177. Yarushina (1992), 292. 178. UG, 25 August and 3 September 1943; PRO, FO371/37052/N4819 and

N5523. 179. UG, 3 September 1943. 180. NKhSSSR.. . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208. 181. UG, 8 May 1944; Sinitsin (1969), 26. 182. Khrushchev (1944), 30; Chernik (1975), 38. 183. NKhSSSR.. . 1941-1945 gg. (1990), 208. In 1944 over 230 children's

homes were maintained by collective farms (Yarushina (1992), 311). 184. Khrushchev (1944), 30. 185. Sinitsin (1969), 25. 186. UG, 19 July 1944. 187. Stolee (1988), 78. She also refers to certain groups becoming homeless

in the aftermath of the war. 188. Sinitsin (1969), 22, 29; Likhomanov et al (1985), 54. 189. UG, 10 May 1945.

CHAPTER 10

1. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' . . . 1937 g. (1991), 100-1, derived. 2. Kul'turnoe stroiteVstvo SSSR (1956), 198.

Bibliography

Only sources cited in the text, notes and references are included.

ARCHIVES

For key to abbreviations, see head of Notes and References above.

BA (Koblenz and Potsdam): Bestand R6 - Reichsministerium fur die besetzten Ostgebiete (also 11.01)

R92 - Generalkommissar in Riga (Note: in 1995 Bestand R records were gradually being transferred from Koblenz to Potsdam.)

49.01 - Reichsministerium fiir Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung

GARF (Moscow): Fond 2306, opis' 70 - Narodnyi komissariat prosveshcheniya RSFSR.

Upravlenie nachal'nykh i srednikh shkol

Imperial War Museum (London): Giffard Martel Collection

Institut fur Weltwirtschaft (Kiel): Wirtschaftsarchiv (press cuttings)

PRO (London): Class F0181 - Embassy and Consular Correspondence

F0371 - Embassy Reports

RTsKhlDNI (Moscow): Fond 17, opisi 43 and 44 - Leningradskii obkom VKP(b)

Wiener Library (London): Press Archives

NEWSPAPERS

Cina Darbo Lietuva Deutsche Ukraine-Zeitung Izvestiya Komsomol'skaya pravda Moskovskii boVshevik Ostsee-Zeitung Postimees Pravda

236

Bibliography 131

Rahva Haal The Times Trud Uchitel 'skaya gazeta

BOOKS, ARTICLES AND OTHER WRITINGS

A. In Russian

Abbreviations used in this section

NS Nachal'naya shkola SP Sovetskaya pedagogika

ADRIANOVA, ME. and LYUBIMOVA, ED. , Vospitanie i obuchenie semiletok', NS (1945), no. 1, 45-8.

AFANAS'EV, V.F., ShkoVnye intematy Yakutii (Yakutsk, 1957). AKHMETOVA, G.K., 'Sotsialisticheskoe sorevnovanie shkol'nikov v gody

Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny', Shkola i proizvodstvo (1983), no. 5, 11-12. ALEKSANDROVA, I., 'Ukryla ot bedy shinel'yu', in Deti voennoi pory (Mos

cow, 1984), 36-42. ALPATOV, N.I., 'Detskie doma Uzbekistana v period Velikoi Otechestvennoi

voiny', SP (1943), no. 8/9, 54-5. ARBUZOV, M.F., 'Zadachi shkoly v predstoyashchem uehebnom godu', SP

(1942), no. 8/9, 1-5. AZBUKIN, D.I., 'Fizicheskoe vospitanie detei i podrostkov', SP (1944), no.

7, 16-26. Belorusskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika (Minsk, 1978). BELYAEVA, A.I. and ROSSINSKY, Yu.G., Trudovaya pomoshch' shkol'nikov

v gody voiny', Shkola i proizvodstvo (1980), no. 5, 6-8. BOLDYREV, N.I., 'Voennoe vospitanie i shkola', SP (1943), no. 2/3, 10-20. BOLOBONOV, V.L., 'Voenno-patrioticheskaya napravlennost' vneklassnoi

raboty s uchashchimisya v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny', in Iz istorii sovetskoi shkoly i pedagogiki (Kalinin, 1973), 62-78.

Bol'shaya sovetskaya entsiklopediya, 3rd edn. (Moscow, 1970-78). BRYSYAKIN, S.K., 'Obshcheobrazovatel'naya shkola v okkupirovannoi

Bessarabii (1918-1940 gg.Y, in Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo v sovetskoi Moldavii (Kishinev, 1974), 157-93.

CHAPLINA, E., 'Ob ispol'zovanii goticheskogo shrifta pri obuchenii nemetskomu yazyku v srednei shkole', SP 0942), no. 3/4, 90-3.

CHERNIK, S.A., Sovetskaya shkola v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny (Moscow, 1975).

CHERNIK, S.A., Sovetskaya obshcheobrazovateVnaya shkola v period Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny (1941-1945 gg.). (Problemnoe istoriko-pedagogicheskoe issledovanie) (Moscow, 1979). D.Ed, (doktor pedagogicheskikh nauk) thesis, APN SSSR.

CHERNIK, S.A., Sovetskaya obshcheobrazovateVnaya shkola v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny (Moscow, 1984).

238 Bibliography

CHISTYAKOV, V.M., 'Usvoenie pravopisaniya voennoi leksiki', NS (1943), no. 8/9, 8-10.

DANEV, A.M. (comp.), Narodnoe obrazovanie. Osnovnye postanovleniya, prikazy i instruktsii (Moscow, 1948).

DORF, P.Ya., 'Elementy voennogo dela na urokakh matematiki', SP (1942), no. 7, 34-42.

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Index

abilities and aptitudes, 8, 61, 113, 115 Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, xviii,

178-9 establishment of, 80, 178 functions of, 178-9 schools attached to, 179 structure of, 178 war-related research by, 178-9

accommodation, see schools, accommodation for

achievement, see pupils, performance of administration, see education authorities;

Soviets administrators, xvii, xviii, 61, 94, 95, 96-7 admissions, see enrolments adoption, 105, 107, 194 affective domain, xvii, 16, 67, 110, 127,

145, 156, 175, 202 explanation of, 113

age of completing school, 33, 114, 183 age of starting school, 10, 33, 44, 103,

114, 177, 183, 192, 198-200 lowering of, xvii-xviii, 79, 176-8,

183, 185, 196, 198, 202 wartime disruption of, 177, 192

agitation brigades, 163 agriculture and schooling, xvi, 61, 78,

116, 117, 127, 159-61, 167, 223(n.l3), 229(n.l04)

aims of education, xv-xvi, 8-9, 52, 113, 200-1

in wartime, xv, 78-9, 200-1 Akkerman Region, 47 Allies, Soviet attitudes to, 2, 4, 5,

133-5, 201-2 Alma-Ata, 54 Altai Territory, 83, 86, 188 anti-religious education, 42, 131-3, 201 Anweiler, O., 57 apprenticeships, 103 Arkhangel'sk, 153 Armenia, its school statistics, 49, 197 ARP, 157-9, 204 arts subjects (humanities), 115, 187 assessment of pupils, 15, 154-6,

207(n.29), 228(n.62) see also examinations; home

assignments

Astrakhan', 65, 66 Astrakhan' Region, 122, 199 astronomy (school subject), 59, 118,

132-3 atheism, 27 attached plots, 159 attainment, see pupils, performance of attendance

by boys and girls compared, 10 in general schools, xviii, 10, 51, 52,

53, 55, 69, 99-101, 103, 110, 111, 189, 192, 200

primary-age, 10, 13, 206(n.6) Azerbaidzhan

its school statistics, 49, 197 teachers in, 184, 186

Baltic Germans, resettlement of, 2, 35-6 Baltic republics (Soviet), 7, 37-43, 77,

84, 189 initial reorganisation of schooling in,

xvi, 37-8, 40-1 see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania

Baltic states (independent), xvi, 4, 5, 32-7

see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania Baranovichi, 29 Barnaul, 97 Bashkiria, 93, 99, 101, 104, 186 Baumann, U., 17 Belomorsk, 75 Belorussia, 21, 29, 30, 75, 76, 81, 94,

186, 192 destruction of schools in, 179, 180,

232(n.73) its school statistics, 48, 49, 181, 189,

196, 197 textbooks in, 181-2

Belorussia, Eastern, 20, 29, 209(n.80) Belorussia, Western, 3, 21-30, 84

its schooling: under Polish rule, xvi, 23, 24, 208(n.l0); under Soviet rule, xvi, 7, 24, 25-6, 27-30, 208(nn.28,31), 209(n.80)

its schools by nationality, 25 its teachers: under Polish rule, 23, 25;

under Soviet rule, 24, 25, 27, 28-30

249

250 Index

Belorussian language, 25 as school subject, 25, 30 as teaching medium, 23, 24, 25-6

Belostok (Biafystok), 29 besprizornost', see child vagrancy Bessarabia, 4-5, 43-7

literacy rate in, 21 its schooling under Romanian rule:

attendances, 44; attitudes to, 44; elementary, 43-5; enrolments in, 44-5, 213(n.l89); length of, 43-4; for national minorities, 44; quality of, xvi, 46; secondary, 44-5

its schooling under Soviet rule, see

under Moldavia; Ukraine Soviet annexation of, 6, 45

beznadzornost', see child neglect BGSO and BGTO programmes, 66,

157-8, 204 Biisk, 86 biology, see natural science birthrates, 51, 99, 177, 197 Black Sea, 4-5, 75. 76 boarding schools, see residential schools Boldyrev, Captain N.I., 150 books, see libraries; textbooks Borisov, Major-General A.I.. 122, 123,

126 Borzenko, Major S., 121, 125-6, 168 boys, education of, 10, 173-4

see also single-sex schooling Britain, foreign policy of, 2-3 Brysyakin, S.K., 21 Bubnov, AS., 13 Bukovina, northern, 4, 47

catacomb schools, 166-7 catchment areas, 103, 174 Caucasus, 76, 91 census data, educational

1911, 10 1937, 10 wartime, 103, 176

Central Education Workers Union, 98 Cesis (Wenden), 42 Chelyabinsk, 91, 174, 180 Chelyabinsk Region, 122. 188, 191,

222(n.250) chemistry (school subject), 59, 114, 115,

116, 118, 128, 129-30. 133, 175, 184

Chernik, S.A., xi. 78-9, 82. 161

Chernovtsy, 4 Chernovtsy Region, 5, 47 childcare, see welfare of children

by pupils, 62, 100, 151, 172, 200 child neglect, 68, 105-6, 107, 110, 173,

194, 221(n.231) child vagrancy, 67-8, 105, 106-7, 153,

164, 193-4. 235(n.l87) child welfare, see welfare of children:

children's homes children's homes, 56, 68, 105, 107,

108-9, 164, 193-4, 202 and children's health, 107, 194 and collective farms, 108, 235(n.l83) and evacuation, 81-4, 85 and jobs, 194 in liberated areas, 85, 193-4 mixed-age, 108, 193 and personnel, 108-9, 194 and schooling, 109, 216(n.38) special, 68, 193 statistics on, 68, 82-3, 85, 108, 193-4,

202, 221(n.242) and upbringing, 108-9 workshops in, 108, 194. 222(n.247)

children's hostels, see hostels for pupils children's placement commissions, 107.

108, 221(n.23l) 'children's rooms', 107 Chimkent, 53 Chita Region, 95, 96 Chkalov, 90, 180 Chkalov Region, 91. 122, 124, 158, 190 Church, Orthodox, 9, 92, 132, 201 Chuvash ASSR, 122, 199 Clark Kerr, Sir A., 173 classes (forms), see under schooling;

schools code of conduct, see Rules for Pupils coeducation, 9, 10, 153, 171

see also single-sex schooling cognitive domain, xvii, 42, 67, 110,

127-8, 156, 202 explanation of, 113

collection of plants and scrap, 164, 230(n.l30)

collective, 8-9, 16-17, 69, 108, 110, 148

collective farms, see kolkhoz Commissariat of Defence, 102 Commissariat of Health, 84, 193 Commissariat of Labour, 102 Commissariats of Education, see

Narkompros

Index 251

Commissars of Education, see Lacis, J. [Latvia]; Lekhtinen, I. [KFSSR]: Potemkin, V.P. [RSFSR]: Semper, J. [Estonia]; Uralova, E.I. [Belorussia]; Venclova, A. [Lithuania]

Communist Party, 16, 142-4, 146, 172, 202

its attitudes to schooling, 14-15, 30, 54, 61. 96-7, 186 "

of Belorussia, 30 child welfare measures by. 84 educational measures by, II, 14-15,

16, 111 of Estonia, 34. 38 of Kazakhstan, 53 see also obkoms

communist upbringing, 14, 16, 17-18, 28, 29, 42, 45

see also upbringing compulsory education, see schooling, for

all conscious discipline, xvii. 14. 15. 17.

42, 67, 106. 148. 150-2. 173, 2()7(n.38)

conscription, 100. 177. 190. 191, 200 law of September 1940, 5

Constitution (school subject). 26. 41, 59. 118, 132, 134-5, 138. 142. 143

Council on Teaching and Methods, 60, 114, 116. 117, 120

crime and delinquency, juvenile, 68, 90, 105-6, 153, 165, 176

Crimea, 74, 76, 85. 89, 166 Cripps, Sir S., 57 Cultural Revolution. 12-15 curriculum of general school, xvii, 12,

55, 58-67, 91-2, 96. 113-44, 159, 170

aims and objectives of. 8-9 change in content of. xvii, 59-60,

91-2, 113-44, 172-3, 201 controversy about, 61, 115-16 militarisation of, see militarisation of

subjects of 1927, 12 of 1935/36, 60 of 1940/41 (RSFSR), 58-60. 223(n.22) of 1941/42 (late start), 91-2 of 1943/44 (RSFSR), 117, 118.

223(n.22) urban-rural differences in, 60, 63 see also upbringing and individual

subjects

Dagestan ASSR, 141 Darwinism (part of natural science

course), 91-2, 132 Davydov, M., 143-4 decree on child placement, 106-7 decrees on education, major

5 September 1931, 14 25 August 1932, 15, 155 4 July 1936, 15-16 30 July 1942, 87-8 16 July 1943, 170 8 September 1943, 176 5 March 1944, 180 21 June 1944, 155-6 see also under foreign language:

military training defence work, xvi, 78. 89. 100, 158-9,

164-5 delinquency, see child vagrancy; crime democratisation of schooling, 9, 12 denunciation, 27-8, 168 deportations. 3, 25, 39-40, 43, 84, 192,

2ll(nn.l35,137,l38) Directorate of Cadres (Narkompros

RSFSR), 58 Directorate of Primary and Secondary

Schools, 58 directors, 90, 94, 95, 126, 148, 149,

151, 185, 202 and education authorities, 95, 154

discipline, xvi, xvii, 17. 45, 67, 69, 79, 91, 124, 150-1, 152-3, 166, 171, 173-4, 176, 192, 201, 202

see also conscious discipline; indiscipline: self-discipline

domestic science, 172 drawing (school subject), 55, 59, 91-2,

117-18, 140 dropout and early leaving, xvi, 52-3, 55.

97, 99-102, 103, 110, 115, 149, 177. 189-92, 200, 203

see also under higher educational institutions

dual schooling, 171, 174

early leaving, see dropout and early leaving

economics and business studies, 115-16 education

for all, see under schooling authorities, 54, 55. 65, 68-9, 90,

93-4. 95, 97-8, 104, 107, 110-11, 121, 140. 154, 171, 184, 187-8.

252 Index

education, authorities - continued 203; see also goronos; oblonos; raionos

efficiency of, 53, 54, 56, 57, 177, 185-6, 187-8, 203

importance of, 96-7 under Russian Empire, 8, 9-10, 11, 50 as school subject, see under pedagogy

educationists, 13-14, 16-18, 116, 176 Ehrenburg, I., 145, 147, 148 enrolments in general schools, xv, xviii,

10, 48-51, 53, 98-9, 101, 177, 181, 182, 183, 189, 194, 196-200, 203, 206(n.5)

policy and procedures, 12, 103, 176-7 environment, 16, 105, 201 equality and inequality, 57, 115, 171,

202 Estonia, 2, 3, 4, 32, 33-4, 35-6, 37-8,

39, 40, 43, 48, 74, 75, 94, 181, 185 destruction of schools in, 179 higher education in, 34, 38, 40 its literacy rates, 21-2 resettlement of Germans from, 2, 35 " its schooling during independence,

communist critique of, 34; length of, 33-4, 40; for national minorities, 34, 35; problems of, 33; and pupil attitudes, 35; quality of, xvi; structures of, 33

its schooling under Soviet rule: its curriculum, 37, 41; initial reorganisation of, 37, 40-1; its language and literature teaching, 37, 41; nationalism in, 43; proletarianisation of, 38; its statistics, 49, 181, 196, 197; its teachers, retraining of, 40; its textbooks, 38, 181

Soviet occupation of, 4, 37 its youth organisations during

independence: Estonian, 37; German, 35

evacuation, xvi-xvii, 80-5, 87, 89, 90, 94, 102, 105, 109, 110, 111-12, 148, 164, 192, 193-4, 200, 217(n.57)

statistics on, 80-1, 82-3, 216(n.l5) evacuees, reception of, 83-5 Evstigneeva, V.M., 82-3 examinations, 9, 89, 104, 155-6, 192,

203, 207(n.29) extracurricular and out-of-school

activities, xvii, 39, 54, 64, 89, 100,

154, 155, 156-65, 167, 175-6 in agriculture, 157, 159-61, 167,

229(nn.103,104) in athletics and sport, 157 in defence, 64, 71, 157-9, 164-5 in industry, 161-3, 167 in labour (unspecified), 116, 117 in school subjects, 157 in social work, 163-4

Fadeev, A., 144 failure, pupil, see pupils, performance family, xvii, 100, 102, 105-6, 107, H I ,

148, 156, 172-3, 177, 200-1 attitudes to, 28, 172, 175 see also parents

fees, see higher education, fees in; school fees

Fergana Region, 164 Finland, 2, 3, 31, 55, 75, 134, 167

Soviet territorial gains from, 3, 7, 31-2, 74, 76-7

five-year plans first, 13-14 third, 52, 56, 85 fourth, 187

foreign language (school subject), 33, 35, 37, 38, 59, 62-4, 118, 131, 140, 143, 175, 211(n.l29)

decree of 25 August 1932, 62-3 decree of 16 September 1940, 63-4 at primary stage, 63-4 shortage of teachers of, 55, 63, 184 teacher training in, 64

fostering, 105, 107, 194 freedom (in school context), 9 fuel, see schools, supplies for furcation, 61, 79, 115-16 furniture, see schools, supplies for FZO schools, see labour reserve schools FZS, 13, 14, 204 FZU, 56, 204

Gaidar, A., 163-4 Gallagher, M., 135, 142 Gattermann, K., 41-2 Gel'fand, V.S., 196 geography (school subject), 26, 30, 38,

41, 55, 59, 61, 114, 118, 129, 130, 133, 172, 207(n.29)

Georgia, 76 its school statistics, 49, 189, 197

German history, study of, 136-7 German language, study of, 63, 131, 146

Index 253

German literature, study of, 139 German minorities, 32, 34-7 German schools

in Estonia, 34, 35, 210(n.32) in Latvia, 34-5, 210(n.l02) in Lithuania, 36-7

Germans, attitudes to, see under pupils, attitudes of

German-Soviet pact (August 1939), 2, 3, 142

German-Soviet trade agreements. 3, 5 Germany, foreign policy of, 2-4, 5 girls, education of, 10

see also coeducation: and under labour reserve schools; military training in educational institutions; single-sex schooling

Gor'ky, 75, 122 Gor'ky Region, 95, 187, 188, 199 goronos, 54, 65, 68, 90. 95, 110, 152,

174, 204 grading, see marking Great Patriotic War, xii, 74-7, 131, 139.

170 attitudes and reactions to, 71. 74. 135,

145-8, 173. 201 course of, 74-7, 173 Japanese campaign in, 77, 135 outbreak of, 6, 71. 74, 80 and the party, 142-3, 144. 202 portrayal of, xvii. 134-5. 141-3,

201-2 and Stalin, 6, 142-4, 149, 168,

226(n.l64) victory celebrations, 195

Grodno, 29 Gross, J.T., 23, 25 GSO and GTO, 157-8, 204 gymnasia (schools), 9, 10, 23, 24, 33,

35, 38, 41, 47, 206(n.3)

handicapped, see pupils, with special needs

headteachers, see directors heredity, 16, 61 higher education, 12-13, 15, 33, 37, 40,

44, 51, 56-7. 64, 102 higher educational institutions, 29, 102,

119, 178 dropout from, 116 enrolments in, 12, 102, 189,

220(n.l98) entrance examinations to, 56. 156.

220(n.l98)

fees in, 56-7 purge in, 12, 13 and social mobility, 57 and social origins, 12-13 studentships to, 57, 156 see also under Estonia

Hindus, M., 147 history (school subject), 12, 26, 30, 38,

39, 41, 59, 61, 114, 117-18, 130, 133-4, 136-8, 146, 184, 207(n.29)

history of Soviet schooling, xv-xviii, 7-20

its Russian antecedents, 8, 9-10, 11 its wartime periodisation, 78

Hitler, A., 2-3, 4, 5, 133, 134, 136, 146. 161. 167

Holmes, L., 13 home assignments, homework, 9, 62, 91,

93, 151 hostels for pupils. 53, 84, 109-10, 202

admission to, 103, 1 10 attitudes to, 110-1 1 functions of, 110 statistics on, 109-10

humanities, see arts subjects

ideology, 12, 69-70, 131-44 and upbringing, 70

illness, see children's homes, and children's health; pupils, health of

lnber, V., 81 indiscipline, 15, 27, 30, 67-8, 148-53,

173-4. 190. 201 individualisation as teaching method, 8 industrial schools, special, 193 innovation, 8 inspectors, 95, 97, 126, 141, 187-8 Institute of Schools (RSFSR), 61, 114 interests, individual, 115 Irkutsk, 86 Ivanovo, 75, 90. 122, 126 Ivanovo Region. 95, 180, 199

Japan, 5, 77, 135 Jelgava (Mitau), 40 Jews, 3, 23, 24, 25, 34, 36, 44, 46 jobs and pupils, see under labour

Kabardino-Balkar ASSR, 141 Kabin, J., 34, 37 Kairov, I.A.. 152 Kalinin Region, 83 Kalmyk ASSR, 141 Karakalpak ASSR, 95

254 Index

Karelia, xvi, 7, 76 Karelian ASSR, 31, 32 Karelo-Finnish Republic, 7, 31-2

languages of instruction in, 31-2, 210(n.86)

schools in, xvi, 7, 31, 32 teacher training in, 32 textbooks for, 32

Karol, K.S., 54, 61-2, 70, 100, 147 Kassil, L., 149 Kaunas, 32, 40 Kazakhstan, 53, 83, 89, 101, 104, 184,

199, 213(n.l6) its school statistics, 49, 98-9, 197

Kazan', 75, 81, 122, 124, 126, 153 Kemerovo, 121 Kerblay, B., 10 Kerch, 147 KFSSR, see Karelo-Finnish Republic Khar'kov, 54, 75, 76, 192 Khrushchev, N.S., 194, 202 Kiev, 65, 66, 74, 75, 76 Kiev Region, 186 Kirghizia, its school statistics, 49, 141,

189, 197 Kirov, 86, 89, 91, 99 Kirov Region, 83, 97, 111, 199 Klaipeda (Memel), 2, 37, 80 kolkhoz, 81, 83, 110, 160-1, 204,

235(n.l83) kolkhoz and sovkhoz children. 111, 160 Kolychev, V.G., 146 Komsomol, xvii, 13, 43, 65, 107, 108,

111, 150, 164, 182, 204, 209(n.54), 227(n.26)

Konstantinov, N., 23 Kostroma Region, 84, 199 Krasnodar, 53, 75, 99, 101, 190, 192 Krasnodar Territory, 53, 65, 66, 85, 149,

168, 175, 181, 188 Krasnoyarsk Territory, 104, 159, 188 Krasuski, J., 24 Krupskaya, N.K., 17, 18 Kuban', 91, 93 Kuibyshev, 75, 87, 101, 116, 180, 187,

189 Kuibyshev Region, 87, 157, 160, 163, 199 Kupriyanov, G.N., 167 Kursk, 75, 76, 78, 149, 173 Kursk Region, 85, 158, 177

labour, 9, 78, 97, 110, 152, 160, 176, 178, 190-1, 194

brigades, 102, 160-1, 229(n.93)

colonies, 56, 68, 69 jobs and pupils, 100-1, 102-3, 104,

163, 200, 202 placements, 107, 190-1

labour reserve schools, 56, 57, 101, 102, 114, 119

age of entry to, 56, 101, 103, 115, 199

girls at, 56, 101, 199 recruitment to, 56, 57, 83, 97, 100,

101, 107, 115, 190, 194, 200, 220(n.201)

statistics on, 199 labour training

and children's homes, 107, 108, 194 and general schools, xvii, 14, 60, 79,

113-14, 116, 117, 159, 161-3, 171

postwar, 201 Lacis, J., 38, 21 l(n.l26) Ladoga, Lake, 3, 31, 74, 75, 81 language (as school subject), see foreign

language; national language; and under individual languages

languages of instruction, 23, 25-6, 46, 58, 84, 141

Latin (as school subject), 26, 41 Latvia, 2, 3, 4, 32, 33, 34-5, 37, 38, 40,

41-3, 74, 75, 94 destruction of schools in, 179 its literacy rates, 21 resettlement of Germans from, 2, 35 its schooling during independence,

communist critique of, 38; length of, 33, 40-1; for national minorities, 34-5, 210(nn.l02, 106); problems of, 33, 38; quality of, xvi, 38

its schooling under Soviet rule: its curriculum, 41, 42; initial reorganisation of, 38, 40-1; and parent education, 42; and political activities, 42; and pupil-teacher relations, 42; its statistics, 49, 181, 196, 197; its teachers, deportation of, 211 (n. 137); its teachers, training and retraining of, 40; its textbooks, 38, 41-2; and upbringing, 42-3

Soviet occupation of, 4, 37 its youth organisations: during

independence, 43, 212(n. 157); under Soviet rule, 42, 43

Lekhtinen, I., 31

Index 255

length of schooling, see under schooling Lenin, V.I., 11, 17, 18, 39, 69 Leningrad

blockade of, 74, 76, 81, 89, 92, 93, 139-40, 146, 164, 165-6, 190, 200

children's homes in, 108, 109 and evacuation, 80-1, 82, 83,

216(n.20) extracurricular activities in, 158, 159,

164-5 and the front, 74, 75, 76 military training in, 126 and new territories, 31, 181 school fees in, 56 school hostels in, 110 schools and classes in, 54, 90, 92,

131, 190 ShRMs in, 104 soviet organisations of, 80, 104

Leningrad Region and agitation, 163 agricultural brigades in, 160 deprived children in, 101 early leaving in, 100, 190 education authorities of, 97, 156, 158 and evacuation, 80-1, 90, 216(n.l5) extracurricular activities in, 156-7 military and physical training in, 119,

122, 123, 158 and postwar boundary changes, 31 its school statistics, 53, 181 schools and classes in, 90, 192 soviet organisations of, 80 teachers in, 55, 63, 94-5, 97 textbooks in, 92

lessons, 15, 91, 104, 117, 131, 150-1 liberated areas, 97, 180-2, 193-4

problems of schooling in, 94, 97-8, 105, 178-82, 184, 186, 187, 192-3, 233(n.lll)

their school statistics, 94, 179-80, 181, 199

see also teachers, retraining of libraries and librarians, 92, 145, 178 literacy, xv, 18-20, 21, 22, 36, 45

definition of, 18 rates, 18-19, 21, 22, 36 see also schools, for literacy

literature (school subject), 38, 39, 59, 91, 114, 138-9

see also under individual literatures Lithuania, 2-3, 4, 32-3, 36-7, 38,

39_40, 41, 43, 74

destruction of schools in, 179 higher education in, 40 its literacy rates, 21, 22, 36 its schooling during independence:

length of, 36, 40; for national minorities, 36-7; its statistics, 36-7, 211(n.l32)

its schooling under Soviet rule: its curriculum, 38, 40-1; initial reorganisation of, 38, 40-1; its statistics, 49, 181, 196, 197; its teachers, deportation of, 39-40, 21 l(n. 138); its teachers, training and retraining of, 39, 40

Soviet occupation of, 4, 37 its youth organisations under Soviet

rule, clandestine, 43 Lunacharsky, A.V., 8, 12, 13, 18 L'vov, 27, 29, 209(n.54) L'vov Region, 28

Makarenko, A.S., 16-18, 69 study of his work, 17-18, 108, 110,

126, 222(n.250) Malaparte, C, 167 Mari ASSR, 199 marking, 55, 69, 154-5, 168, 202-3,

207(n.29) marxism, 16, 17, 29, 39, 62, 113 MASSR, see Moldavian Autonomous

Republic materialist worldview, 132-3 mathematics (school subject), 26, 55, 59,

60, 91, 95, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 126, 127-8, 155, 175, 184

Matthews, M., 56 Matthews, R., 133 medals for pupils, 156, 202-3 medical training for girls, 119, 120, 123,

158 methods of teaching, 130, 171, 177,

178-9 in progressive period, 8-9, 14, 152

militarisation of schools, 152, 158 of subjects, 127-31, 201

military boarding schools, see Suvorov schools

military studies, see military training military training in educational

institutions, 5, 59, 62, 64-7, 79, 110, 117-26, 171, 193, 201, 215(n.61), 227(n.26)

administration of, 126

256 Index

military training - continued aims of, 120 attitudes to: of administrators, 65,

124, 125, 126; of parents, 66, 121; of pupils, 66, 123-4, 125; of teachers, 66, 124, 125-6

for boys, 64, 65, 119-23, 124, 125, 171, 214(n.57)

and Commissariat of Defence, 120, 121-2, 123

criticism of, 64, 121, 122-4 decrees on: 22 August 1928, 64; 17

September 1941, 119; 12 November 1941, 119; 24 October 1942, 119-20, 126, 160

defence clubs, 64, 65, 66, 157-9. 215(n.62)

elementary, 5, 59, 65, 119-20, 122-4 expansion of, 1941-43, xvii, 114,

117-18, 121 for girls, 64, 119-20, 123, 171, 176 law of 1 September 1939, 65, 70, 117 and participation of school personnel,

120, 126 postwar, 201 pre-conscription, 5, 41, 59, 65, 119-

20, 123-4, 223(n.28) problems of, 65-7, 121-6, 201 its relationship with PT, 65, 125,

214(n.57) syllabuses for, 64, 65, 119-20, 123 testing of, 120, 123 see also BGTO system; military

training instructors military training instructors, 65-7, 120,

121-6 and initial teacher training, 124 and in-service training, 66, 124-5 military experience of, 66, 124 salaries of, 126, 224(n.84) and school personnel, 66, 124, 125-6 supply of, 122 teaching skills of, 66, 122-5, 201

minorities, national, 23, 25-6, 27, 32, 34-7, 44, 46

Minsk, 30, 54, 74, 75 Minsk Region, 28 Moldavia, 4, 21, 22, 45-7, 48, 75, 94,

181, 189 destruction of schools in, 179 language policy in, 46 its literacy rates, 21, 22 its schooling under Soviet rule:

enrolments in, 46-7; initial

reorganisation of, 7, 45-6, 212(n.l80); literacy programmes in, 46; its statistics, 46, 49, 181, 196, 197, 212(n.l83), 213(n.l87); its teachers, training and retraining of, 45

see also Bessarabia Moldavian Autonomous Republic

(MASSR), 4-5, 46, 213(n.l87) Molotov (Perm'), 174. 190-1 Molotov (Perm') Region, 111, 188, 191 Molotov, V.M., 168 morale

of children, xvii, 53, 146, 148-9, 165-7, 173, 192, 201

of public, xv, 88, 105, 142, 146, 148, 149, 173

of teachers and administrators, 96-7 Mordovian ASSR. 186, 199 Moscow

education authorities of, 68 and evacuation. 81, 82 and the front, 74, 75, 76, 147, 165 military and physical training in, 119.

121, 123, 125-6 problem children in, 105, 153, 173-4,

176 school fees in, 56 schools and classes in, 62, 66. 90, 92,

121, 123, 125-6, 168, 170, 172. 174, 175, 179

ShRMs in, 104 work clubs and workshops in, 116,

162 Moscow Region, 90, 95, 111, 180, 181 Murmansk, 75, 77 Murmansk Region, 110-11, 190-1 music education, 140

see also singing

Nakhimov schools, 202 Narkompros (collectively), 16, 68. 84,

93-4, 204 Belorussian, 25, 28, 29-30, 186 Moldavian, 45 RSFSR: and Academy of Pedagogical

Sciences, 178; and age of starting school, 176; and agriculture, 159-60; and children's homes, 193, 194; in Cultural Revolution, 12-14; and curricula, syllabuses, textbooks, 11-12, 13, 64, 91, 92, 114, 116, 117, 119; and discipline, 150, 153; and

Index 257

Narkompros, RSFSR - continued evacuees, 84-5; and military and physical training, 64, 119, 125, 126, 158, 181; and nationality schools, 141; and party authorities, 84, 101-2; and problem children, 68, 106-7, 193; in progressive period, 8, 11, 13, 79; reports to, 52, 68, 175; and requisitioning, 87; and schooling for all, 103, 110, 111; and shift operation, 90, 180; and single-sex schooling, 170-1; and socialist competition, 154; and soviet authorities, 87, 168; structure of, 58, 159, 178; and subordinate authorities, 68, 87, 92, 97-8, 111, 158, 159, 168, 188; and teachers, 96, 97, 126, 168, 184, 185, 186

Ukrainian, 12, 26, 29-30, 47, 193 national language, 23, 25-6, 46, 58, 84,

140-1, 155, 192 nationalities, non-Russian

schools for, 84, 130-1, 140-1 teachers for, 141, 184 see also minorities, national

nativisation, 31, 46, 140, 141 natural science (school subject), 38, 55,

59, 60-1, 91-2, 114, 115, 116, 117-18, 128-9, 130, 132, 172, 175

for sciences see also astronomy; chemistry; physics

new Soviet man/person, 17, 42, 145 Nielsen-Stokkeby, B., 35 NKVD, 68, 87, 106-7, 193, 204 Novosibirsk, 86, 90, 91, 191 Novosibirsk Region, 83, 95 nursery education, 40, 58, 81, 84, 177,

193

obkoms, xi, 87, 96, 97, 123, 124, 154, 159, 193, 204, 227(n.26)

oblonos, 204 and agitation, 163 and assessment, 155 and curricula and syllabuses, 116, 119 and defence, 158 efficiency of, 95, 97, 107-8, 111, 126,

158, 187-8 and inspection, 95, 187-8 and Narkompros, 84-5, 87, 93-4, 96,

97, 98, 107, 111, 154, 158, 159 and party and soviet authorities, 30,

97, 154

and problem children, 107-8, 110-11 and school buildings, 53, 87, 97 and school supplies, 93 and single-sex schooling, 174 and socialist competition, 154 and teachers, 29, 124-5, 154, 186,

187 and upbringing, 111

obuchenie, 8, 206(n.l) see also quality of teaching and

learning occupation by Germany, 74-7

its effects on schooling, 89, 187, 192-3

see also liberated areas; schools, damage to and destruction of

occupation by USSR Baltic states, 4, 37 Bessarabia, 4-5, 45 Bukovina, northern, 4-5 Karelia, Finnish, 3, 31 Poland, eastern, 3, 24

Odessa, 74, 75, 76, 146, 166-7 Odessa Region, 5 Omsk, 86, 90 Omsk Region, 83, 122 Orel Region, 92, 97, 107, 180, 188 Orlov, M.A., 68 Orlova, L., 165 Orsha, 54, 75 Orthodox Church, see Church, Orthodox Osetia, North, 76, 89 Osoaviakhim, 64, 65, 159, 204 out-of-school activities, see

extracurricular and out-of-school activities

overloading, 60, 61, 116-17

parent education, 28, 68, 111 parents, 57, 61, 62, 68, 80, 81, 82, 100,

107, 109, 110, 151, 190, 191, 192, 193

their attitudes: of Poles, 27; of Russians, 11-12

committees of, 103, 111 their relationship to school, 28, 61,

100, 111 role of, 15, 61, 67, 105-6, 110, 156 see also family

Parfenova, N.M., 58 party, see Communist Party patriotic education, 39, 70, 79, 110, 127,

135-40, 142-4, 145-8, 157, 201 and attitudes to Germans, 143, 145-8

258 Index

patriotic education - continued and subject syllabuses, xvii, 120,

127-8, 130-1, 135-40 patriotism, xii, 69-70, 138, 145-6 pedagogical institutes, 29, 32, 40, 45,

64, 125, 141, 179 pedagogy, 14, 16, 25, 28, 40, 125, 178

as school subject, 61, 115. 172, 185 pedology, 16 Penza, 75, 85, 122 Penza Region, 199 percentomania, 154, 202 performance, see under pupils; teachers personnel

shortage of, xvi, xvii, 93-5, 97-8 turnover of, 95-6 see also administrators; directors;

inspectors; military training instructors: teachers

Petrozavodsk, 32, 74, 75 physical training. PT (school subject).

55, 59, 65. 66. 79, 110, 117-26, 157, 171, 176, 201, 214-I5(n.60)

physics (school subject). 55, 59, 114, 115, 116, 1 18, 128. 132, 175, 184

Pinchuk, G.B., 187 Pinsk, 29 Pioneers, 16, 28, 42, 43, 67, 80, 90,

130, 134, 139, 147, 154, 157, 163-4. 167, 168, 172, 229(n.93), 230(n.l26)

Pokrovsky, M.N., 137 Poland, 2-3, 62

eastern provinces of, 3. 5. 22-3 Polish children, 26, 27, 34, 36, 84,

217(n.48) Polish language (as school subject), 23,

26 Polish schools in Lithuania, 36-7 Polish schools in Western Belorussia/

Ukraine under Polish rule, 23-4 under Soviet rule, 24, 26

political enlightenment, xvi, 78, 95, 163, 187

polonisation, xvi, 23-4 polytechnical school, 9 polytechnisation. polytechnism, 15 population, 49. 51

school-age. 51, 196-200 Potemkin. V.P.

biography of, 79-80. 178 instructions by, 159-60. 186 requests to. 87

statements by: on age of starting school, 176; on child neglect, 106, 107; on curricula and syllabuses. 1 14, 117: on evacuation, 82; on labour reserves, 101; on military training, 123, 126; on oblonos, 97; on patriotic education, 135-6. 148; on pupil performance, 155; on requisitioning, 87. 88: on school hostels, 109; on school supplies. 111; on single-sex schooling, 170; on textbooks. 92-3, 137

preschooling, see nursery education Primorsky Territory, 93 private schools, 24, 38 progressive education, 8-9, 67, 152 psychology, 16, 171-2, 178 public, role of, 15, 142-3 punishments, xvii, 9. 61, 67, 150, 152-3.

201, 227(n.43) pupils. 98-105, 106

accommodation and meals for, 97, 101, 103, 110-11, 166, 167

attitudes of: in general, xvi, 148-9, 150-1, 201; to Germany, xvii, 145, 146, 147-8: to schooling, 61-2, 100, 115, 150-2, 155. 166-7, 168, 202: to the war, 70, 71, 115. 125, 153, 161, 173; in Western Belorussia, 27-8; in Western Ukraine, 26-8

clothing and footwear for, 101, 103, 110-11, 190, 191, 192

their daily life in wartime, 62, 71. 89-91, 100-1, 165-8

duties of, 62, 100, 150-2, 190, 191. 194, 200

early leaving by, see dropout and early leaving

effects of occupation on, xviii, 177, 178, 187, 192-3

expulsion of, 190-2 health of, xvi-xvn, 79, 100, 101,

190-1, 194 identity cards for (Pupil's Card), xvii,

151-2 knowledge of, 26, 55. 116, 192-3 performance of. xvi, 53, 55, 61, 62,

63, 69, 79, 95. 103, 141, 154-6, 172, 192-3. 202-3

proportions at school stages, see schooling, class-groups

Index 259

pupils - continued reading matter for, 62 registration of. 103, 176, 179, 189-90 their relations with teachers, 27-8,

150-2, 166 self-government/management by. 9, 14 with special needs, 49, 50, 68, 98, 99,

104, 178, 183. 196, 197, 198, 199 statistics on, xviii, 49, 50, 98-9. 115,

161. 177. 181. 183, 188-90, 196-200. 230(n.l26)

and world situation. 70-1. 133-8. 145-8

see also age of completing/starting school; attendance: conscription; discipline; dropout and early leaving: enrolments; extracurricular and out-of-school activities

pupil-teacher ratios, 52, 182-3 PVKhO programme. 157. 158, 204 Pyatigorsk. 76

quality of teaching and learning, xvi, 14, 52. 78-9. 94.^116-17. 155-6. 184-5

quarters (division of school year). 228(n.60)

rabfaks, 12-13, 204 Rainis. J.. 41. 212(n.l52) raionos. 30. 85. 87. 94. 97. 107. 110.

II I. 168. 184. 186, 187. 204 staffing problems of. 95, 141. 188

Ra/umny. A.. 163 rear areas. 85, 86, 90. 194. 197-9

definition of. 199 their school statistics, 190-2

reception and distribution centres, 106-7, 193

reconstruction, xv, xvii—xviii, 179, 180-1, 184, 187, 188, 189, 193

Red Army. 6, 24. 69-70, 74, 76-7, 88, 89. 100. 130. 131, 134, 140, 142, 143, 146, 148, 189, 191, 193, 200

re-education of delinquents, 68 re-education, ideological, xviii. 187 re-evacuation, 81. 83, 85, 97-8, 185,

186. 198 religion, 27, 43. 201 religious instruction, 23, 26. 37, 38, 39,

"41, 43 repeating the year. 52-3 requisitioning, see schools, requisitioning

and occupancy of

research, 79 see also Academy of Pedagogical

Sciences residential schools, xviii, 166, 179, 202 resistance movements, 181 rewards, xvii. 153. 201, 227(n.43) Rezekne (Rositten), 40 Riga, 35, 40 Riga, Treaty of (1921), 22 Rives, S.M.. 69. 110, 146, 152 Romania, 4, 5, 21, 43-5, 74

Soviet territorial gains from. 4-5 romanisation, xvi, 44, 45 Rostov-on-Don, 54, 61, 74, 75. 76, 91 Rostov Region, 92, 180, 181. 184, 192 RSFSR {and also Russia /'// this sense)

and Baltic states, 32 and children's homes, 193-4 and curricula. 59, 118 destruction of schools in occupied

areas of. 179-80 and evacuation and re-evacuation.

80-2. 83-5, 185. 186 and the front, 74-7 as image, 140 its literacy rates. 18-20 military training of pupils in. 65,

118-26 and pupil problems, 52-3, 150-2,

189-93 and requisitioning. 86-8 school operations in, 89, 90, 92, 93,

103. 170-1, 179-82 its school statistics, 48, 49, 86-7,

95-6, 98-9, 109. 124, 161, 177, 179, 181, 189, 196-7

and socialist competition in schools, 68, 154

and teacher problems, 94-8, 184-6 and textbooks, 54, 92-3, 181-2 Timur movement in, 164 see also administrative divisions

Rules for Pupils, xvii, 150-2, 153, 201 Russia

before 1917, see Russian Empire as precursor of RSFSR, 18, 19 since 1917, see RSFSR

Russian Empire its literacy rates, 18, 19 schooling in, 8, 9-10, 11, 50

Russian language (as school subject) in non-Russian schools, 26, 29, 30,

38, 39, 40, 41, 58, 130-1, 140-1, 181, 184, 2ll(n.l29)

260 Index

Russian language - continued in Russian schools, 59, 60, 91, 116,

117-18, 126, 130-1, 134, 139-40, 143-4

Russian literature (as school subject) in non-Russian schools, 26 in Russian schools, 59, 60, 62, 114,

118 Russian nationality schools (outside

RSFSR), 25-6, 34, 36, 46, 210(n.l06)

russification, 29, 34, 140-1 Ryazan', 75, 81 Ryazan' Region, 158, 160, 199 Rzhev, 75, 76

Sagaidachny, P., 62, 66-7, 70-1, 81, 100, 163, 165, 215(n.62)

Saratov, 75 Saratov Region, 53, 93, 124, 158, 199 school day, 90-1 school fees, 56-7 schooling

aims of, see aims of education for all, xv, xvi, 9, 10-11, 12, 30, 52,

58, 68, 78-9, 85, 100, 102, 103, 104-5, 110, 111-12, 115, 200-1, 202, 206(n.l3), 207(n.300), 209(n.80)

attitudes to, 53, 96-7, 103, 112, 219(n.l57)

class-groups: middle-stage, 10-11, 49-51, 53, 59, 61, 63, 90, 98, 99, 114-15, 118, 119-20, 123, 131, 132, 136, 138, 141, 183, 185, 189, 196, 198-9; primary, 10-11, 48-51, 53, 59, 60-1, 89, 90-1, 98, 99, 114, 116, 118, 119, 124, 134, 140, 141, 183, 185, 189, 192, 196, 198-200; senior, 10-11, 49-52, 53, 57, 59, 61, 63, 91, 98, 99, 113, 114, 115-17, 118-19, 120, 123, 131, 132, 138, 158, 159, 183, 185, 189, 190-1, 198, 202

compulsory, see schooling, for all expansion of, xvi, 9-10, 29, 48-51,

52, 99 and German occupation, 92 incomplete secondary, see seven-year length of, 9, 10, 11, 15, 30, 60-1, 79,

103, 113-14 primary, 9-11, 13, 15, 29, 48-51, 53,

57-60, 61, 79, 90-1, 98, 99, 113-14, 155-6, 171, 177, 185,

196-200, 201, 206(n.l3) quality of, see quality of teaching and

learning reconstruction of, 78, 180-95 relationship between stages of, 57-8,

79, 114 remedial, see pupils, with special

needs secondary (ten-year), 10, 11, 13, 15,

48-52, 53, 57, 59-61, 79, 98, 99, 102, 113, 115, 156, 170-1, 175, 177, 185, 197, 200

seven-year, 11, 15, 48-52, 53, 57-8, 59-61, 79, 98, 99, 113-15, 150, 155-6, 170-1, 175, 176-7, 197, 199, 200-1, 207(n.30)

and social origins, 10, 12-13 stage one, see schooling, primary stage two, see schooling, secondary see also curriculum; extracurricular

and out-of-school activities; history of Soviet schooling; schools; single-sex schooling; urban-rural comparisons

school labour brigades, see under labour schools

accommodation for, 53-4, 89, 97, 99, 148, 153, 174-5, 176, 178, 180-1, 200

accommodation for, in liberated areas, 179-81

auxiliary, see pupils, with special needs

class size in, 30, 89-90, 95, 115, 148, 180, 182, 184, 186, 203

classes in, 15, 69, 89, 115-21, 123, 125, 127-32, 134, 136, 138-40, 142, 143, 149, 151, 203

for collective-farm youth, see ShKM damage to and destruction of, 86,

88-9, 101, 179-80, 200, 232(n.71)

evacuation of, 81, 82 for literacy, 47, 52, 98, 103, 193 mobile, 104 network of, xvii, 52, 53, 85-92, 112,

179, 200 for peasant (rural) youth, see ShKM pedagogical, 29, 45, 58, 119, 120,

125, 141, 194, 223(n.28) provision of, 51, 53-4, 86, 88,

213(n.l6) rebuilding and repair of, xviii, 86,

180-1, 203

Index 261

requisitioning and occupancy of, 53-4, 86-8, 89, 91, 92, 97, 101, 174, 180, 200, 203, 213(n.l6), 217(nn.72,73)

rural, 10, 50-2, 53, 90, 93, 101, 104, 170, 182, 196, 198, 200, 201

seven-year community, see ShKS seven-year industrial, see FZS shift operation in, 26, 54, 90-1, 156,

174, 180, 200, 203 size of, 48-9, 104, 185, 197,

221(n.215) supplies for: equipment, 92, 121, 159,

179, 181; food, 97, 101, 110, 159; fuel, 54, 92, 101, 159, 180, 200; furniture, 92, 176, 192, 200; in general, xvii, 52, 112, 178: teaching materials and textbooks, xvi, 30, 47, 54, 92-3, 141, 151, 154, 159, 181, 200; writing materials, 92-3, 151, 181, 182, 200, 219(n.l31)

transport to, 101, 104, 110 urban, 9, 10, 50, 51-2. 90, 93, 170,

182, 196, 198 for working youth, see ShRM see also labour reserve schools;

residential schools; schooling schools and schooling, Soviet

definitions of, 7 history of, see history of Soviet

schooling statistics of, see under USSR

school stages, see schooling, class-groups

school year, length and dates of. 60, 89. 101, 117

see also quarters scorched-earth policy, 88-9 Second World War, xii, xv, 2-6, 74-7,

48, 133-4 declaration of, 3 end of, 77 Yalta agreement, 77 see also Great Patriotic War

self-discipline ('inner discipline'), 17 see also conscious discipline

Semper, J., 37, 38, 39 Sergeenkov, N.G., 58 Sevastopol', 75, 146, 166 Shestakov, A.V., 137-8, 226(n.l38) shifts, see under schools ShKM, 13, 14, 204 ShKS, 14. 204

Sholokhov, M., 147 shortages, 148, 200

of personnel generally, xvi, 93 of teachers, see under teachers see also under schools

(accommodation for; damage to and destruction of; requisitioning and occupancy of; supplies for)

ShRM, 103-4, 199, 204, 221(n.212) ShSM, 104, 199, 204 Shul'gin, V.N., 13-14 Siberia, 83, 86, 90, 92, 97. 99, 104,

121, 129, 154, 199 singing (school subject), 55, 59, 91-2,

117-18, 140 single-sex schooling, xvii, 79, 114, 116,

123, 170-6 aims of, 171, 173-4 arguments and reasons for, 123, 171-2,

173-4 and boys, 172, 173-4, 175-6,

231(n.20) consequences of, 175-6 curricula and syllabuses for, 170, 172,

173, 174, 175 decree of 16 July 1943, 170 early experiments in, 170 and girls, 171-2, 173, 174, 175-6,

231(n.l3) problems in setting up, 174-5 procedures for setting up, 170-1 relinquishment of, 176, 202 and upbringing, 175-6 and women's roles, 172-3, 175 see also coeducation

Sinitsin, A.M., 82, 107 Smith, G.M., 173 Smolensk, 74, 75, 76, 89 Smolensk Region, 85, 187, 190, 192 social studies, 12, 41

see also Constitution socialist competition in schools, xvii,

68-9, 154-5, 164, 202 in 1930s, 68 and pupil/teacher performance, 69

Solik, see Karol, K.S. Solodukhin, Col. M , 123 sovietisation, 58 Soviets, 65, 97, 186

executive committees of, 54, 80, 95, 104, 107, 111, 170-1, 180, 187, 194

Sovnarkoms, 56, 80, 87, 88, 91, 102, 103, 106, 107. I l l , 155, 160, 162,

262 Index

Sovnarkoms - continued 168, 170-71, 176, 180, 186, 188, 204

special-needs children, see pupils, with special needs

sponsorship of children's institutions, 107 by pupils, 163-4

sport, see under extracurricular and out-of-school activities

staff, see personnel Stalin, I.V., 2, 6, 18, 39, 41, 74, 133,

134, 142-4, 146, 149, 168, 172, 202

Stalin Constitution (school subject), see Constitution

Stalingrad, 75, 76, 78, 90, 91, 105, 133, 149, 157, 173

Stalingrad Region, 91, 153, 190-1, 199 Stalinism, 15, 39 standards, see pupils, performance of starting age (general education), see age

of starting school state labour reserves, see labour reserve

schools Stavropol' Territory, 189 Stolee, M.K., 194, 235(n.l87) subjects of curriculum, 59, 91-2, 95,

114 see also under individual subjects

supplies, see under schools Suvorov schools, 193, 202 Sverdlovsk, 93, 136, 174 Sverdlovsk Region, 54, 93, 175 syllabuses, 12, 14, 30, 62, 64-5, 70, 91,

127-40, 141-3, 156, 170, 201-2, 233(n.l02)

and primary schooling, 13, 30, 64, 134

and secondary (ten-year) schooling, 62, 65, 70, 116-17, 231(n.l3)

and seven-year schooling, 30, 65, 114, 117

system-centred schooling, 8

Tadzhikistan, 185 its school statistics, 49, 99, 189,

197 Tambov Region, 199 Tartu, 34, 35, 40 Tashkent, 82, 184 Tatar ASSR, 199 Tbilisi, 131 teacher-pupil ratios, see pupil-teacher

ratios

teachers, 57, 58, 67, 68-9, 85, 176, 182-7, 202

accommodation for, 55, 96, 98 and allocation to posts, 97, 184-5 attitudes of, xvii, 11, 28, 66, 93, 109,

121, 124, 125-6, 168, 174 attitudes to, 11, 24, 151 and collaboration with enemy, 187 conscription of, 89, 92, 94, 200 and gender, 94, 171-2, 173 living conditions of, 9, 96, 98,

186-7 performance of, 54, 154, 184-5 qualifications of, 85, 141, 184, 203 redeployment of, 29, 47, 54-5, 95-6,

97, 186, 200 retraining of, after annexation by

USSR: in Karelia, 32; in Lithuania, 39; in Moldavia, 45; in Ukraine, 47; in Western Belorussia, 25, 28-9

retraining of, after expulsion of Germans, xviii, 187

roles of, 15, 61, 67, 69-70, 106, 110, 146, 150, 156, 158

salaries of, 55, 96, 98, 186-7 selection of, 30 shortage of, xvi, xvii, xviii, 11, 25,

29-30, 54-5, 60, 94-6, 101, 112, 141, 148-9, 159, 177-8, 180, 182-7, 200, 203, 219(n.l38), 233(n.lll)

statistics on, 52, 182-4, 186; see also pupil-teacher ratios

subject specialisms of, 25, 29, 55, 60, 95, 141, 159, 184

training of: by correspondence study, 185-6; initial, 28, 29, 45, 79, 140, 179, 185, 187; in-service, 28-9, 126, 140-1, 177, 185-6, 187; political reorientation, see teachers, retraining of; see also under military training instructors and types of establishment

working conditions of, 9, 85, 90, 91, 95, 180, 184, 186, 192, 200

teachers' institutes, 29, 32, 40, 45, 64, 125, 209(n.65)

teachers' newspaper, see UchiteVskaya gazeta

teaching materials, see under schools, supplies for

technical drawing (school subject), 59, 91-2, 114, 118, 130, 140

Index 263

technicums, 15, 102, 115, 119, 120, 161, 220(n.201)

Tepin, W., 57 Ternopol', 26, 30 textbooks, 15, 26, 64, 130, 133, 141,

151, 181, 201, 207(n.29), 233(n.l02) and liberated areas, 181-2 second-hand, collection of, 54, 92-3,

182, 218(n.l 19) see also under schools, supplies for

Tikhomirov, M., 165 timetables, 15, 84, 91, 114 Timur Movement, 163-4, 230(n.l26) Tolstoy, A., 147 Tolstoy, L., 26, 28-9, 139, 175 Tomsk, 86, 91 training of skilled workers, 11, 13-15,

56-7 Tula, 75, 97 Tula Region, 97, 160 Turkmenia, 157

its literacy rates, 18-20 its school statistics, 49, 99, 197

UchiteVskaya gazeta, xi, 13, 18, 52, 96, 180

Udmurt ASSR, 83, 175, 189 Ufa, 86, 89, 91, 97, 99, 101, 174 Ukraine, 5, 21, 30, 46-7, 53, 54, 65, 68,

74, 75, 76, 82, 88-9, 94, 139, 166, 192, 193-4

destruction of schools in, 179 its school statistics, 49, 52-3, 181,

189, 196, 197 its schooling in ex-Romanian lands,

47, 213(n.l89) its textbooks, 181-2

Ukraine, Eastern, 23, 74, 76 Ukraine, Western, 3, 21-30, 74, 76, 84,

181, 233(n.lll) its schooling under Polish rule, xvi,

23-4 its schooling under Soviet rule, xvi, 7,

24-5, 26-8, 29, 30 schools by nationality, 23-4, 25

Ukrainian language as school subject, 23, 24, 192 as teaching medium, 23, 24

Ukrainian minority schools in Bessarabia, 44 in Moldavia, 46

Ul'yanovsk, 186 Ul'yanovsk Region, 122, 180, 199 unified labour school, 8-9, 11, 13

upbringers, 108-9, 110, 194 upbringing, xv-xvi, xvii, 8, 14, 16, 17,

39, 67-70, 78-9, 105, 108-9, 126, 145-68, 176-7

as school's responsibility, xvii, 15, 42, 54, 67, 69, 106, 110, 156, 190, 201, 202

see also affective domain; collective; conscious discipline; discipline; family; ideology; labour training; parents; patriotic education; political enlightenment; reeducation; Rules for Pupils; self-discipline; values; youth organisations

UPMs, 162-3, 204 Uralova, E.I., 25 urbanisation, 10, 51

urban-rural comparisons, 15, 50, 51-2, 79, 93, 170, 196, 198, 200-1

of literacy, 18-20, 22 of school curricula, 58, 60, 63 of school statistics, 10, 50-2, 90, 182,

196, 198 Ushinsky, K.D., 69 USSR

Constitution (school subject), see Constitution

its education statistics, 49, 50, 86, 98, 99, 181, 182-3, 196-200, 233(n.94)

its literacy rates, 18-20 its territorial expansion, 3-5

Uzbekistan, 82-3, 84, 90, 107, 185 and pupil problems, 189 its school statistics, 49, 161, 197,

216(n.38) and teacher problems, 95, 141, 184, 186

values, xv, xvi, 113, 141, 173 see also upbringing

Venclova, A., 38 Vilnius, 2-3, 32, 37 Vladimir Region, 199 vocational training, xv, 57, 176

in schools, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 57, 61 see also FZS; FZU; labour reserve

schools voenruks, see military training instructors Volkov, K., 160-1 Vologda, 75 Vologda Region, 95, 97, 122 Voronezh, 66, 75 Voronezh Region, 81, 86, 95, 122 vuz, see higher educational institutions

264 Index

Vyaz'ma, 75, 76, 89 Vyborg, 31, 75

war games, 158 welfare of children, xvi-xvii, xviii, 67-8,

78, 83, 84, 102, 105-12, 177, 193-4, 202

Werth, A., 81 Wettlin, M., 131 Winter War, 2, 3, 27, 31 Winterton, P., 123 withering away of the school, 13-14 women

and coeducation, 171 employment of, xviii, 102, 106, 172-3,

177, 178, 232(n.55) roles of, 172-3, 175, 202 as school directors, 171 and single-sex schooling, 173, 175 as teachers, 94, 173

as voenruks, 124 work, manual (in school), see labour

training work, socially useful, 116 workers' faculties, see rabfaks working age, minimum, 100, 102 workshops for young people, 116, 162

see also UPMs

Yakut ASSR, 109-10, 122 Yaroslavl', 53, 75, 87 Yaroslavl' Region, 81, 83, 100, 180, 199 young technicians' stations, 162 youth organisations, 15, 16, 28, 43, 106

see also Komsomol; Pioneers; and under Estonia; Latvia: Lithuania

Yugoslavia, 5

Zaporozh'e, 75 Ziugzda, J., 39