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10 percent Reconstruction plan (1863)Introduced by President Lincoln, it proposed that a state be readmitted to the Union once10 percent of its voters had pledged loyalty to the United States and promised to honoremancipation.

9/11 (2001)Common shorthand for the terrorist attacs that occurred on September 11, !001, in"hich 1# militant Islamist men hi$aced and crashed four commercial aircraft. %"o planes

hit the %"in %o"ers of the &orld %rade Center in 'e" (or City, causing them to collapse.)ne plane crashed into the Pentagon in &ashington, *C, and the fourth, overtaen bypassengers, crashed into a field in rural Pennsylvania. 'early +000 people "ere illed inthe "orst case of domestic terrorism in merican history.

ABC-1 agreeent (19!1)n agreement bet"een -ritain and the United States developed at a conference in&ashington, *C, bet"een anuary !#/ arch !, 1#21, that should the United Statesenter &orld &ar II, the t"o nations and their allies "ould coordinate their militaryplanning, maing a priority of protecting the -ritish Common"ealth. %hat "ould mean

3getting 4ermany first5 in the tlantic and the 6uropean theater and fighting moredefensively on other military fronts.

A"ra#a $incoln Briga%eIdealistic merican volunteers "ho served in the Spanish Civil &ar, defending Spanishrepublican forces from the fascist 4eneral 7rancisco 7ranco8s nationalist coup. Some+,000 mericans served alongside volunteers from other countries.

A"u rai" prison detention facility near -aghdad, Ira9. Under Saddam :ussein, the prison "as the site ofinfamous torturing and e;ecution of political dissidents. In !002, during the U.S.occupation of Ira9, the prison became the focal point of a prisoner/abuse and torturescandal after photographs surfaced of merican soldiers mistreating, torturing, anddegrading Ira9i "ar prisoners and suspected terrorists. %he scandal "as one of severaldar spots on the public image of the Ira9 &ar and led to increased criticism of Secretaryof *efense *onald

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declared "omen to be deserving of special protection in the "orplace.

a%iralt courtsUsed to try offenders for violating the various 'avigation cts passed by the cro"n afterthe 7rench and Indian &ar. Colonists argued that the courts encroached on their rights as6nglishmen since they laced $uries and placed the burden of proof on the accused.

airati,e action

Program designed to redress historic racial and gender imbalances in $obs and education.%he term gre" from an e;ecutive order issued by ohn 7. Bennedy in 1#?1 mandatingthat pro$ects paid for "ith federal funds could not discriminate based on race in theirhiring practices. In the late 1#?0s, President 'i;on8s Philadelphia Plan changed themeaning of affirmative action to re9uire attention to certain groups, rather than protectindividuals against discrimination.

Agricultural A%ustent A%inistration (AAA) (1933) 'e" *eal program designed to raise agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm.It "as based on the assumption that higher prices "ould increase farmers8 purchasingpo"er and thereby help alleviate the 4reat *epression.

Agricultural ar+eting Act (1929)

%his act established the 7ederal 7arm -oard, a lending bureau for hard/pressed farmers.%he act also aimed to help farmers help themselves through ne" producers8 cooperatives.s the depression "orsened in 1#+0, the -oard tried to bolster falling prices by buying upsurpluses, but it "as unable to cope "ith the flood of farm produce to maret.

Ala"aa (1862-186!)-ritish/built and manned Confederate "arship that raided Union shipping during the Civil&ar. )ne of many built by the -ritish for the Confederacy, despite Union protests.

Alao7ortress in %e;as "here four hundred merican volunteers "ere slain by Santa nna in1+?. 3

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bolitionist society founded by &illiam Lloyd 4arrison, "ho advocated the immediateabolition of slavery. -y 1+, the organiDation had more than !=0,000 members across1,+=0 chapters.

Aerican Coloni7ation ociet

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to the subordination of the states to the central government, and feared encroachment onindividuals8 liberties in the absence of a bill of rights.

Anti-;perialist $eague (1898-1921) diverse group formed in order to protest merican colonial oversight in the Philippines.It included university presidents, industrialists, clergymen, and labor leaders. Strongest inthe 'ortheast, the nti/imperialist League "as the largest lobbying organiDation on a U.S.foreign/policy issue until the end of the nineteenth century. It declined in strength after

the United States signed the %reaty of Paris @"hich approved the anne;ation of thePhilippinesA, and especially after hostilities broe out bet"een 7ilipino nationalists andmerican forces.

Anti-asonic part (esta"lis#e% c 1826)7irst founded in 'e" (or, it gained considerable influence in 'e" 6ngland and the mid/tlantic during the 1+! election, campaigning against the politically influential asonicorder, a secret society. nti/asons opposed ndre" acson, a ason, and dre" much oftheir support from evangelical Protestants.

antinoianis-elief that the elect need not obey the la" of either 4od or manF most notably espousedin the colonies by nne :utchinson.

Apollo (1961 Court#ouseSite "here

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Articles o Cone%eration (181)7irst merican constitution that established the United States as a loose confederation ofstates under a "ea national Congress, "hich "as not granted the po"er to regulatecommerce or collect ta;es. %he rticles "ere replaced by a more efficient Constitution in1#.

assuption%ransfer of debt from one party to another. In order to strengthen the union, the federal

government assumed states8

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merican mainland in the 1th and 1th centuries.

Ba o igs in,asion (1961)CI plot in 1#?1 to overthro" 7idel Castro by training Cuban e;iles to invade andsupporting them "ith merican air po"er. %he mission failed and became a publicrelations disaster early in ohn 7. Bennedy8s presidency.

Berlin airlit (19!8)

(ear/long mission of flying food and supplies to blocaded &est -erliners, "hom theSoviet Union cut off from access to the &est in the first ma$or crisis of the Cold &ar.

Berlin =all7ortified and guarded barrier bet"een 6ast and &est -erlin erected on orders from SovietPremier 'iita Bhrushchev in 1#?1 to stop the flo" of people to the &est. Until itsdestruction in 1##, the "all "as a vivid symbol of the divide bet"een the communist andcapitalist "orlds.

Bi"le Belt%he region of the merican South, e;tending roughly from 'orth Carolina "est to)lahoma and %e;as, "here Protestant 7undamentalism and belief in literal interpretationof the -ible "ere traditionally strongest.

Big ister polic (1880s) foreign policy of Secretary of State ames 4. -laine aimed at rallying Latin mericannations behind merican leadership and opening Latin merican marets to (aneetraders. %he policy bore fruit in 1#, "hen -laine presided over the 7irst InternationalConference of merican States.

Bill o Rig#ts (191)Popular term for the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. %he amendmentssecure ey rights for individuals and reserve to the states all po"ers not e;plicitlydelegated or prohibited by the Constitution.

"lac+ "elt

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)rganiDation of armed blac militants formed in )aland, California, in 1#?? to protectblac rights. %he Panthers represented a gro"ing dissatisfaction "ith the non/violent "ingof the civil rights movement, and signaled a ne" direction to that movement after thelegislative victories of 1#?2 and 1#?=.

Blac+ o4er*octrine of militancy and separatism that rose in prominence after 1#?=. -lac Po"eractivists re$ected artin Luther Bing8s pacifism and desire for integration.

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Bracero progra (19!2)Program established by agreement "ith the e;ican government to recruit temporarye;ican agricultural "orers to the United States to mae up for "artime labor shortagesin the 7ar &est. %he program persisted until 1#?2, by "hen it had sponsored 2.= millionborder crossings.

Brain *rust

Specialists in la", economics, and "elfare, many young university professors, "hoadvised President 7ranlin *.

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Caliornia Bear lag Repu"lic (18!6)Short/lived California republic, established by local merican settlers "ho revolted againste;ico. )nce ne"s of the "ar "ith e;ico reached the mericans, they abandoned the

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corruption.

C#esapea+e aair (180)Conflict bet"een -ritain and the United States that precipitated the 10 embargo. %heconflict developed "hen a -ritish ship, in search of deserters, fired on the mericanChesapeae off the coast of Girginia.

C#inese >clusion Act (1882)

7ederal legislation that prohibited most further Chinese immigration to the United States.%his "as the first ma$or legal restriction on immigration in U.S. history.

ci,ic ,irtue&illingness on the part of citiDens to sacrifice personal self/interest for the public good.*eemed a necessary component of a successful republic.

Ci,ilian Conser,ation Corps (CCC) (1933) government program created by Congress to hire young unemployed men to improvethe rural, out/of/doors environment "ith such "or as planting trees, fighting fires,draining s"amps, and maintaining 'ational Pars. %he CCC proved to be an importantfoundation for the post/&orld &ar II environmental movement.

ci,ili7ation7orm of political society that traditionally combines centraliDed government "ith a highdegree of ethnic and cultural unity. %he Dtec and Inca empires in South merica areearly e;amples of civiliDations in the 'e" &orld.

ci,il la4-ody of "ritten la" enacted through legislative statutes or constitutional provisions. Incountries "here civil la" prevails, $udges must apply the statutes precisely as "ritten.

Ci,il Rig#ts Act o 18%he last piece of federal civil rights legislation until the 1#=0s, the la" promised blacse9ual access to public accommodations and banned racism in $ury selection, but the ctprovided no means of enforcement and "as therefore ineffective. In 1+, the Supreme

Court declared most of the ct unconstitutional.

Ci,il Rig#ts Act o 196!7ederal la" that banned racial discrimination in public facilities and strengthened thefederal government8s po"er to fight segregation in schools. %itle GII of the act prohibitedemployers from discriminating based on race in their hiring practices, and empo"ered the69ual 6mployment )pportunity Commission @66)CA to regulate fair employment.

Ci,il Rig#ts Bill (1866)Passed over ndre" ohnson8s veto, the bill aimed to counteract the -lac Codes byconferring citiDenship on frican mericans and maing it a crime to deprive blacs oftheir rights to sue, testify in court, or hold property.

Claton Anti-*rust Act (191!)La" e;tending the anti/trust protections of the Sherman nti/%rust ct and e;emptinglabor unions and agricultural organiDations from antimonopoly constraints. %he actconferred long/overdue benefits on labor.

Claton-Bul4er *reat (180)Signed by 4reat -ritain and the United States, it provided that the t"o nations "ould

$ointly protect the neutrality of Central merica and that neither po"er "ould see tofortify or e;clusively control any future isthmian "ater"ay. Later revoed by the :ay/Pauncefote %reaty of 1#01, "hich gave the United States control of the Panama Canal.

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clipper s#ips (18!0s-180s)Small, s"ift vessels that gave merican shippers an advantage in the carrying trade.Clipper ships "ere made largely obsolete by the advent of sturdier, roomier iron steamerson the eve of the Civil &ar.

close% s#op union/organiDing term that refers to the practice of allo"ing only unioniDed employeesto "or for a particular company. %he 7L became no"n for negotiating closed/shop

agreements "ith employers, in "hich the employer "ould agree not to hire non/unionmembers.

Co#ens , Dirginia (1821)Case that reinforced federal supremacy by establishing the right of the Supreme Court torevie" decisions of state supreme courts in 9uestions involving the po"ers of the federalgovernment.

Col% =ar (19!6-1991)%he 2= year diplomatic tension bet"een the United States and the Soviet Union thatdivided much of the "orld into polariDed camps, capitalist against communist. ost of theinternational conflicts during that period, particularly in the developing "orld, can betraced to the competition bet"een the United States and the Soviet Union.

Colu"ian >c#ange%he transfer of goods, crops and diseases bet"een 'e" and )ld &orld societies after12#!.

Coittee on u"lic ;noration (191) government office during &orld &ar I no"n popularly as the Creel Committee for itsChairman 4eorge Creel, it "as dedicated to "inning everyday mericans8 support for the"ar effort. It regularly distributed pro/"ar propaganda and sent out an army of 3four/minute men5 to rally cro"ds and deliver 3patriotic pep5.

coittees o correspon%ence (12 an% ater)Local committees established across assachusetts, and later in each of the thirteen

colonies, to maintain colonial opposition to -ritish policies through the e;change of lettersand pamphlets.

coon la4La"s that originate from court rulings and customs, as opposed to legislative statutes.%he United States Constitution gre" out of the nglo/merican common la" tradition andthus provided only a general organiDational frame"or for the ne" federal government.

Coon ense (16)%homas Paine8s pamphlet urging the colonies to declare independence and establish arepublican government. %he "idely/read pamphlet helped convince colonists to supportthe

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settle the escalating dispute over slavery.

Coproise o 18%he agreement that finally resolved the 1? election and officially ended

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Containment guided merican foreign policy throughout most of the Cold &ar.

Contract 4it# Aerica (199!)ulti/point program offered by

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purpose of receiving government contracts to build the railroad at highly inflated pricesMand profits. In 1! a scandal erupted "hen $ournalists discovered that the Creditobilier Company had bribed congressmen and even the Gice President in order to allo"the ruse to continue.

Creole (18!1)merican ship captured by a group of rebelling Girginia slaves. %he slaves successfullysought asylum in the -ahamas, raising fears among Southern planters that the -ritish

&est Indies "ould become a safe haven for runa"ay slaves.

criinal sn%icalis la4s (1919-1920)Passed by many states during the

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Congress. %he declaration allo"ed mericans to appeal for foreign aid and served as aninspiration for later revolutionary movements "orld"ide.

eclaration o t#e Rig#ts o an (189)*eclaration of rights adopted during the 7rench

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La"s. Its collapse after the 4lorious

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nglis# Ci,il =ar (16!2-161)rmed conflict bet"een royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in the victory of pro/Parliament forces and the e;ecution of Charles I.

n,ironental rotection Agenc (A) governmental organiDation signed into la" by cise ta>%a; on goods produced domestically. 6;cise ta;es, particularly the 1#1 ta; on "hisey,"ere a highly controversial component of le;ander :amilton8s financial program.

>ecuti,e :r%er ?o 9066 (19!2))rder of President 7ranlin *.

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insurance to many more beneficiaries under the Social Security ct.

air ploent ractices Coission (C) (19!1)%hreatened "ith a massive 3'egro arch on &ashington5 to demand e9ual $obopportunities in "ar $obs and in the military, 7ranlin *.

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irst Anglo-o4#atan =ar (161!)Series of clashes bet"een the Po"hatan Confederacy and 6nglish settlers in Girginia.6nglish colonists torched and pillaged Indian villages, applying tactics used in 6ngland8scampaigns against the Irish.

irst Continental Congress (1!)Convention of delegates from t"elve of the thirteen colonies that convened in Philadelphia

to craft a response to the Intolerable cts. *elegates established ssociation, "hich calledfor a complete boycott of -ritish goods.

letc#er , ec+ (1810)6stablished firmer protection for private property and asserted the right of the SupremeCourt to invalidate state la"s in conflict "ith the federal Constitution.

lori%a urc#ase *reat (A%as-:nIs *reat) (1819)Under the agreement, Spain ceded 7lorida to the United States, "hich, in e;change,abandoned its claims to %e;as.

ora+er Act (1900)Sponsored by Senator oseph -. 7oraer, a

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ourteent# Aen%ent (ratiie% 1868)Constitutional amendment that e;tended civil rights to freedmen and prohibited Statesfrom taing a"ay such rights "ithout due process.

ourt# part sste (1896-1932) term scholars have used to describe national politics from 1#?K1#+!, "hen

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Protestant Christian movement emphasiDing the literal truth of the -ible and opposingreligious modernism, "hich sought to reconcile religion and science. It "as especiallystrong in the -aptist Church and the Church of Christ, first organiDed in 1#0?.

un%aental :r%ers (1639)*rafted by settlers in the Connecticut

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greater maret liberaliDation, access to the &est, and ultimately the end of communistrule.

&lass-teagall Ban+ing Reor Act (1933) la" creating the 7ederal *eposit Insurance Corporation, "hich insured individual bandeposits and ended a century/long tradition of unstable baning that had reached a crisisin the 4reat *epression.

&lorious (or Bloo%less) Re,olution (1688)

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President Lyndon ohnson8s term for his domestic policy agenda. -illed as a successor tothe 'e" *eal, the 4reat Society aimed to e;tend the post"ar prosperity to all people inmerican society by promoting civil rights and fighting poverty. 4reat Society programsincluded the &ar on Poverty, "hich e;panded the Social Security system by creatingedicare and edicaid to provide health care for the aged and the poor. ohnson alsosigned la"s protecting consumers and empo"ering community organiDations to combatpoverty at grassroots levels.green"ac+s

Paper currency issued by the Union %reasury during the Civil &ar. Inade9uately supportedby gold, 4reenbacs fluctuated in value throughout the "ar, reaching a lo" of +# cents onthe dollar.

&reen,ille' *reat o (19)Under the terms of the treaty, the iami Confederacy agreed to cede territory in the )ld'orth"est to the United States in e;change for cash payment, hunting rights and formalrecognition of their sovereign status.

&ua%alupe i%algo' *reat o (18!8)6nded the "ar "ith e;ico. e;ico agreed to cede territory reaching north"est from%e;as to )regon in e;change for 1.!= million in cash and assumed debts.

&uantKnao etention CapControversial prison facility constructed after the U.S./led invasion of fghanistan in !001.Located on territory occupied by the U.S. military, but not technically part of the UnitedStates, the facility serves as an e;tra/legal holding area for suspected terrorists.

al-=a Co,enant (1662)greement allo"ing unconverted offspring of church members to baptiDe their children. Itsignified a "aning of religious Deal among second and third generation Puritans.

arpers err7ederal arsenal in Girginia seiDed by abolitionist ohn -ro"n in 1=#. %hough -ro"n "aslater captured and e;ecuted, his raid alarmed Southerners "ho believed that 'orthernersshared in -ro"n8s e;tremism.

artor% Con,ention (181!-181)Convention of 7ederalists from five 'e" 6ngland states "ho opposed the &ar of 11! andresented the strength of Southern and &estern interests in Congress and in the &hite:ouse.

a4le-oot *ari (1930)%he highest protective tariff in the peacetime history of the United States, passed as aresult of good old/fashioned horse trading. %o the outside "orld, it smaced of uglyeconomic "arfare.

aar+et Guare (1886) ay *ay rally that turned violent "hen someone thre" a bomb into the middle of the

meeting, illing several doDen people. 6ight anarchists "ere arrested for conspiracycontributing to the disorder, although evidence lining them to the bombing "as thin.7our "ere e;ecuted, one committed suicide, and three "ere pardoned in 1#+.

a-aunceote *reat (1901) treated signed bet"een the United States and 4reat -ritain, giving mericans a freehand a free hand to build a canal in Central merica. %he treaty nullified the ClaytonK-ul"er %reaty of 1=0, "hich prohibited the -ritish or U.S. from ac9uiring territory inCentral merica.

#ea%rig#t sste

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6mployed in the %obacco colonies to encourage the importation of indentured servants,the system allo"ed an individual to ac9uire fifty acres of land if he paid for a laborer8spassage to the colony.

essians4erman troops hired from their princes by 4eorge III to aid in putting do"n the colonialinsurrection. %his hardened the resolve of merican colonists, "ho resented the use ofpaid foreign fighters.

etc# etc# Dalle%he federal government allo"ed the city of San 7rancisco to build a dam here in 1#1+.%his "as a blo" to preservationists, "ho "ished to protect the (osemite 'ational Par,"here the dam "as located.

itler-talin pact (1939)%reaty signed on ugust !+, 1#+# in "hich 4ermany and the Soviet Union agreed not tofight each other. %he fateful agreement paved the "ay for 4erman aggression againstPoland and the &estern democracies.

#ol%ing copanies company that o"ns part or all of the other companies8 stoc in order to e;tend

monopoly control. )ften, a holding company does not produce goods or services of itso"n but only e;ists to control other companies. %he Clayton nti/%rust ct of 1#12 soughtto clamp do"n on these companies "hen they obstructed competition.

oestea% Act (1862) federal la" that gave settlers 1?0 acres of land for about +0 if they lived on it for fiveyears and improved it by, for instance, building a house on it. %he act helped mae landaccessible to hundreds of thousands of "est"ard/moving settlers, but many people alsofound disappointment "hen their land "as infertile or they sa" speculators grabbing upthe best land.

oestea% tri+e (1892) strie at a Carnegie steel plant in :omestead, P.., that ended in an armed battle

bet"een the striers, three hundred armed 3Pinerton5 detectives hired by Carnegie, andfederal troops, "hich illed ten people and "ounded more than si;ty. %he strie "as partof a nation"ide "ave of labor unrest in the summer of 1#! that helped the Populistsgain some support from industrial "orers.

oo,er,illes4rim shantyto"ns "here impoverished victims of the 4reat *epression slept underne"spapers and in maeshift tents. %heir visibility @and sarcastic nameA tarnished thereputation of the :oover administration.

#ori7ontal integration%he practice perfected by ohn *.

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6dict of 'antes. fter Bing Louis QIG outla"ed Protestantism in 1?=, many :uguenotsfled else"here, including to -ritish 'orth merica.

un%re% as (1933)%he first hundred days of 7ranlin *.

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general ballot. Lie the referendum and recall, it brought democracy directly 3to thepeople,5 and helped foster a shift to"ard interest/group politics and a"ay from oldpolitical 3machines5.

;nsular Cases (1901-190!)-eginning in 1#01, a badly divided Supreme Court decreed in these cases that theConstitution did not follo" the flag. In other "ords, Puerto

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Led by Senators &illiam -orah of Idaho and :iram ohnson of California, this "as a hard/core group of militant isolationists "ho opposed the &ilsonian dream of internationalcooperation in the League of 'ations after &orld &ar I. %heir efforts played an importantpart in preventing merican participation in the international organiDation.

Eaesto4n (160)7irst permanent 6nglish settlement in 'orth merica founded by the Girginia Company.

Ea.s *reat (19!)'egotiated by Chief ustice ohn ay in an effort to avoid "ar "ith -ritain, the treatyincluded a -ritish promise to evacuate outposts on U.S. soil and pay damages for seiDedmerican vessels, in e;change for "hich, ay bound the United States to repay pre/

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ellogg-Brian% act (1928) sentimental triumph of the 1#!0s peace movement, this 1#! pact lined si;ty/t"onations in the supposed 3outla"ry of "ar5.

ent tate @ni,ersit (s#ooting 190)assacre of four college students by 'ational 4uardsmen on ay 2, 1#0, in )hio. Inresponse to 'i;on8s announcement that he had e;panded the Gietnam &ar intoCambodia, college campuses across the country e;ploded in violence. )n ay 12 and 1=,

students at historically blac acson State College in ississippi "ere protesting the "aras "ell as the Bent State shooting "hen high"ay patrolmen fired into a studentdormitory, illing t"o students.

enesianisn economic theory based on the thoughts of -ritish economist ohn aynard Beynes,holding that central bans should ad$ust interest rates and governments should use deficitspending and ta; policies to increase purchasing po"er and hence prosperity.

ing &eorge.s =ar (1!!-1!8)'orth merican theater of 6urope8s &ar of ustrian Succession that once again pitted-ritish colonists against their 7rench counterparts in the 'orth. %he peace settlement didnot involve any territorial realignment, leading to conflict bet"een 'e" 6ngland settlers

and the -ritish government.

ing #ilip.s =ar (16-166)Series of assaults by etacom, Bing Philip, on 6nglish settlements in 'e" 6ngland. %heattacs slo"ed the "est"ard migration of 'e" 6ngland settlers for several decades.

ing =illia.s =ar (1689-169)&ar fought largely bet"een 7rench trappers, -ritish settlers, and their respective Indianallies from 1?#K1?#. %he colonial theater of the larger &ar of the League of ugsburgin 6urope.

+itc#en %e"ate (199)%elevised e;change in 1#=# bet"een Soviet Premier 'iita Bhrushchev and merican Gice

President

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night of 'ovember #, 1#+. %housands more attempted to find refuge in the UnitedStates, but "ere ultimately turned a"ay due to restrictive immigration la"s.

u lu> lann e;tremist, paramilitary, right/"ing secret society founded in the mid nineteenthcentury and revived during the 1#!0s. It "as anti/foreign, anti/blac, anti/e"ish, anti/pacifist, anti/Communist, anti/internationalist, anti/evolutionist, and anti/bootlegger, butpro/nglo/Sa;on and pro/Protestant. Its members, cloaed in sheets to conceal their

identities, terroriDed freedmen and sympathetic "hites throughout the South after theCivil &ar. -y the 1#0s, Blan/style violence and *emocratic legislation succeeded invirtually disenfranchising all Southern blacs.

u lu> lan (oun%e% 1866)&hite paramilitary organiDation "hose members, cloaed in sheets to conceal theiridentities, terroriDed freedmen and sympathetic "hites throughout the South after theCivil &ar. -y the 1#0s, Blan/style violence and *emocratic legislation succeeded invirtually disenfranchising all Southern blacs.

oto *reatInternational treaty to limit greenhouse gas emissions. It "as negotiated and opened forsignatories in 1##, and too effect in !00=. lthough signed by 1?# @of 1#!A countries,

the -ush dministration re$ected the plan as too costly in !001.

$air% ras (1863)%"o "ell/armed ironclad "arships constructed for the Confederacy by a -ritish firm.Seeing to avoid "ar "ith the United States, the -ritish government purchased the t"oships for its

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$en%-$ease Bill (19!1)-ased on the motto, 3Send guns, not sons,5 this la" abandoned former pretenses ofneutrality by allo"ing mericans to sell unlimited supplies of arms to any nationdefending itself against the ;is Po"ers. Patriotically numbered 1?, the bill "as praisedas a device for eeping the nation out of &orld &ar II.

$e,itto4n

Suburban communities "ith mass/produced tract houses built in the 'e" (or andPhiladelphia metropolitan areas in the 1#=0s by &illiam Levitt and Sons. %ypicallyinhabited by "hite middle/class people "ho fled the cities in search of homes to buy fortheir gro"ing families.

$e4ins+ aair (1998

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and 'ative mericans tried to defend territory from "hite gold/seeers. %his Indianadvantage did not last long, ho"ever, as the union of these Indian fighters provedtenuous and the United States rmy soon e;acted retribution.

$oc#ner , ?e4 Jor+ (190) setbac from labor reformers, this 1#0= Supreme Court decision invalidated a state la"establishing a ten/hour day for baers. It held that the 3right to free contract5 "as implicitin the due process clause of the 7ourteenth mendment.

$on%on conoic Conerence (1933) si;ty/nation economic conference organiDed to stabiliDe international currency rates.7ranlin

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alaise speec# (199)'ational address by immy Carter in uly 1## in "hich the President chided mericanmaterialism and urged a communal spirit in the face of economic hardships. lthoughCarter intended the speech to improve both public morale and his standings as a leader, ithad the opposite effect and "as "idely perceived as a political disaster for the embattledpresident.

an#attan roect (19!2)Code name for the merican commission established in 1#2! develop the atomic bomb.%he first e;perimental bomb "as detonated on uly 1?, 1#2=, in the desert of 'e"e;ico. tomic bombs "ere then dropped on t"o cities in apan in hopes of bringing the"ar to an endR :iroshima on ugust ?, 1#2= and 'agasai on ugust #, 1#2=.

aniest estin (18!0s an% 180s)-elief that the United States "as destined by 4od to spread its 3empire of liberty5 across'orth merica. Served as a $ustification for mid/nineteenth century e;pansionism.

ar"ur , a%ison (1803)Supreme Court case that established the principle of 3$udicial revie"5Mthe idea that theSupreme Court had the final authority to determine constitutionality. @

arc# on =as#ington (1963)assive civil rights demonstration in ugust 1#?+ in support of Bennedy/bacedlegislation to secure legal protections for merican blacs. )ne of the most visuallyimpressive manifestations of the Civil

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free speech and e;pression.

cCart#is brand of vitriolic, fear/mongering anti/communism associated "ith the career ofSenator oseph cCarthy. In the early 1#=0s, Senator cCarthy used his position inCongress to baselessly accuse high/raning government officials and other mericans ofconspiracy "ith communism. %he term named after him refers to the dangerous forces ofunfairness and fear "rought by anticommunist paranoia.

cCoric+ reaper (1831)echaniDed the harvest of grains, such as "heat, allo"ing farmers to cultivate largerplots. %he introduction of the reaper in the 1+0s fueled the establishment of large/scalecommercial agriculture in the id"est.

cCulloc# , arlan% (1819)Supreme Court case that strengthened federal authority and upheld the constitutionalityof the -an of the United States by establishing that the State of aryland did not havepo"er to ta; the ban.

cinle *ari (1890)Shepherded through Congress by President &illiam cBinley, this tariff raised duties on

:a"aiian sugar and set off rene"ed efforts to secure the anne;ation of :a"aii to theUnited States.

c?ar-augen Bill (192!-1928) farm/relief bill that "as championed throughout the 1#!0s and aimed to eepagricultural prices high by authoriDing the government to buy up surpluses and sell themabroad. Congress t"ice passed the bill, but President Calvin Coolidge vetoed it in 1#!and 1#!.

eat ;nspection Act (1906) la" passed by Congress to sub$ect meat shipped over state lines to federal inspection.%he publication of Upton Sinclair8s novel, %he ungle, earlier that year so disgustedmerican consumers "ith its description of conditions in slaughterhouses and

meatpacing plants that it mobiliDed public support for government action.

ec#ani7ation o agriculture%he development of engine/driven machines, lie the combine, "hich helped todramatically increase the productivity of land in the 10s and 10s. %his processcontributed to the consolidation of agricultural business that drove many family farms outof e;istence.

ercantilis6conomic theory that closely lined a nation8s political and military po"er to its bullionreserves. ercantilists generally favored protectionism and colonial ac9uisition as meansto increase e;ports.

erriac+ an% onitor (1862)Confederate and Union ironclads, respectively, "hose successes against "ooden shipssignaled an end to "ooden "arships. %hey fought an historic, though inconse9uentialbattle in 1?!.

esti7osPeople of mi;ed Indian and 6uropean heritage, notably in e;ico.

euse-Argonne oensi,e (1918)4eneral ohn . 3-lac ac5 Pershing led merican troops in this effort to cut the 4ermanrailroad lines supplying the "estern front. It "as one of the fe" ma$or battles that

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mericans participated in during the entire "ar, and "as still under"ay "hen the "arended.

i%%leenIn trading systems, those dealers "ho operate bet"een the original producers of goodsand the retail merchants "ho sell to consumers. fter the eleventh century, 6uropeane;ploration "as driven in large part by a desire to ac9uire alluring sian goods "ithoutpaying heavy tolls to uslim middlemen.

i%%le passage%ransatlantic voyage slaves endured bet"een frica and the colonies. ortality rates "erenotoriously high.

i%nig#t u%ges (1801)7ederal $ustices appointed by ohn dams during the last days of his presidency. %heirpositions "ere revoed "hen the ne"ly/elected

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unarmed Gietnamese civilians, mostly "omen and children. %he atrocity produced outrageand reduced support for the "ar in merica and around the "orld "hen details of themassacre and an attempted cover/up "ere revealed in 1#1.

?arrati,e o t#e $ie o re%eric+ ouglass (18!)Givid autobiography of the escaped slave and reno"ned abolitionist 7rederic *ouglass.

?ational Aerican =oan urage Association (?A=A)

n organiDation founded in 1#0 to demand the vote for "omen. '&S argued that"omen should be allo"ed to vote because their responsibilities in the home and familymade them indispensable in the public decision/maing process. *uring &orld &ar I,'&S supported the "ar effort and lauded "omen8s role in the llied victory, "hichhelped to finally achieve nation"ide "oman suffrage in the 'ineteenth mendment@1#!0A.

?ational Ban+ing ste (1863)'et"or of member bans that could issue currency against purchased governmentbonds. Created during the Civil &ar to establish a stable national currency and stimulatethe sale of "ar bonds.

?ational $a"or @nion (1866-182)

%his first national labor organiDation in U.S. history "as founded in 1?? and gained?00,000 members from many parts of the "orforce, although it limited the participationof Chinese, "omen, and blacs. %he organiDation devoted much of its energy to fightingfor an eight/hour "orday before it dissolved in 1!.

?ational Reco,er A%inistration (?RA) (1933)Bno"n by its critics as the 3'ational

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native languages, "hich "ere undecipherable by 4erman and apanese spies

?a,igation $a4sSeries of la"s passed, beginning in 1?=1, to regulate colonial shippingF the acts providedthat only 6nglish ships "ould be allo"ed to trade in 6nglish and colonial ports, and thatall goods destined for the colonies "ould first pass through 6ngland.

?eutralit Act o 1939

%his act stipulated that 6uropean democracies might buy merican munitions, but only ifthey could pay in cash and transport them in their o"n ships. %he terms "ere no"n as

3Cash/and/Carry.5 It represented an effort to avoid "ar debts and protect merican arms/carriers from torpedo attacs.

?eutralit Acts o 193' 1936' an% 193Short/sighted acts passed in 1#+=, 1#+?, and 1#+ in order to prevent mericanparticipation in a 6uropean &ar. mong other restrictions, they prevented mericans fromselling munitions to foreign belligerents.

?eutralit roclaation (193)Issued by 4eorge &ashington, it proclaiming mericaJs formal neutrality in the escalatingconflict bet"een 6ngland and 7rance, a statement that enraged pro/7rench effersonians.

?e4 eal%he economic and political policies of 7ranlin

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3Small/state plan5 put forth at the Philadelphia convention, proposing e9ualrepresentation by state, regardless of population, in a unicameral legislature. Small statesfeared that the more populous states "ould dominate the agenda under a proportionalsystem.

ne4 lig#tsinisters "ho too part in the revivalist, emotive religious tradition pioneered by 4eorge&hitefield during the 4reat "aening.

?e4 ?ationalis (1912)State/interventionist reform program devised by $ournalist :erbert Croly and advocatedby %heodore

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north"est of the )hio ie (19!8)7ailed effort by the CI) after &orld &ar II to unioniDe southern "orers, especially inte;tile factories.

:peration =et"ac+ (19!)

government program to roundup and deport as many as one million illegal e;icanmigrant "orers in the United States. %he program "as promoted in part by the e;icangovernment and reflected burgeoning concerns about non/6uropean immigration tomerica.

:piu =ar (1839-18!2)&ar bet"een -ritain and China over trading rights, particularly -ritain8s desire to continueselling opium to Chinese traders. %he resulting trade agreement prompted mericans tosee similar concessions from the Chinese.

:r%ers in Council (1806-180)6dicts issued by the -ritish Cro"n closing 7rench/o"ned 6uropean ports to foreignshipping. %he 7rench responded by ordering the seiDure of all vessels entering -ritish

ports, thereby cutting off merican merchants from trade "ith both parties.

:rgani7ation o etroleu >porting Countries (:C)Cartel comprising iddle 6astern states and GeneDuela first organiDed in 1#?0. )P6Caimed to control access to and prices of oil, "resting po"er from &estern oil companiesand investors. In the process, it gradually strengthened the hand of non/&estern po"erson the "orld stage.

:sten% aniesto (18!)Secret 7ranlin Pierce administration proposal to purchase or, that failing, to "restmilitarily Cuba from Spain. )nce leaed, it "as 9uicly abandoned due to vehement

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opposition from the 'orth.

aciic Railroa% Act (1862):elped fund the construction of the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad "ith the use ofland grants and government bonds.

panic o 1819Severe financial crisis brought on primarily by the efforts of the -an of the United States

to curb overspeculation on "estern lands. It disproportionately affected the poorerclasses, especially in the &est, so"ing the seeds of acsonian *emocracy.

panic o 1836conomic crisis triggered by ban failures, elevated grain prices, and ndre" acson8sefforts to curb overspeculation on "estern lands and transportation improvements. Inresponse, President artin Gan -uren proposed the 3*ivorce -ill5, "hich pulled treasuryfunds out of the baning system altogether, contracting the credit supply. @

panic o 187inancial crash brought on by gold/fueled inflation, overspeculation and e;cess grainproduction.

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retaining high rates on most imports. President %aft angered the progressive "ing of hisparty "hen he declared it 3the best bill that the

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Signed "ith Spain "hich, fearing an nglo/merican alliance, granted mericans freenavigation of the ississippi and the disputed territory of 7lorida.

plantationLarge/scale agricultural enterprise gro"ing commercial crops and usually employingcoerced or slave labor. 6uropean settlers established plantations in frica, South merica,the Caribbean and the merican South.

latt Aen%ent (1901)7ollo"ing its military occupation, the United States successfully pressured the Cubangovernment to "rite this amendment into its constitution. It limited Cuba8s treaty/maingabilities, controlled its debt, and stipulated that the United States could intervenemilitarily to restore order "hen it sa" fit.

less , erguson (1896)n 1#? Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of segregation la"s, sayingthat as long as blacs "ere provided "ith 3separate but e9ual5 facilities, these la"s didnot violate the 7ourteenth mendment. %his decision provided legal $ustification for theim Cro" system until the 1#=0s.

polic o "ol%ness (19!)

7oreign policy ob$ective of *"ight 6isenho"er8s Secretary of State ohn 7oster *ulles,"ho believed in changing the containment strategy to one that more directly engaged theSoviet Union and attempted to roll bac communist influence around the "orld. %hispolicy led to a build/up of merica8s nuclear arsenal to threaten 3massive retaliation5against communist enemies, launching the Cold &ar8s arms race.

ontiac.s uprising (163)-loody campaign "aged by )tta"a chief Pontiac to drive the -ritish out of )hio Country.It "as brutally crushed by -ritish troops, "ho resorted to distributing blanets infected"ith smallpo; as a means to put do"n the rebellion.

on >press (1860-1861)Short/lived, speedy mail service bet"een issouri and California that relied on light"eight

riders galloping bet"een closely/placed outposts.

oor Ric#ar%.s Alanac+ (132-18)&idely read annual pamphlet edited by -en$amin 7ranlin. -est no"n for its proverbsand aphorisms emphasiDing thrift, industry, morality and common sense.

opH.s Re"ellion (1680)Pueblo Indian rebellion "hich drove Spanish settlers from 'e" e;ico.

popular so,ereignt@in the conte;t of the slavery debateA 'otion that the sovereign people of a given territoryshould decide "hether to allo" slavery. Seemingly a compromise, it "as largely opposedby 'orthern abolitionists "ho feared it "ould promote the spread of slavery to the

territories.

opulists)fficially no"n as the People8s party, the Populists represented &esterners andSoutherners "ho believed that U.S. economic policy inappropriately favored 6asternbusinessmen instead of the nation8s farmers. %heir proposals included nationaliDing therailroads, creating a graduated income ta;, and most significantly the unlimited coinageof silver.

ots%a conerence (19!)7rom uly 1 to ugust !, 1#2=, President :arry S %ruman met "ith Soviet leader oseph

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Stalin and -ritish leaders &inston Churchill and later Clement ttlee @"hen the Labourparty defeated Churchill8s Conservative partyA near -erlin to deliver an ultimatum toapanR surrender or be destroyed.

pragatis distinctive merican philosophy that emerged in the late nineteenth century around thetheory that the true value of an idea lay in its ability to solve problems. %he pragmatiststhus embraced the provisional, uncertain nature of e;perimental no"ledge. mong the

most "ell/no"n purveyors of pragmatism "ere ohn *e"ey, )liver &endell :olmes, r.,and &illiam ames.

pre%estinationCalvinist doctrine that 4od has foreordained some people to be saved and some to bedamned. %hough their fate "as irreversible, Calvinists, particularly those "ho believedthey "ere destined for salvation, sought to lead sanctified lives in order to demonstrate toothers that they "ere in fact members of the 3elect5.

priogenitureLegal principle that the oldest son inherits all family property or land. Lando"ner8syounger sons, forced to see their fortunes else"here, pioneered early e;ploration andsettlement of the mericas.

pri,ateersPrivately/o"ned armed ships authoriDed by Congress to prey on enemy shipping duringthe

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pharmaceuticals intended for human consumption. %his legislation, and additionalprovisions passed in 1#11 to strengthen it, aimed particularly at the patent medicineindustry. %he more comprehensive 7ood, *rug, and Cosmetic ct of 1#+ largely replacedthis legislation.

uritans6nglish Protestant reformers "ho sought to purify the Church of 6ngland of Catholicrituals and creeds. Some of the most devout Puritans believed that only 3visible saints5

should be admitted to church membership.5uarantine peec# (193)n important speech delivered by 7ranlin

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Reconstruction Act (186)Passed by the ne"ly/elected

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"est, beginning in the 1=0s and ending "ith the *a"es Severalty ct of 1. &ithinthese reservations, most land "as used communally, rather than o"ned individually. %heU.S. government encouraged and sometimes violently coerced 'ative mericans to stayon the reservations at all times.

responsorialCall and response style of preaching that melded Christian and frican traditions.Practiced by frican slaves in the South.

Re,olution o 18006lectoral victory of *emocratic is (1936)'aDi 4ermany, under dolf :itler, and 7ascist Italy, led by -enito ussolini, alliedthemselves together under this nefarious treaty. %he pact "as signed after both countrieshad intervened on behalf of the fascist leader 7rancisco 7ranco during the Spanish Civil&ar.

Roose,elt Corollar (190!) braDen policy of 3preventive intervention5 advocated by %heodore

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Colonies "here governors "ere appointed directly by the Bing. %hough often competentadministrators, the governors fre9uently ran into trouble "ith colonial legislatures, "hichresented the imposition of control from across the tlantic.

Rus#-Bagot agreeent (181)Signed by -ritain and the United States, it established strict limits on naval armaments inthe 4reat Laes, a first step in the full demilitariDation of the U.S./Canadian border,completed in the 10s.

Russo-Aerican *reat (182!)7i;ed the line of =2N208 as the southernmost boundary of

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treaty formally separated "hite and Indian areas of settlement.

econ% Battle o Bull Run (August 1862)Civil &ar battle that ended in a decisive victory for Confederate 4eneral

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3share5 of each year8s crop. Sharecropping "as the dominant form of southern agricultureafter the Civil &ar, and lando"ners manipulated this system to eep tenants in perpetualdebt and unable to leave their plantations.

#as.s Re"ellion (186)rmed uprising of "estern assachusetts debtors seeing lo"er ta;es and an end toproperty foreclosures. %hough 9uicly put do"n, the insurrection inspired fears of 3mobrule5 among leading

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o"ed nothing to the poor, and indeed service to the poor "ould interfere "ith this organicprocess. Some social *ar"inists also applied this theory to "hole nations and races,e;plaining that po"erful peoples "ere naturally endo"ed "ith gifts that allo"ed them togain superiority over others. %his theory provided one of the popular $ustifications for U.S.imperial ventures lie the Spanish/merican "ar.

social gospel reform movement led by Protestant ministers "ho used religious doctrine to demand

better housing and living conditions for the urban poor. Popular at the turn of thet"entieth century, it "as closely lined to the settlement house movement, "hich broughtmiddle/class, nglo/merican service volunteers into contact "ith immigrants and"oring people.

ocial ecurit Act (193) flagship accomplishment of the 'e" *eal, this la" provided for unemployment and old/age insurance financed by a payroll ta; on employers and employees. It has longremained a pillar of the 3'e" *eal )rder5.

ociet o t#e Cincinnati (esta"lis#e% 183)6;clusive, hereditary organiDation of former officers in the Continental rmy. anyresented the pretentiousness of the order, vie"ing it as a vestige of pre/

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precisely "here e;ican forces had attaced merican troops.

putni+ (19)Soviet satellite first launched into 6arth orbit on )ctober 2, 1#=. %his scientificachievement mared the first time human beings had put a man/made ob$ect into orbitand pushed the USS< noticeably ahead of the United States in the Space

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the SueD Canal, "hich had been o"ned mostly by 7rench and -ritish stocholders. %hecrisis led to a -ritish and 7rench attac on 6gypt, "hich failed "ithout aid from the UnitedStates. %he SueD Crisis mared an important turning point in the post/colonial iddle 6astand highlighted the rising importance of oil in "orld affairs.

ugar Act (16!)*uty on imported sugar from the &est Indies. It "as the first ta; levied on the colonistsby the cro"n and "as lo"ered substantially in response to "idespread protests.

un"elt%he fifteen/state crescent through the merican South and South"est that e;periencedterrific population and productivity e;pansion during &orld &ar II and particularly in thedecades after the "ar, eclipsing the old industrial 'ortheast @the 37rostbelt5A.

suppl-si%e econoics6conomic theory that underlay

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*ari o A"oinations (1828)'ote"orthy for its unprecedentedly high duties on imports. Southerners vehementlyopposed the %ariff, arguing that it hurt Southern farmers, "ho did not en$oy theprotection of tariffs, but "ere forced to pay higher prices for manufactures.

*eapot oe scan%al (1921) ta"dry affair involving the illegal lease of priceless naval oil reserves in %eapot *ome,&yoming and 6l :ills, California. %he scandal, "hich implicated President :arding8s

Secretary of the Interior, "as one of several that gave his administration a reputation forcorruption. @

*eller Aen%ent (1898) proviso to President &illiam cBinley8s "ar plans that proclaimed to the "orld that"hen the United States had overthro"n Spanish misrule, it "ould give Cuba its freedom.%he amendment testified to the ostensibly 3anti/imperialist5 designs of the initial "arplans.

*ennessee Dalle Aut#orit (*DA) (1933))ne of the most revolutionary of the 'e" *eal public "ors pro$ects, the %G broughtcheap electric po"er, full employment, lo"/cost housing, and environmentalimprovements to mericans in the %ennessee Galley.

*enure o :ice Act (186)

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*#e an =it#out a Countr (1863)6d"ard 6verett :ale8s fictional account of a treasonous soldier8s $ourneys in e;ile. %heboo "as "idely read in the 'orth, inspiring greater devotion to the Union.

*#irteent# Aen%ent (186)Constitutional amendment prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude.7ormer Confederate States "ere re9uired to ratify the amendment prior to gaining

reentry into the Union.

t#ree-it#s coproise (18)*etermined that each slave "ould be counted as three/fifths of a person for the purposeof apportioning ta;es and representation. %he compromise granted disproportionatepolitical po"er to Southern slave states.

t#ree-sister aringgricultural system employed by 'orth merican Indians as early as 1000 .*.F maiDe,beans and s9uash "ere gro"n together to ma;imiDe yields.*ippecanoe' Battle o (1811)

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6;change of rum, slaves and molasses bet"een the 'orth merican Colonies, frica andthe &est Indies. small but immensely profitable subset of the tlantic trade.

*ripolitan =ar (1801-180)7our/year conflict bet"een the merican 'avy and the 'orth/frican nation of %ripoli overpiracy in the editerranean. efferson, a staunch noninterventionist, reluctantly deployedmerican forces, eventually securing a peace treaty "ith %ripoli.

*ruan octrine (19!)President %ruman8s universal pledge of support for any people fighting any communist orcommunist/inspired threat. %ruman presented the doctrine to Congress in 1#2 in supportof his re9uest for 200 million to defend 4reece and %urey against Soviet/bacedinsurgencies.trust mechanism by "hich one company grants control over its operations, througho"nership of its stoc, to another company. %he Standard )il Company became no"nfor this practice in the 10s as it eliminated its competition by taing control of smalleroil companies.

turnpi+ePrivately/funded, toll/based public road constructed in the early nineteenth century to

facilitate commerce.

*uscarora =ar (111-113)-egan "ith an Indian attac on 'e"bern, 'orth Carolina. fter the %uscaroras "eredefeated, remaining Indian survivors migrated north"ard, eventually $oining the Iro9uoisConfederacy as its si;th nation.

*us+egee ;nstitute normal and industrial school led by -ooer %. &ashington in %usegee, labama. Itfocused on training young blac students in agriculture and the trades to help themachieve economic independence. &ashington $ustified segregated, vocational training as anecessary first step on the road to racial e9uality, although critics accused him of beingtoo 3accomodationist5.

*4ee% Ring symbol of 4ilded ge corruption, 3-oss5 %"eed and his deputies ran the 'e" (or City*emocratic party in the 1?0s and s"indled !00 million from the city through bribery,graft, and vote/buying. -oss %"eed "as eventually $ailed for his crimes and died behindbars.

@-"oats4erman submarines, named for the 4erman Unterseeboot, or 3undersea boat,5 proveddeadly for llied ships in the "ar Done. U/boat attacs played an important role indra"ing the United States into the "ar.

@ncle *o.s Ca"in (182)

:arriet -eecher Sto"e8s "idely read novel that dramatiDed the horrors of slavery. Itheightened 'orthern support for abolition and escalated the sectional conflict. @

@n%ergroun% Railroa%Informal net"or of volunteers that helped runa"ay slaves escape from the South andreach free/soil Canada. Seeing to halt the flo" of runa"ay slaves to the 'orth, Southernplanters and congressmen pushed for a stronger fugitive slave la".

@n%er4oo% *ari (1913)%his tariff provided for a substantial reduction of rates and enacted an unprecedented,graduated federal income ta;. -y 1#1, revenue from the income ta; surpassed receipts

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from the tariff, a gap that has since been vastly "idened.

@nion $eague

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surrender of "hat remained of the 4erman government.

Dic+s"urg' siege o (1863)%"o and half month siege of a Confederate fort on the ississippi

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Constitution grants Congress the po"er to regulate interstate commerce. s a result,reformers turned their attention to the federal government, "hich no" held sole po"er toregulate the railroad industry.

=a%e-a,is BillPassed by Congressional

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s"eeping po"ers over the U.S. economy and "as abolished in 'ovember 1#2= soon afterapan8s defeat.

=ar Reugee Boar% (19!!) United States agency formed to help rescue e"s from 4erman/occupied territories andto provide relief to inmates of 'aDi concentration camps. %he agency performed noble"or, but it did not begin operations until very late in the "ar, after millions had alreadybeen murdered.

=atergateSeries of scandals that resulted in President

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*iplomatic conflict bet"een 7rance and the United States "hen merican envoys to7rance "ere ased to pay a hefty bribe for the privilege of meeting "ith the 7renchforeign minister. any in the U.S. called for "ar against 7rance, "hile merican sailorsand privateers "aged an undeclared "ar against 7rench merchants in the Caribbean.

Jalta conerence (19!)eeting of 7ranlin