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4/19/2010 1 Introduction to Global Health Introduction to Global Health April 2010 April 2010 1 Global Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea Global Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea Diarrhea is the second leading cause of death in children under five years of age (*): Pneumonia: 2.0 million/year Diarrheal disease: 1.9 million/year Malaria: 853 thousand/year Measles: 395 thousand/year HIV/AIDS: 321 thousand/year (*) Excluding neonatal causes The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) & World Health Organization (WHO), 2009. 2 Cause Causespecific childhood deaths* in specific childhood deaths* in Developing Nations Developing Nations (*) Under 5 years of age UNICEF/WHO, Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying and what can be done, 2009 3 Global Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea Global Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea “Why is diarrhea, an easily preventable and treatable disease, one that in the developed world is considered little more than an inconvenience, causing an estimated 1.5 million underfive deaths every year?” Time Magazine – Oct. 16, 2006 4 Module on Childhood Diarrhea Module on Childhood Diarrhea Biomedical perspectives Epidemiological perspectives History of a global health initiative 5 Alfonso Torres, DVM, MS, PhD Alfonso Torres, DVM, MS, PhD Professor & Associate Dean for Public Policy Professor & Associate Dean for Public Policy April 1, 2010 April 1, 2010 6

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Page 1: Global Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea - Cornell University · Global Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea ... reintroduction of milk into the child's diet, due ... Acquired through passive

4/19/2010

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Introduction to Global HealthIntroduction to Global Health

April 2010April 2010

1

Global Aspects of Childhood DiarrheaGlobal Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea

► Diarrhea is the second leading cause of death in children under five years of age (*):

Pneumonia:  2.0 million/year

Diarrheal disease: 1.9 million/year

Malaria: 853 thousand/year

Measles: 395 thousand/year

HIV/AIDS: 321 thousand/year

► (*)Excluding neonatal causesThe United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

& World Health Organization (WHO), 2009.

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CauseCause‐‐specific childhood deaths* in specific childhood deaths* in Developing NationsDeveloping Nations

(*) Under 5 years of age

UNICEF/WHO, Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying and what can be done, 2009

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Global Aspects of Childhood DiarrheaGlobal Aspects of Childhood Diarrhea

► “Why is diarrhea, an easily preventable and treatable disease, one that in the developed world is considered little more than an inconvenience, causing an estimated 1.5 million under‐five deaths every year?”

Time Magazine – Oct. 16, 2006

4

Module on Childhood DiarrheaModule on Childhood Diarrhea

► Biomedical perspectives

► Epidemiological perspectives

► History of a global health initiative

5

Alfonso Torres, DVM, MS, PhDAlfonso Torres, DVM, MS, PhD

Professor & Associate Dean for Public PolicyProfessor & Associate Dean for Public Policy

April 1, 2010April 1, 2010

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Biomedical PerspectivesBiomedical Perspectives

► Intestinal structure and function

► DiarrheaGeneral causes

Types of diarrhea

Prevention & treatmentPrevention & treatment

► RotavirusesVirus characteristics & replication

Pathogenesis of rotaviral diarrhea

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GastroGastro‐‐Intestinal SystemIntestinal System

► The gastro‐intestinal system has two main purposes:

Nutrition: • Process, digest, and absorb nutrients

• Maintenance of water &• Maintenance of water & electrolyte balance

• Eliminate waste and harmful substances

Defense:• Protect the body from external physical and biological agents

8

Intestinal TrackIntestinal Track

► The intestinal track is composed of:

► Small Intestine:Duodenum (25 cm)

Jejunum (2.5 m)Jejunum ( .5 m)

Ileum (3.5 m)

► Large intestine1.5 m

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Small Intestine StructureSmall Intestine Structure

► MesenteryAttachment & support

Holds blood vessels, & nerves

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Small Intestine StructureSmall Intestine Structure

► MuscularisTwo smooth muscle layers

• Outer is longitudinal

• Inner is concentric

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Small Intestine StructureSmall Intestine Structure

► Sub‐MucosaConnective tissue

Nerve endings, blood & lymph capillaries

Lymphoreticular tissue

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Small Intestine StructureSmall Intestine Structure

► MucosaCrypts

Villous (only in small intestine)

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Intestinal Crypts & VilliIntestinal Crypts & Villi

Small Intestine Large Intestine

Intestinal Villi

Intestinal Crypts

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Intestinal Cell DynamicsIntestinal Cell Dynamics

Cell migration► Stem cells are located at the bottom of crypts

Stem cells replicate  and differentiate into several specialized enterocytes 

Enterocytes are pushed up changing 

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function as they migrate up the villous

Old enterocytes are slough off at the tips of the villous and proteins are digested

Stem cells

Regeneration of Intestinal MucosaRegeneration of Intestinal Mucosa

► As long as the crypt stem cells are not affected, the intestinal mucosa continuously regenerate even after injury

► The entire small intestinal epithelium is replaced every 3‐5 daysp y y

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Intestinal CellsIntestinal CellsEnterocytes

Intestinal Villous

Goblet Cells 17

Intestinal CellsIntestinal CellsEnterocytes Microvilli & Glycocalyx

Intestinal Villous

Goblet Cells 18

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Intestinal Surface AreaIntestinal Surface Area

► The entire intestinal surface is amplified by:

Intestinal folds (~3x)

Intestinal villi (~10x)

Enterocyte microvilli (~20x)

► Total surface area is amplified ~1,000 fold

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Intestinal Surface AreaIntestinal Surface Area

► In a typical adult, the entire active intestinal surface is approximate 2,000 sq feet

The size of a tennis court!

► This is the surface available for intestinal digestion of nutrients and the maintenance of water and electrolyte balance

78’

36’

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Intestinal Fluid Dynamics (Adult)Intestinal Fluid Dynamics (Adult)

► Total intestinal fluids:Ingested fluids (diet): 1.5 liters (51 oz)

Secreted fluids: 7.0  liters (237 oz)• Gastric, salivary, pancreatic, biliary, & intestinal  secretions

► Intestinal absorption:Small intestine: 6.5 liters (220 oz)

Large intestine: 1.9 liters (64 oz)

► Fecal fluids:0.1 liters (3.4 oz)

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Intestinal Electrolyte Dynamics (Adult)Intestinal Electrolyte Dynamics (Adult)

► Small intestine:Absorbs net amounts of water, Na+, CL‐, and K+

Secretes HCO3‐

► Large intestine:► arge intestine:Absorbs net amounts of water, Na+ and CL‐

Secretes both K+ and HCO3‐

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Intestinal Electrolyte Dynamics (Adult)Intestinal Electrolyte Dynamics (Adult)

► Total sodium absorbed/day: 25‐35g/dayIngested: 5‐8 g of sodium/day

Secreted: 20 – 30g of sodium/day

► Absorption of sodium helps in absorbing sugars from the intestinal tract

► Normally less than 0.5 g of sodium is lost in the feces per day

1 to 5 milliequivalents of sodium and chloride ions in fecal output 

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Sodium & Water TransportSodium & Water Transport

► Active transport of sodium through the microvilli into the enterocyte

► Followed by active transport of sodium through basolateral membranes

► Osmosis of water into the paracellular spaces► Osmosis of water into the paracellular spaces 

H2O

H2O

H2O

Na (147 mEq/L)

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Small Intestine Nutrient AbsorptionSmall Intestine Nutrient Absorption

► Absorbed water, electrolytes and water soluble nutrients reach the general circulation through the villous venous capillaries

► Absorbed fats and fat soluble nutrients reach the blood through the villous lacteals & lymphatic duct

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Fecal CompositionFecal Composition

► 75% water (~100ml)

► 25% solids30% dead bacteria

10‐20% fat

10‐20% inorganic matter10 20% inorganic matter

3% protein

30% undigested roughage

26

Intestinal Immune SystemIntestinal Immune System

► Gut‐associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)Peyer’s patches

Other lymphoid aggregates

Plasma cells in intestinal sub mucosa

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Germinal Center

Lymphoid Follicle

Dome

“M” Cells

Plasma Cells

Intestinal ImmunityIntestinal Immunity

► Active secretory immunityUptake of intestinal antigens (“M” cells)

Antigen presentation in lymph nodes

Production of antibodies in intestinal plasma cells

Secretion of antibodies into intestinal lumen

► Passive secretory immunityIngestion of breast milk antibodies

• Colostrum

• Milk

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Secretory IgA Antibodies (Secretory IgA Antibodies (sIgAsIgA))

► Secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) is the main antibody protecting mucosal surfaces

Respiratory

Gastrointestinal

Genitourinary

Colostrum and breast milk are very rich in sIgA antibodies

► Between 3 and 5g of sIgA are actively secreted into the intestinal lumen each day

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Secretory IgA Antibodies (Secretory IgA Antibodies (sIgAsIgA))

► The sIgAmolecule is a dimer antibody joined together by the “J” piece with an associated “secretory” component

► The secretory component of sIgAprotects the immunoglobulin from p gdigestion by proteolytic enzymes, thus sIgA can survive in the gastrointestinal tract environment providing protection against intestinal microbes

The dimeric IgA molecule.1 H-chain2 L-chain3 J-chain4 Secretory component

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Secretory IgA Antibodies (sIgA)Secretory IgA Antibodies (sIgA)

► Ingested sIgA from breast colostrum and milk coat the intestinal tract providing passive protection against intestinal microbes

► A portion of the ingested sIgA can be absorbed from the intestinal tract and transported to other mucosal psites like the respiratory tract

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Definition of DiarrheaDefinition of Diarrhea

► “Diarrhea is the passage of unusually loose or watery stools, usually at least three times in a 24 hour period” 

► However, it is the consistency of the stools rather than the frequency that is q ymost important

► Diarrhea is due to an imbalance between digestion, secretion and absorption at the intestinal level

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Normal HomeostasisNormal Homeostasis

Water Intake

GI secretion

Water Reabsorption

Fecal water

ININ OUTOUT

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Malabsorption DiarrheaMalabsorption Diarrhea

Water Intake

GI secretion

ININ OUTOUT

Fecal water

Water Reabsorption

34

Secretory DiarrheaSecretory Diarrhea

Water Intake

GI secretion

ININ OUTOUT

Fecal water

Water Reabsorption

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General Causes of DiarrheaGeneral Causes of Diarrhea

► Bacterial infections

► Viral infections

► Food intolerances

► Parasites

R i di i► Reaction to medicines

► Intestinal diseases

► Functional bowel disorders

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Clinical Types of DiarrheaClinical Types of Diarrhea

► Acute watery diarrheaToo much secretion (V. cholera, E. coli), or 

Lack of absorption (Rotaviruses)

► Acute bloody diarrhea (Dysentery)Intestinal damage (Shigella)Intestinal damage (Shigella)

► Persistent diarrhea (> 14 days duration)Severe undernourishment

AIDS

► Diarrhea with severe malnutrition Marasmus or kwashiorkor

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Prevention of DiarrheaPrevention of Diarrhea

► Sanitation to prevent fecal‐oral transmission of intestinal pathogens

Sanitary disposition of human excreta

Adequate source of clean water

Washing of hands

Washing or peeling of fresh fruits and fresh vegetables

Proper cooking of foods

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Global Water ResourcesGlobal Water Resources

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Salt Water (97.5%)

Fresh Water (2.5%)

Polar Caps (70.0 %)

Soil Moisture (29.0%)

Surface Water (1.0%)

TOTAL WATER FRESH WATER

Prevention of DiarrheaPrevention of Diarrhea

► Maintenance of adequate level of nutrition

► Adequate provision of breast colostrum and milk for infants

► State of general good health► State of general good healthPrevention of intestinal parasites

► Hygienic handling of diarrheal patients

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Treatment of DiarrheaTreatment of Diarrhea

► Provision of water and electrolytes to prevent dehydration and electrolyte imbalances

Oral therapy

IV therapy in severe cases

► Maintenance of adequate nutritionqSoft easily digestible diets

Maintenance of breast feeding of infants

► No need for routine use of antibiotics!

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Causes of Childhood DiarrheaCauses of Childhood Diarrhea

► Childhood diarrhea is a common symptom of gastrointestinal infections caused by a large variety of pathogens, Rotaviruses being one of the most common causes around the globe

25.4

25.15.6

4.54.4

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Rotaviruses

E. coli

Shigella

Campylobacter

Salmonella

Other

% Frequency

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Rotaviruses (“Rota”= wheel)Rotaviruses (“Rota”= wheel)

► Genus: ReoviridaeNon‐enveloped

Double stranded RNA viruses

Segmented genome

► Family: Rotavirus

75 nm

► Family: Rotavirus3 layered capsid

11 ds RNA Segments

7 Groups:• A, B, C, D, E, F and G. 

• Type A, most common in humans

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Rotaviruses Rotaviruses –– Virus StructureVirus Structure

► 6 Structural proteins (VP)VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4, VP6 and VP7

► 6 Non‐structural proteins (NSP)NSP1, NSP2, NSP3, NSP4, NSP5 and NSP6

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Rotavirus Serotype DeterminantsRotavirus Serotype Determinants

► Grouped by neutralizing antibody responses to each of the two outer capsid proteins

VP7 (G serotype): 10  “G” serotypes• 80% comprise  G1, G2, G3, and G4 human rotavirus strains

• G9 emerging as an important strain

VP4 (P serotype): 7  “P” serotypes 

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Rotavirus SheddingRotavirus Shedding

► During acute infection, one gram of feces can contain up to 1012 infectious particles

Only 10‐100 particles are required to transmit infection to another person

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1 gram = 100 billion 1 gram = 100 billion infective dosesinfective doses

Rotavirus Environmental StabilityRotavirus Environmental Stability

► Resistant to lipid solvent disinfectants

► Can remain infectious in fecal matter for 7 months at room temperature

47

Rotavirus ReplicationRotavirus Replication

► Rotavirus targets the mature enterocyte cells located in the upper areas of the intestinal villi

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Rotavirus infection of enterocytes results in cell death Rotavirus infection of enterocytes results in cell death and villous atrophyand villous atrophy

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Rotavirus infection of enterocytes results in cell death Rotavirus infection of enterocytes results in cell death and villous atrophyand villous atrophy

Virus Shedding

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Malabsorption Diarrhea

Shedding

Other Effects of Rotavirus InfectionOther Effects of Rotavirus Infection

► Enterotoxic NSP4 protein:Induces age‐ and calcium ion‐dependent chloride secretion

Disrupts SGLT1 transporter‐mediated reabsorption of water 

Apparently reduces activity of microvilli membrane disaccharidases 

Possibly activates the calcium ion‐dependent secretory reflexes of the enteric nervous system

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Other Effects of Rotavirus InfectionOther Effects of Rotavirus Infection

► Post‐rotavirus infection, immature enterocytes are deficient in secretion of lactase leading to milk intolerance which can persist for weeks

► A recurrence of mild diarrhea often follows the reintroduction of milk into the child's diet, due to ,bacterial fermentation of the lactose in the intestinal lumen

► Normal digestive function returns when only when the villous epithelium has fully recovered 

At least 5 to 7 days in the absence of additional injury

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Rotavirus TransmissionRotavirus Transmission

► Rotaviruses are mainly transmitted thru the fecal‐oral route

Some indications of probable respiratory route infection

► Common infections in children and adultsNo clinical effects on adultsNo clinical effects on adults

Severe clinical diarrhea in children• High case fatality rate in untreated children

► Children with Rotavirus diarrhea can shed virus for4 to 56 days (average 10 days)

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Rotavirus TransmissionRotavirus Transmission

► Nosocomial Rotavirus infections occur frequently in contaminated nurseries

32% of rotaviral diarrhea diagnosed in children in developing countries was acquired while in the hospital

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Rotavirus ImmunityRotavirus Immunity

► Levels of serum (IgG type) antibodies are not associated with rotavirus protection

Acquired through passive maternal antibodies or acquired through infection

► However, levels of mucosal antibodies, particularly of sIgA antibodies has been demonstrated to provide good immunity against rotavirus infection

Acquired through passive ingestion of maternal colostrum & milk or acquired through active intestinal infection

Protective antibodies are induced by rotavirus VP4 and VP7 surface proteins

55

Discussion Time …Discussion Time …

► Size of countries in relation to prevalence of childhood diarrhea found in children aged 0‐4

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