Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site · 4 Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site Ecological Character Description Definitions of words associated with ecological character

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site

Ecological Character Description

Acknowledgements

This document was informed by the following technical working group

participants: Gavin Prentice, Jarred Obst, Helen Arundel and Stephen Ryan

(Glenelg Hopkins Catchment Management Authority), David Ryan, Marcel Hoog

Antink and Don Tumney (Parks Victoria), David Pitts, Rachel Pritchard and Garry

Peterson (DELWP), Mark Bachmann, Lachlan Farrington, Lauren Veale and

Bryan Haywood (Nature Glenelg Trust), Maureen Christie (Birdlife South East

SA), Golo Mauer (formerly Birdlife Australia), Nelson Coastcare Group, local

landholders and the Nelson and Tarragal communities. In addition, Damein Bell,

CEO Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation, provided guidance

in relation to indigenous cultural values. The Commonwealth Department of

Environment and Energy provided valuable feedback during document

development. Leila Huebner provided key reference material, historical

correspondence regarding restoration of Long Swamp, technical input at

workshops, and the list of wetland plant species presented in Appendix D, her

contributions were invaluable. We also acknowledge the authors of publications

referenced in this document for additional information and advice provided.

Symbols for diagrams courtesy of the Integration and Application Network

(ian.umces.edu/symbols), University of Maryland Centre for Environmental

Science.

Authors

Butcher, R., Hale, J., Brooks, S. and Cottingham, P.

Citation

Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (2017). Ecological

Character Description for Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, East Melbourne, Victoria.

Steering committee membership

The steering committee was comprised of the following: Gavin Prentice, Helen

Arundel and Adam Bester (Glenelg Hopkins Catchment Management Authority),

Andrea White and Peter Lawson (DELWP), Bernadette Hoare (Parks Victoria)

and the Commonwealth Department of Environment and Energy.

Photo credit

Bridgewater Lakes R. Butcher

© The State of Victoria Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning 2017

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. You are free to re-use the work under that licence, on the condition that you credit the State of Victoria as author. The licence does not apply to any images, photographs or branding, including the Victorian Coat of Arms, the Victorian Government logo and the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP) logo. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

ISBN 978-1-76047-943-5 (pdf/online)

Disclaimer

This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.

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1

Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................... 4

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................... 7

Executive summary ......................................................................................................................................... 8

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13

1.1 Site details .................................................................................................................................... 13

1.2 Statement of purpose .................................................................................................................. 13

1.3 Relevant treaties legislation and regulations ........................................................................... 15

1.4 Preparing the ECD ....................................................................................................................... 17

2 General Description of the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site ...................... 18

2.1 Location ........................................................................................................................................ 18

2.2 Overview of the site ..................................................................................................................... 19

2.3 Wetland types .............................................................................................................................. 21

2.3.1 Freshwater wetlands ................................................................................................................... 21

2.3.2 Glenelg Estuary ........................................................................................................................... 21

2.3.3 Beach and dune system ............................................................................................................. 22

2.3.4 Ramsar wetland types ................................................................................................................. 23

2.4 Ramsar criteria ............................................................................................................................ 27

3 Components, processes, services and benefits ...................................................................... 33

3.1 Definitions .................................................................................................................................... 33

3.2 Identifying critical components and processes ....................................................................... 33

3.3 Supporting components and processes ................................................................................... 35

3.3.1 Climate .......................................................................................................................................... 35

3.3.2 Geomorphic setting ..................................................................................................................... 37

3.3.3 Water quality ................................................................................................................................ 39

3.3.4 Vegetation community: Dune scrub ......................................................................................... 40

3.4 Critical components .................................................................................................................... 41

3.4.1 Hydrology ..................................................................................................................................... 42

3.4.2 Vegetation type and extent ......................................................................................................... 48

3.4.3 Fish diversity and abundance .................................................................................................... 54

3.4.4 Waterbird diversity and abundance .......................................................................................... 55

3.5 Critical processes ........................................................................................................................ 57

3.5.1 Stratification ................................................................................................................................. 57

3.6 Cultural services .......................................................................................................................... 60

3.6.1 Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Statement of Continuing Connection and

Commitment ................................................................................................................................................... 60

3.6.2 South East Aboriginal Focus Group – Statement of Connection ........................................... 61

3.6.3 Recreation and tourism .............................................................................................................. 62

3.7 Critical supporting services ....................................................................................................... 62

3.7.1 Supports a diversity of wetland types ....................................................................................... 62

3.7.2 Special features (dune slacks) ................................................................................................... 63

Contents

2 Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site


3.7.3 Provides physical habitat for waterbirds .................................................................................. 64

3.7.4 Supports threatened species and communities ...................................................................... 65

3.7.5 Ecological connectivity ............................................................................................................... 67

4 Limits of Acceptable Change ..................................................................................................... 70

4.1 Process for setting Limits of Acceptable Change ................................................................... 70

4.2 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) for Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay

Ramsar Site .................................................................................................................................................... 71

5 Threats to ecological character ................................................................................................. 75

5.1 Agriculture and aquaculture....................................................................................................... 75

5.1.1 Wood and pulp plantations ........................................................................................................ 75

5.2 Energy production and mining .................................................................................................. 76

5.2.1 Oil and gas drilling ...................................................................................................................... 76

5.3 Biological resource use .............................................................................................................. 77

5.4 Human intrusion and disturbance ............................................................................................. 77

5.4.1 Recreational activities ................................................................................................................. 77

5.5 Natural systems modifications .................................................................................................. 78

5.5.1 Fire and fire suppression ............................................................................................................ 78

5.5.2 Dams and water management .................................................................................................... 79

5.5.3 Other ecosystem modification - estuary opening .................................................................... 79

5.6 Invasive and other problematic species and genes ................................................................ 80

5.6.1 Invasive non-native plants and animals .................................................................................... 80

5.6.2 Problematic native species (plants and animals) .................................................................... 81

5.7 Pollution ....................................................................................................................................... 81

5.7.1 Agricultural and forestry effluents (nutrients and sediments) ............................................... 81

5.7.2 Industrial and military effluents ................................................................................................. 82

5.7.3 Garbage and solid waste ............................................................................................................ 82

5.8 Climate change ............................................................................................................................ 82

5.8.1 Habitat shifting and alteration (sea level rise) .......................................................................... 83

5.8.2 Droughts ....................................................................................................................................... 83

5.8.3 Temperature extremes ................................................................................................................ 83

5.8.4 Storms and flooding .................................................................................................................... 83

5.9 Summary of threats ..................................................................................................................... 83

6 Changes since designation ........................................................................................................ 85

7 Knowledge gaps .......................................................................................................................... 86

8 Monitoring needs ......................................................................................................................... 87

9 Communication and Education Messages ............................................................................... 90

10 References ................................................................................................................................... 91

Appendix A: Justification for critical components, processes and services. ...................................... 100

Components and processes ...................................................................................................................... 100

Services and benefits .................................................................................................................................. 101



3

Appendix B: Other biota within the site .................................................................................................... 106

Invertebrates ................................................................................................................................................ 106

Amphibians and reptiles ............................................................................................................................. 106

Mammals ...................................................................................................................................................... 107

Southern bent-wing bat............................................................................................................................... 107

Other mammals ............................................................................................................................................ 108

Appendix C: Conceptual models ............................................................................................................... 109

Appendix D: Threatened species and communities ................................................................................ 112

Appendix E: Wetland birds recorded at the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site .......... 120

Appendix F: Fish species and ecology ..................................................................................................... 124

Appendix G: Plant List ................................................................................................................................ 131



Definitions of words associated with ecological character descriptions (DEWHA 2008) and references cited

within unless otherwise indicated).

Benefits Benefits/services are defined in accordance with the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

definition of ecosystem services as "the benefits that people receive from ecosystems (Ramsar

Convention 2005), Resolution IX.1 Annex A).

See also “Ecosystem Services”.

Biodisparity The range of morphologies and reproductive styles in a community. The biodisparity of a wetland

community is determined by the diversity and predictability of its habitats in time and space.

Biogeographic

region

A scientifically rigorous determination of regions as established using biological and physical

parameters such as climate, soil type, vegetation cover, etc. (Ramsar Convention 2005).

Biological

diversity

The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine

and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes

diversity within species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity), of ecosystems

(ecosystem diversity), and of ecological processes. This definition is largely based on the one

contained in Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Ramsar Convention 2005).

Change in

ecological

character

Defined as the human-induced adverse alteration of any ecosystem component, process, and/or

ecosystem benefit/service (Ramsar Convention 2005), Resolution IX.1 Annex A).

Community An assemblage of organisms characterised by a distinctive combination of species occupying a

common environment and interacting with one another (ANZECC and ARMCANZ 2000).

Community

Composition

All the types of taxa present in a community (ANZECC and ARMCANZ 2000).

Conceptual

model

Wetland conceptual models express ideas about components and processes deemed important

for wetland ecosystems (Gross 2003).

Contracting

Parties

Countries that are Member States to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands; 159 as at March

2010. Membership in the Convention is open to all states that are members of the United

Nations, one of the UN specialised agencies, or the International Atomic Energy Agency, or is a

Party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Critical stage Meaning stage of the life cycle of wetland-dependent species. Critical stages being those

activities (breeding, migration stopovers, moulting etc.) which if interrupted or prevented from

occurring may threaten long-term conservation of the species (Ramsar Convention 2005).

Ecological

character

the combination of the ecosystem components, processes and benefits/services that

characterise the wetland at a given point in time. [Within this context, ecosystem benefits are

defined in accordance with the MA definition of ecosystem services as “the benefits that people

receive from ecosystems”.] (Resolution IX.1 Annex A) (Ramsar 2012).

Ecosystems The complex of living communities (including human communities) and non-living environment

(Ecosystem Components) interacting (through Ecological Processes) as a functional unit which

provides inter alia a variety of benefits to people (Ecosystem Services) (Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment 2005).

Ecosystem

components

Include the physical, chemical and biological parts of a wetland (from large scale to very small

scale, for example habitat, species and genes) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005).

Ecosystem

processes

The changes or reactions which occur naturally within wetland systems. They may be physical,

chemical or biological. (Ramsar Convention 1996), Resolution VI.1 Annex A). They include all

those processes that occur between organisms and within and between populations and

communities, including interactions with the non-living environment that result in existing

ecosystems and bring about changes in ecosystems over time (Australian Heritage Commission

2002).

Ecosystem

services

The benefits that people receive or obtain from an ecosystem. The components of ecosystem

services are provisioning (for example food and water), regulating (for example flood control),

cultural (for example spiritual, recreational), and supporting (for example nutrient cycling,

ecological value). (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). See also “Benefits”.

Glossary



5

Electrical

conductivity

See Salinity below

Endemic endemic species (Guidelines for Criterion 7) - a species that is unique to one biogeographical

region, i.e., it is found nowhere else in the world. A group of fishes may be indigenous to a

subcontinent with some species endemic to a part of that subcontinent (Ramsar Convention

2009).

Endemism The ecological state of being unique to a geographic location – see endemic.

Fluvial

geomorphology

The study of water-shaped landforms (Gordon et al. 1999).

Geomorphology The study of the evolution and configuration of landforms.

Indigenous

species

A species that originates and occurs naturally in a particular country (Ramsar Convention 2005).

Limits of

Acceptable

Change

The variation that is considered acceptable in a particular component or process of the

ecological character of the wetland without indicating change in ecological character which may

lead to a reduction or loss of the criteria for which the site was Ramsar listed’ (modified from

definition adopted by (Phillips 2006).

List of Wetlands

of International

Importance ("the

Ramsar List")

The list of wetlands which have been designated by the Ramsar Contracting Party in which they

reside as internationally important, according to one or more of the criteria that have been

adopted by the Conference of the Parties.

Ramsar City in Iran, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, where the Convention on Wetlands was signed

on 2 February 1971; thus, the Convention's short title, "Ramsar Convention on Wetlands".

Ramsar Criteria Criteria for Identifying Wetlands of International Importance, used by Contracting Parties and

advisory bodies to identify wetlands as qualifying for the Ramsar List on the basis of

representativeness or uniqueness or of biodiversity values.

Ramsar

Convention

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat. Ramsar

(Iran), 2 February 1971. UN Treaty Series No. 14583. As amended by the Paris Protocol, 3

December 1982, and Regina Amendments, 28 May 1987. The abbreviated names "Convention

on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)" or "Ramsar Convention" are more commonly used.

Ramsar

Information

Sheet (RIS)

The form upon which Contracting Parties record relevant data on proposed Wetlands of

International Importance for inclusion in the Ramsar Database; covers identifying details like

geographical coordinates and surface area, criteria for inclusion in the Ramsar List and wetland

types present, hydrological, ecological, and socioeconomic issues among others, ownership and

jurisdictions, and conservation measures taken and needed.

Ramsar List The List of Wetlands of International Importance.

Ramsar Sites Wetlands designated by the Contracting Parties for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of

International Importance because they meet one or more of the Ramsar Criteria.

Waterbirds "birds ecologically dependent on wetlands" (Article 1.2). This definition thus includes any wetland

bird species. However, at the broad level of taxonomic order, it includes especially:

penguins: Sphenisciformes.

divers: Gaviiformes;

grebes: Podicipediformes;

wetland related pelicans, cormorants, darters and allies: Pelecaniformes;

herons, bitterns, storks, ibises and spoonbills: Ciconiiformes;

flamingos: Phoenicopteriformes:

screamers, swans, geese and ducks (wildfowl): Anseriformes;

wetland related raptors: Accipitriformes and Falconiformes;

wetland related cranes, rails and allies: Gruiformes;

hoatzin: Opisthocomiformes;



wetland related jacanas, waders (or shorebirds), gulls, skimmers and terns: Charadriiformes;

coucals: Cuculiformes; and

wetland related owls: Strigiformes.

Wetlands Are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary

with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the

depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres (Ramsar Convention 1987).

Wetland types As defined by the Ramsar Convention’s wetland classification system

[http://www.ramsar.org/ris/key_ris.htm#type].



7

CAMBA China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

CMA Catchment Management Authority

DEDJTR Department of Economic Development, Transport, Jobs and Resources (Victorian Government)

DELWP Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (Victorian Government), formerly

Department of Environment and Primary Industries

DEPI Department of Environment and Primary Industries, now Department of Environment, Land,

Water and Planning

DEWHA Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, now Department of the Environment,

and Energy (Australian Government)

DoEE Department of the Environment and Energy (Australian Government)

ECD Ecological Character Description

EPA Victoria Environment Protection Authority, Victoria

EPBC Act Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

Glenelg Hopkins

CMA

Glenelg Hopkins Catchment Management Authority

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

JAMBA Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

LAC Limits of Acceptable Change

MAs Management Actions

MCA Multiple Criteria Analysis

MER Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting

PSC Project Steering Committee

RCT Resource Condition Target

RIS Ramsar Information Sheet

RMP Ramsar Management Plan

ROKAMBA Republic of Korea Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

SRW Southern Rural Water

TAG Technical Advisory Group

VWMS Victorian Waterway Management Strategy

Abbreviations



The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site includes a diverse wetland system located in the

southwest corner of the state of Victoria within the South East Coast (Victoria) Drainage Basin. The site is

situated immediately south of the small rural town of Nelson, which has a population of approximately 300.

The site is bounded by the South Australia – Victoria border to the west, the Southern Ocean to the south

and incorporates a portion of the Lower Glenelg National Park and the majority of the Discovery Bay Coastal

Park (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Location of the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Executive summary



9

Ramsar Criteria

The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site meets the following five Ramsar nomination criteria:

Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or

unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

This site meets this criteria through its unique combination of geomorphological features (dune slacks) and

wetland types, including groundwater dependent ecosystems, several of which are recognised as globally

threatened wetland types: fens, wet grasslands and temporary pools.

Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or

critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.

The site regularly supports a threatened ecological community, two species of threatened plant and six

threatened animal species listed nationally (EPBC) and / or internationally (IUCN).

Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal

species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

The site meets this criterion for supporting migratory species of waterbirds and fish and by acting as a

drought refuge during adverse conditions. Specifically, the site provides habitat for 95 waterbird species

including 24 species listed under international migratory bird agreements. Native fish populations include 14

species which are diadromous, migrating between habitats for part of their lifecycle.

Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for

fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or

elsewhere, depend.

The site provides a range of fish species with sources of food, spawning grounds and nurseries, and acts as

a migration path on which diadromous fishes of the region depend.

Criterion 9: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports one percent of

the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal species.

The site meets this criterion for the ancient greenling (Hemiphlebia mirabilis). The sub-population at Long

Swamp likely represents more than 1% of the total population for this species.

Critical components, processes and services

A simple conceptual model for Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site (Figure 2) illustrates the

components, processes and services that are critical to the ecological character of the site, the interactions

between them and their role in contributing to the Ramsar listing criteria. A summary of the components and

processes important to the ecological character of the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is

provided below. This includes those that are considered supporting components and processes (Table 1) as

well as those identified as critical to the ecological character of the site, and for which Limits of Acceptable

Change (LAC) have been developed (Table 2).



Figure 2: Simple conceptual model showing the key relationships between components and processes; benefits and services (CPS) and the criteria the site meets as a Wetland of International Importance.

Table 1: Summary of supporting components within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Component / process Description

Climate Rainfall is winter dominant and plays a significant role in supporting the local groundwater

aquifers. Average annual rainfall is in the order of 800 millimetres per year. Evaporation

exceeds rainfall in the non-winter months.

Geomorphic setting Geomorphic setting is a key driver of wetland ecology exerting a strong influence on surface

and groundwater connections and influencing the hydrological regime.The Glenelg Estuary

and Discovery Bay wetlands are located on the southern Victorian coastal plain in a barrier

complex geomorphic unit (Rowan et al. 2000). The geology, topography and soils are

described as belonging to three land systems: Discovery Bay land system, which comprises

the area from the coast to behind the barrier dunes, Long Swamp land system which runs

parallel to the coast and comprises a chain of low lying wetlands and the Nelson land

system, which covers the Glenelg Estuary. Soils are peat, calcareous and alkaline

(Gibbons and Downes 1964).

Water quality –

nutrients, pH, turbidity

Available water quality data for the freshwater lakes (Long Swamp complex, Bridgewater

Lakes) indicate that nitrogen levels are moderately high, while phosphorus levels are low.

The wetlands are typically clear, fresh and alkaline.

Water clarity in the estuary is influenced by freshwater inputs from the Glenelg River as well

as inflowing marine water. Water clarity is generally high (i.e. low turbidity), particularly

when tidal exchange is high, but can vary with high turbidity inflows from the Glenelg River.

Dune scrub vegetation Dune scrub vegetation is a terrestrial community that is critical for stabilising the matrix of

dunes within the site and the dune slacks in which the many of the site’s freshwater

wetlands are formed.

Supporting components

and processes

Critical components

and processes

Critical benefits and

services

Ramsar listing criteria

ClimateGeomorphic

setting

Water qualityHydrology

Stratification

Vegetation type and

extent

Fish diversity and

abundance

Waterbirddiversity and abundance

Special features

(dune slacks)

Diversity of wetland

types

Threatened

species &

communities

Physical habitat for waterbirds

Ecological connectivity

Criterion 1 Criterion 2 Criterion 4 Criterion 8 Criterion 9

Dune scrub vegetation



11

Table 2: Summary of critical components, processes and services (CPS) within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

CPS Description

Components

Hydrology While a knowledge and quantification of ecosystem water regimes is limited, it is understood

that many of the wetlands in the site, including the Glenelg Estuary are groundwater

dependent. It is suspected that groundwater is a significant water source for these systems,

at times contributing more than surface water sources.

The hydrology of the Glenelg Estuary is influenced by the tidal cycle, when the estuary is

open and freshwater river inflows, the latter of which are seasonal.

A range of wetland water regimes are present and several of the wetlands, such as the

Bridgewater Lakes are permanently inundated.

Vegetation – type and

extent

Nationally threatened coastal saltmarsh is present at Oxbow Lake.

Freshwater sedgelands and tall marsh vegetation extend across the Long Swamp wetlands

Lake bed macrophytes - submerged macrophyte communities are a characteristic of the

permanent lakes, and the Bridgewater Lakes supports a charophyte community.

Fish – diversity and

abundance

Fifty-three native fish species from 29 families have been recorded in the site, 28 of which

are considered to be regularly supported.

This includes fish with a range of life-history strategies including freshwater, estuarine,

marine and diadromous species that move between habitats.

The site provides feeding, spawning and nursery areas for a range of fish species including

several that are recreationally important such as black bream.

Waterbirds – diversity

and abundance

Ninety-five species of waterbird have been recorded within the site, including 24 listed under

international migratory bird agreements.

Complete counts are not available and waterbird abundance is a knowledge gap for the site.

Nine species have been recorded breeding in the site, including several beach nesting

species such as red-capped plover and little terns.

Process

Stratification The Glenelg Estuary is a seasonally closed salt-wedge estuary with three distinct layers

which vary under different tidal and freshwater inflow conditions.

Salinity follows a spatial gradient from the lower to the upper estuary. The salt wedge most of

the time extends up the entire length of the estuary, with bottom water salinity often close to

seawater and only occasional differences between the lower and upper estuaries.

Stratification is important for maintaining aquatic flora and fauna and in particular acts as a

cue for reproductive cycles in many fish species such as black bream.

Services


types

The site comprises a network of interconnected wetland types including freshwater

permanent wetlands, intermittently inundated marshes, estuarine waters and intertidal sandy

beaches.

Special geomorphic

features

The site is significant for a number of geological and geomorphic features; in particular the

dune slack system is rare, if not unique within the bioregion.

Provides physical

habitat (for

waterbirds)

The site provides a network of habitats for waterbird feeding, roosting and breeding. Species

that are supported by the site represent a wide range of functional groups (e.g. fishers,

waders, ducks) each with different habitat requirements.

Threatened wetland

species and

communities

One nationally listed ecological community and eight nationally or internationally listed

species of conservation significance are supported by the site.

Ecological

connectivity

The Ramsar site has a range of distinct wetland types which are both hydrologically and

ecologically connected. The connection between the marine, estuarine and freshwater

components is significant for fish migration and reproduction.



Limits of Acceptable Change

“Limits of Acceptable Change” (LAC) is the terminology used to describe complex judgements as to how and

to what extent critical components, processes benefits and services of the site can vary without representing

a potential change in the ecological character as defined by the Ramsar Convention. LAC for the Glenelg

Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site have been developed for critical components, processes and

services and are summarised in Table 3.

Table 3: LAC for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Critical CPS Limit of Acceptable Change

Hydrology Bridgewater Lakes, Lake Moniboeng, Swan Lake, Malseed Lake and Cain

Flat Swamp will not dry.

The Glenelg Estuary will not remain closed for three consecutive years or

open for greater than five continuous years.

Stratification See LAC for hydrology (Glenelg Estuary)

Vegetation type and extent Vegetation extent will not fall below the following:

• Coastal saltmarsh - 13 hectares

• Freshwater sedges and tall marsh - 470 hectares, with at least 270

hectares of Baumea sedgelands.

Fish diversity and abundance Native fish within the Ramsar site will represent each of the following life

history strategies: estuarine dependent, estuarine opportunists, marine

migrants, diadromous and obligate freshwater species.

Waterbird diversity and

abundance

Absence of the following waterbird guilds in any three out of five years:

• Ducks, swans and grebes

• Fishers

• Large wading birds

• Australian waders

• International waders

• Gulls and terns

• Sanderling abundance falls below 0.7% of the global population in three out

of five years.

Diversity of wetland types See LAC for vegetation type and extent and hydrology.

Special geomorphic features:

dune slack

No LAC. The formation of dune slack wetlands is a critical feature of the site

and contributes to meeting criterion 1. This service, however, does not lend

itself to having a threshold of change as it operates on geological time scales.

Physical habitat for waterbirds See LAC for vegetation type and extent and hydrology.

Threatened species: plants Absence of maroon leek-orchid (Prasophyllum frenchii) and or swamp

greenhood (Pterostylis tenuissima) in three consecutive targeted surveys.

Threatened species: fish Absence of Yarra pygmy perch (Nannoperca obscura) in any three out of five

targeted surveys.

Threatened species: birds Absence of hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis) in three out of five years.

Threatened species: growling

grass frog

Absence of growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis) in any three out of five

targeted surveys.

Threatened species: ancient

greenling

See LAC for vegetation type and extent (Baumea sedgelands).

Ecological connectivity See LAC for hydrology (Glenelg Estuary) and fish (continued presence of

diadromous fish).

Knowledge gaps and monitoring needs have been identified for the site.



13

1.1 Site details

This document is the Ecological Character Description (ECD) and forms part of the required nomination

documents (DSEWPAC 2012) for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site as a Wetland of

International Importance under the Ramsar Convention. The site details are summarised in Table 4.

Table 4: Site details for the Lower Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Site Name Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site

Location in

coordinates

Latitude (GDA94): 37° 59’S to 38° 20’S.

Longitude (GDA94): 140° 58’E to 141° 24’E.

General location of

the site

The site is located in the south western corner of Victoria, 430 km west of Melbourne. It is

located on the coast adjacent to the state border with South Australia and includes the

Victorian sections of the Glenelg Estuary a series of wetland complexes (the Long Swamp

wetlands complex; Lake Malseed complex and Bridgewater Lakes) and approximately

50km of coast down to the low water mark.

Area 22,289 hectares

Date of Ramsar site

designation

TBC

Ramsar/DIWA Criteria

met by wetland

Ramsar criteria met: 1,2,4,8,9

Management

authority for the site

The land manager is Parks Victoria.

Date the ECD applies 2017

Status of Description This represents the first ECD for the site.

Date of Compilation October 2017

Name(s) of

compiler(s)

Rhonda Butcher on behalf of the GH CMA, all enquires to Gavin Prentice, Glenelg Hopkins

Catchment Management Authority 79 French Street, Hamilton, Victoria, Australia, 3300.

(Tel: +61 5564 2616, Fax: +61 55712935).

References to the

Ramsar Information

Sheet (RIS)

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site compiled October 2017.

References to

Management Plan(s)

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site Management Plan compiled October

2017.

1.2 Statement of purpose

The act of designating a wetland as a Ramsar site carries with it certain responsibilities, including managing

the site to retain its ‘ecological character’ and to have procedures in place to detect if any threatening

processes are likely to, or have altered the ‘ecological character’. Understanding and describing the

‘ecological character’ of a Ramsar site is a fundamental management tool for signatories and local site

managers. It should form the benchmark for management planning and action, and include site monitoring to

detect any change in ecological character.

The Ramsar Convention has defined “ecological character” and “change in ecological character” as (Ramsar

Convention 2005):

“Ecological character is the combination of the ecosystem components, processes and

benefits/services that characterise the wetlands at a given point in time”

and

“…change in ecological character is the human induced adverse alteration of any ecosystem

component, process and or ecosystem benefit/service.”

1 Introduction



In order to detect change it is necessary to establish a benchmark for management and planning purposes.

An ECD forms the foundation on which a site management plan and associated monitoring and evaluation

activities are based. A Ramsar Information Sheet (RIS) is also prepared at the time of designation. The

information in a RIS, however, may not provide sufficient detail on the interactions between ecological

components, processes and functions to constitute a comprehensive description of ecological character. To

assist in the management of Ramsar sites in the face of insufficient detail, the Australian and state/territory

governments have developed a National Framework and Guidance for Describing the Ecological Character

of Australia’s Ramsar Wetlands: Module 2 of Australian National Guidelines for Ramsar Wetlands –

Implementing the Ramsar Convention in Australia (DEWHA 2008).

In Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act) provides a

legal framework for regulating actions that will have or are likely to have a significant impact on the ecological

character of a Ramsar wetland and managing Ramsar wetlands (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The ecological character description in the context of other requirements for the management of Ramsar sites.

The National framework emphasises the importance of describing and quantifying the ecosystem

components, processes and benefits/services of the wetland and the relationship between them. It is also

important that information is provided on ecologically significant Limits of Acceptable Change that would

indicate when the ecological character has or is likely to change. McGrath (2006) detailed the general aims

of an ECD as follows:

1. To assist in implementing Australia’s responsibilities under the Ramsar Convention, as stated in

Schedule 6 (Managing wetlands of international importance) of the Environment Protection and

Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 (Commonwealth):

a. To describe and maintain the ecological character of listed Ramsar wetlands in Australia; and

b. To formulate and implement planning that promotes:

i. Conservation of the wetland; and

Ramsar Information Sheet

Ecological Character

Description

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Wetland Complex

RamsarManagement Plan

EPBC Act

National Guidelines for Ramsar Wetlands

Victorian Waterway Management

Strategy

EPBC Act Regulations

Annual action plans

Monitoring

Reporting

Communication

Research

Natural resource management

planning

Other land use

planning (e.g. local government)



15

ii. Wise and sustainable use of the wetland for the benefit of humanity in a way that is

compatible with maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem.

2. To assist in fulfilling Australia’s obligation under the Ramsar Convention to arrange to be informed at

the earliest possible time if the ecological character of any wetland in its territory and included in the

Ramsar List has changed, is changing or is likely to change as the result of technological

developments, pollution or other human interference.

3. To supplement the description of the ecological character contained in the RIS submitted under the

Ramsar Convention for each listed wetland and, collectively, form an official record of the ecological

character of the site.

4. To assist the administration of the EPBC Act, particularly:

a. To determine whether an action has, will have or is likely to have a significant impact on a listed

Ramsar wetland in contravention of sections 16 and 17B of the EPBC Act; or

b. To assess the impacts that actions referred to the Minister under Part 7 of the EPBC Act have

had, will have or are likely to have on a listed Ramsar wetland.

5. To assist any person considering taking an action that may impact on a listed Ramsar wetland

whether to refer the action to the Minister under Part 7 of the EPBC Act for assessment and

approval.

6. To inform members of the public who are interested generally in listed Ramsar wetlands to

understand and value the wetlands.

1.3 Relevant treaties legislation and regulations

The following provides a brief listing of the legislation and policy that is relevant to the description of the

ecological character of the Ramsar site.

International

• Ramsar Convention. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl

Habitat, otherwise known as the Ramsar Convention, was signed in Ramsar Iran in 1971 and came

into force in 1975. It provides the framework for local, regional and national actions, and international

cooperation, for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.

• Migratory bird bilateral agreements and conventions. Australia is party to a number of bilateral

agreements, initiatives and conventions for the conservation of migratory birds, which are relevant to

the Ramsar site as various migratory bird species covered in these agreements utilise the site. The

bilateral agreements are:

JAMBA (Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement)

CAMBA (China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement)

ROKAMBA (Republic of Korea Australia Migratory Bird Agreement)

The Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

National

• Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act): regulates actions that will

have or are likely to have a significant impact on any matter of national environmental significance,

which includes the ecological character of a Ramsar wetland (EPBC Act s16(1)).

• EPBC Regulations (2000): Australian Ramsar Management Principles.

• Water Act 2007 provides for the management of water resources, and to make provision for other

matters of national interest in relation to water and water information, and for related purposes.



Victorian legislation and policy

• Environment Protection Act 1970 establishes the Environment Protection Authority and makes

provision for the Authority's powers related to improving the air, land and water environments.

• Wildlife Act 1975 ensures procedures are in place to protect and conserve Victoria's wildlife and

prevent any taxa of wildlife from becoming extinct.

• Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 provides the framework for the administration and management of

Crown land reserves including nature conservation reserves.

• Water Act 1989 establishes rights and obligations in relation to water resources and provides

mechanisms for the allocation of water resources.

• Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 is the legislative and administrative framework for the

conservation of biodiversity in Victoria.

• Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 establishes a framework for the integrated management and

protection of catchments.

• Environment Effects Act 1978 establishes the processes for assessment of proposed projects (works)

that are capable of having a significant effect on the environment.

• Planning and Environment Act 1987 sets out procedures for preparing and amending the Victoria

Planning Provisions and planning schemes, obtaining permits under schemes, settling disputes,

enforcing compliance with planning schemes, and other administrative procedures.

• Fisheries Act 1995 provides a framework for the regulation, management and conservation of

Victorian fisheries.

• Aboriginal Heritage Act 2006 provides for the protection and management of Victoria’s Aboriginal

heritage.

Victorian and regional strategies

• Victorian Waterway Management Strategy (VWMS) (2013). The VWMS provides the policy for

nominating new Ramsar sites in Victoria. The VWMS also sets out the ongoing policies and actions for

managing Victoria’s Ramsar sites. These are to (DEPI 2014):

adhere to the national Australian Ramsar Management Principles and national Ramsar site

guidance for describing the ecological character of Ramsar sites, mapping site boundaries,

notifying change in ecological character and preparing Ramsar site management plans;

monitor and report on the ecological character of Ramsar sites, including any change in ecological

character at individual sites every three years; and

maintain up-to-date documentation for Ramsar sites, including Ramsar information sheets,

ecological character descriptions, management plans, site descriptions and maps.

• Glenelg Hopkins Waterway Strategy 2014-2022 (GHWS) is a key planning document for river, estuary

and wetland management in the Glenelg Hopkins region, which includes the Ramsar site.

• Ngootyoong Gunditj Ngootyoong Mara South West Management Plan (superseding the previous

Lower Glenelg National Park Management Plan) is a strategic guide for managing and protecting over

130 parks, reserves and Indigenous Protected Areas in south-west Victoria (Parks Victoria 2015).



17

1.4 Preparing the ECD

This ECD for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is based on the twelve-step approach

provided in the National Framework and Guidance for Describing the Ecological Character of Australia’s

Ramsar Wetlands (DEWHA 2008) illustrated in Figure 4.

This ECD was developed primarily through a desktop assessment and review of unpublished data, grey

literature and peer reviewed publications. Technical advice and local expertise was contributed to the

development of the ECD through a series of workshops (see Acknowledgements).

Figure 4: Twelve step process for developing an ECD (adapted from DEWHA 2008)



2.1 Location

The proposed Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is situated in western Victoria in the Glenelg

Hopkins Catchment Management Authority (GHCMA) region. The region supports various agricultural

industries (e.g. livestock grazing, soft and hardwood plantations), and includes major population centres at

Portland and Hamilton in Victoria and Mount Gambier in South Australia. The site is located adjacent to the

Victorian-South Australian border, approximately 430 kilometres west of Melbourne (Figure 5). Nelson is the

township closest to the Ramsar site (Figure 6).

Figure 5: Location of the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

2 General description of the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site



19

Figure 6: Close-up of Ramsar site boundary near the town of Nelson. Note the 600m stretch of river excluded from the site, the estuary mouth and Oxbow Lake.

2.2 Overview of the site

The Ramsar site covers approximately 22,289 hectares and comprises the western part of Lower Glenelg

National Park from the South Australian border to the Nelson - Winnap Road, most of the Discovery Bay

Coastal Park and the Nelson Streamside Reserve. The boundary excludes the portions of the Glenelg

Estuary that lie within South Australia as well as 600 metres of the estuary channel adjacent to the town of

Nelson (see Figure 6). More detail is provided in the Boundary Description for the Site.

Major land uses adjacent to the site include forestry (primarily pine plantations) and grazing of improved and

natural pastures (Figure 7). Land tenure within the Ramsar site is summarised in Table 5. Both the National

Park and Coastal Park are managed by Parks Victoria in partnership with local stakeholders (Parks Victoria

2015).

The Ramsar site comprises three broad systems that support different wetland types: freshwater wetlands,

the Glenelg Estuary and the beach and dune system. These systems support a diversity of waterbird, fish

and plant assemblages including a significant number of threatened species and ecological communities

(Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2014 and 2006a, Parks Victoria 2015). The area is popular for recreational and

tourism activities, including sightseeing, walking, camping, and recreational fishing. Importantly, the

Gunditjmara Indigenous people have a living association with the Ramsar site, which has great cultural

significance for them, as it is part of their Koonang (sea) and Bocara Woorrowarook (river forest) country

(Parks Victoria 2015).



Table 5: Land tenure within Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Description Area (hectares)

Crown land – National Park managed by Parks Victoria in partnership with local stakeholders 13,276

Crown land – Crown reserve 36

Crown land – Coastal Park managed by Parks Victoria in partnership with local stakeholders 8,977

Figure 7: Major land use adjacent to the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.



21

2.3 Wetland types

2.3.1 Freshwater wetlands

The freshwater wetlands found within the Ramsar site consist of several wetland complexes, which lie in a

chain behind the dune system. From west to east they are: Long Swamp complex, Lake Malseed complex

and the Bridgewater Lakes. The Long Swamp complex includes Sheepwash Lagoon, Cains Hut Swamp, and

several unnamed lagoons, Lake Moniboeng (also called Lake Bung Bung) as well as Black Swamp,

McFarlanes Swamp and Eel Creek (Reynolds 2007). The Long Swamp complex is connected to the Glenelg

Estuary at Oxbow Lake via Eel Creek. The Malseed complex includes Malseed Lake, Swan Lake and

Boomer Swamp (Head 1987). The Bridgewater Lakes (Figure 8) are a sequence of five freshwater lakes at

the south eastern end of the site, approximately three kilometres north of the town of Bridgewater (DEPI

2015).

Some of these wetlands are part of a humid dune slack system – see section 2.2.3 below.

Figure 8: Aerial image of Bridgewater Lakes (wetland type O, permanent freshwater lakes) looking west October 2015 (© Marcel Hoog Antink).

2.3.2 Glenelg Estuary

The Glenelg Estuary is a seasonally closed, salt wedge type estuary and the longest estuary in Victoria

(Pope unpublished), with a volume of approximately 22 gigalitres and a surface area of approximately 510

hectares. It extends 75 kilometres from its mouth near the township of Nelson, to just below the township of

Dartmoor (Sherwood et al. 1998 cited in Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a). The estuary comprises the long

channel as well as Oxbow Lake, a coastal lagoon that extends from the channel and connects to the Long

Swamp complex via Eel Creek (Figure 9). The estuary is surrounded by small areas of coastal saltmarsh

and temporary marshes dominated by sea rush (Juncus kraussii) and Gahnia filum.



Figure 9: Lower Glenelg Estuary component of Ramsar site (from Google Earth – 2014), note open mouth of estuary.

2.3.3 Beach and dune system

Discovery Bay forms a long sandy intertidal beach, broken at intervals by outcrops of the underlying rocky

limestone (Pleistocene calcarenite; Figure 10). It has a south-westerly aspect, resulting in a high-energy

coastline, backed by an extensive dune system (Head 1987). The beach and sand dunes of Discovery Bay

are recently deposited sands and extremely mobile, representing the most active sands of the Victorian

coastline (Gibbons and Downes 1964), (DEPI 2015). A large part of the dune system can be classified as

humid dune slacks, a rare and very poorly documented wetland type in the bioregion (and Australia). Dune

slacks are depressions in the dune system that hold “slack” (still or slow moving) water either from

groundwater or high tides (section 3.7.2 for further information).

Figure 10: Nobles Rocks along beach and fore dune with Long Swamp behind fore dune, October 2015 (© Marcel Hoog Antink).



23

2.3.4 Ramsar wetland types

Classification of wetlands into discrete types is a difficult exercise and an inexact science. Clear boundaries

are difficult to define or delineate and multiple wetland types could be considered to apply to the same

wetland. For example, Type E (sandy shores) and Type G (intertidal sand flats) both apply to the beach

section of the Ramsar site, and Type F (estuarine waters) and Type B (marine sub-tidal beds) are applicable

to Oxbow Lake. For this reason, while a list and a description of wetland types can be provided, there is

uncertainty over the extent of each wetland type. Wetland types in likely order of dominance are presented in

Table 6.

Table 6: Wetland types within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site (in descending order of dominance, estimated from multiple lines of evidence, Victorian wetland mapping, vegetation mapping and Sinclair and Sutter 2008).

Ramsar

type Description Locations within the site

F Estuarine waters; permanent water of

estuaries and estuarine systems of deltas.

Glenelg Estuary including channel to tide extent and the

permanent Oxbow Lake (Figure 11 and Figure 12).

E Sand, shingle or pebble shores; includes

sand bars, spits and sandy islets; includes

dune systems and humid dune slacks.

Shoreline and coastal dunes along the beach area from

low water mark to the foot of the dunes, and the dunes

themselves, which include the dune slacks (Figure 13).

G Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats. Includes the intertidal beach area as well as smaller

locations within the Glenelg Estuary, particularly when the

estuary is open and subject to tidal exchange.

U Non-forested peatlands; includes shrub or

open bogs, swamps, fens.

Long Swamp depressions (Figure 14), comprising of areas

of dense sedge wetlands dominated by twig –sedge

(Baumea spp.) and mixed swamp scrub of woolly tea-tree

(Leptospermum lanigerum), scented paperbark (Melaleuca

squarrosa) and saw-sedge (Gahnia spp.).

O Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha);

includes large oxbow lakes.

Bridgewater Lakes (North and South), Lake Moniboeng.

Tp Permanent freshwater marshes/pools;

ponds (below 8 ha.

Swan Lake, Malseed lake, Cains Hut Swamp (Figure 15).

H Intertidal marshes; includes salt marshes,

salt meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes;

includes tidal brackish and freshwater

marshes.

Western and eastern shore of the Glenelg River channel

and the western and eastern shore of Oxbow Lake.

Includes patches of coastal saltmarsh dominated by either

saw-sedge (Gahnia filum) or beaded glasswort

(Sarcocornia quinqueflora) (Figure 16).

Ss Seasonal/intermittent

saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/pools.

Intermittent saline meadows around three depression

basins located between the river channel and Oxbow lake.

Ts Seasonal/intermittent freshwater

marshes/pools on inorganic soils; includes

sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded

meadows, sedge marshes.

Intermittent marshes within the Long Swamp complex.

N Seasonal/intermittent rivers, streams and

creeks.

Outlet Creek connecting Long Swamp to the sea through

the dunes.

B Marine subtidal aquatic beds; includes kelp

beds, sea-grass beds, tropical marine

meadows.

Scattered seagrass recorded in lower reaches of the

Glenelg estuary.



Figure 11: Aerial of Glenelg Estuary and mouth, with Oxbow Lake in background (Ramsar type F). Mouth is closed (© Marcel Hoog Antink).

Figure 12: Glenelg Estuary – high view on Great South West Walk, illustrating constrained nature of channel in Lower Glenelg River National Park, Ramsar type F (R. Butcher).



25

Figure 13: Beach (sand and intertidal) and fore dune, Ramsar types E and G (Nelson end of site) (A. White).

Figure 14: Long Swamp Wetland near Nobles Rocks outlet showing fen and shrub wetlands, Ramsar type U, October 2015 (© Marcel Hoog Antink).



Figure 15: Swan Lake, Ramsar type Tp, November 2015 (R. Butcher).

Figure 16: Coastal saltmarsh, Ramsar type H, November 2015 (R. Butcher).



27

2.4 Ramsar criteria

The site meets five of the nine Ramsar listing criteria (Table 7). An assessment against each of the Ramsar

criteria for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay wetlands is presented below. Further data collection

focusing on elements of biodiversity and waterbirds may result in this site also meeting criterion 3 and 6 in

the future and this can be addressed through the regular updates of the Ramsar Information Sheet (RIS) and

potential addenda to the ECD.

Table 7: Ramsar listing criteria with those met at the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site shaded.

Number Basis Description

Group A. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

Criterion 1 A wetland should be considered internationally important if it

contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or

near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic

region.

Group B. Sites of international importance for conserving biological diversity

Criterion 2 Species and

ecological

communities

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it

supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or

threatened ecological communities


ecological

communities


supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for

maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic

region.


ecological

communities


supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life

cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

Criterion 5 Waterbirds A wetland should be considered internationally important if it

regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.

Criterion 6 Waterbirds A wetland should be considered internationally important if it

regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one

species or subspecies of waterbird.

Criterion 7 Fish A wetland should be considered internationally important if it

supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies,

species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or

populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values

and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.

Criterion 8 Fish A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an

important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or

migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or

elsewhere, depend

Criterion 9 Other taxa A wetland should be considered internationally important if it

regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one

species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal

species

Criterion 1

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique

example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

The application of this criterion must be considered in the context of the bioregion within which the site is

located. The South East Coast (Victoria) Drainage Division extends from the New South Wales – Victorian



border along the coast to the Millicent basin in South Australia. The Ramsar guidance for this criterion

indicates that the justification should be based on wetland type and hydrology. The Glenelg Estuary and

Discover Bay Ramsar Site meets this criterion with respect to rare wetland types in the bioregion (and

globally) because of its peat wetlands and dune slack wetlands; and the Glenelg Estuary, which is

considered a good near-natural representative of wetland type E in the bioregion.

The peatlands of the Ramsar site are fen wetlands (i.e. groundwater dependent) and largely have an intact

hydrology. These are a rare wetland type globally, with nearby Piccaninnie Ponds Karst Wetlands Ramsar

Site perhaps representing the only other significant fen wetland in the bioregion.

The site is geomorphically significant as it includes a humid dune slack system, which is rare in Australia.

The dune slack system supports peatlands, wet grassland habitats and temporary pools, which are identified

by the Ramsar Convention as globally significant (Ramsar Convention 2003).

The geomorphology and hydrology of the estuary section of the Ramsar site is unusual within the bioregion

and can be considered a good representative of wetland type E. It is characterised by:

• being the longest estuary in Victoria (75 kilometres),

• having a groundwater dominated hydrology, and

• significant areas of limestone gorge for most of its length upstream of Nelson.

This site clearly meets criterion 1, through its unique combination of geomorphological features and wetland

types, including groundwater dependent ecosystems which include several of the most globally threatened

wetland types: fens, wet grasslands and temporary pools.

Criterion 2

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically

endangered species or threatened ecological communities.

In the Australian context, it is recommended that this criterion should only be applied to nationally threatened

wetland dependent species and communities, listed under the EPBC Act 1999 or the International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN 2012b) Red List. The site regularly supports one threatened ecological

community, two species of threatened plant and six threatened animal species (Table 8).

Table 8: Threatened wetland dependent species recorded at the Glenelg Estuary and Discover Bay wetlands. CE = critically endangered; En = endangered; Vu = vulnerable: listed under EPBC Act and IUCN Red List (IUCN 2015) May 2015. Strength: Certain = annual records; High = records for most years but some data gaps, high level of confidence still at the site.

Community/Species IUCN EPBC Records Strength of evidence for regularly

supports/residency

Communities

Subtropical and

temperate coastal

saltmarsh

Vu 2008, 2014 Certain – recent vegetation mapping indicates this

threatened community occurs in the estuary section of

the site.

Plants

Maroon Leek-orchid -

Prasophyllum frenchii

En 2004, 2008,

2014

High – lack of recent records, however believed still to

be present. Twenty four plants recorded in 2004

(Duncan 2010), and 216 recorded in the Discovery Bay

Park in 2008 (Victorian Biodiversity Atlas (VBA)

extract).

Swamp greenhood -

Pterostylis tenuissima

Vu 2004, 2008,

2009, 2010

2014

High – located at a number of sites within the Ramsar

site (Dickson et al. 2012)

Waterbirds

Australasian bittern - En En 1979, 1991, High – there are a number of records for this cryptic



29

Community/Species IUCN EPBC Records Strength of evidence for regularly

supports/residency

Botaurus poiciloptilus 1992, 2003,

2012, 2015

species from within the site, within the Long Swamp

complex and the Fringing areas of the Glenelg Estuary

(records from BirdLife Australia Bird Atlas).

Fairy tern – Sterna nereis

nereis

Vu Vu 1999, 2001-

2004, 2007,

2011

High – records from 1999 – 2004; some recent

observations on the Atlas of Living Australia.

Hooded plover -

Thinornis rubricollis

Vu En Biennial

count since

1980

Certain – solid long term records for this species at the

site. The number of birds recorded at the site

increased between 2010 and 2012 (Ewers et al. 2011,

Mead et al. 2012).

Fish

Yarra pygmy perch –

Nannoperca obscura

Vu Vu 2012, 2014,

2015

Certain – recorded in substantial numbers in recent

surveys Lake Moniboeng and Long Swamp.

Amphibians

Growling grass frog -

Litoria raniformis

En Vu 1998, 1999,

2012

High – Audio calls from Long Swamp (Bachmann et al.

2013). Earlier records from Swan Lake, Lake

Moniboeng and Bridgewater Lakes (Bachmann et al.

2013).

Invertebrates

Ancient greenling –

Hemiphlebia mirablis

En 2008-2014 Certain – recent investigations estimate a very large

population at Long Swamp (Cordero Rivera 2014).

Records are available from Long Swamp 2008-2010

(Crowther 2011).

There are records for several other species from the site that may be regularly supported, but for which there

is insufficient evidence at this stage to include them in the justification for this criterion. This includes two

international migratory shorebirds the curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) and Eastern curlew (Numenius

madagascariensis) and the Southern bent-wing bat (Miniopterus orianae bassanii). There are very sparse

records and low counts of both the bird species from within the site, despite semi-regular counts of

shorebirds. In the case of the southern bent-wing bat, the species is present in several caves along the

Glenelg Estuary; it is, however, not considered wetland dependent and so cannot contribute to the meeting

of this criterion.

In 2015, the species Eastern dwarf galaxias (Galaxiella pusilla) was revised and the species that occurs in

the Ramsar site is now called the little galaxias (Galaxiella toourtkoourt) (Coleman et al. 2015). While the

little galaxias is listed under State threatened species legislation, it is not currently listed at the national or

international level.

The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay wetlands clearly meet this criterion supporting at least eight listed

species and one ecological community on a regular basis.

Criterion 3

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal

species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.

To adequately assess against this criterion the following minimum information is needed (Ramsar

Convention 2012):

• an inventory of plant and/or animal species present at the site,

• a broad understanding of the elements which define the characteristic plant and animal diversity of

the biogeographic region in which the wetland occurs, and



• a broad understanding of the significance of the specific wetland in the context of the wider regional

biodiversity assessment.

There are no data available which suggests the site is a centre of species endemism, and incomplete

records from the bioregion. A lack of survey effort, particularly at Bridgewater Lakes, Lake Malseed, Swan

Lake and some of the other smaller wetlands makes it difficult to make a meaningful comparison with other

locations in the bioregion.

Over 320 plant species have been recorded from the Discovery Bay Coastal Park (Parks Victoria 2006) with

a number of species of conservation significance both nationally and at the state level, however, the

proportion of these which are wetland dependent is currently unknown. Recent vegetation surveys have

collected data for the Long Swamp and Oxbow Lake areas of the site, but complete surveys of wetland

dependent vegetation across the whole site are lacking. There have been limited surveys of fish with at least

53 native species from the Ramsar site (Bachmann et al. 2013, Veale 2014, 2016), but this too is considered

a knowledge gap.

Overall the typical evidence (i.e. species richness, high levels of endemism), of the standard required under

Ramsar Convention guidance to test this criterion is currently unavailable (DEPI 2014), and the site is not

deemed to meet this criterion.

Criterion 4

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a

critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

The long term intention of this criterion is to ensure wetlands within the Ramsar estate include those which

are vital for providing habitat during critical life stages (breeding and migration) and or in periods of adverse

conditions (Ramsar Convention 2009).

Specifically, the site provides habitat for 95 waterbird species including 24 species listed under international

agreements: CAMBA (24), JAMBA (24), ROKAMBA (21), BONN (21) and 34 Australian migratory or marine

species. Beach nesting birds such as hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis) and red-capped plover

(Charadrius ruficapillus) are regularly recorded nesting on the dunes of the Discovery Bay Coastal Park,

albeit in low numbers (Ewers et al. 2011, Mead et al. 2012). The site also supports 14 species of native fish

which are diadromous, migrating between habitats for part of their lifecycle. In addition, the permanent

wetlands of the Long Swamp complex and Bridgewater Lakes provide habitat for obligate aquatic species

when the surrounding landscape is dry and during drought conditions.

The site meets this criterion for supporting migratory species of waterbirds and fish as well as beach nesting

birds and providing freshwater habitat when the surrounding region is dry.

Criterion 5

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20 000 or more waterbirds.

The site supports aggregations of waterbirds; however, it does not support 20,000 or more on a regular

basis. The site does not meet this criterion.

Criterion 6

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports one per cent of the

individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.

Assessment of this criterion must be made using the most recent official population estimates (Wetlands

International 2012). Discovery Bay beach is an internationally important non-breeding area for Sanderling

(Calidris alba) (Watkins 1993, Wetlands International, unpublished cited in DEPI 2004) and was considered

the fourth most important site in Australia for Sanderling (DEPI 2004). There are recent records from within

the site, above the one per cent threshold in 2008 and 2009. Numbers in 2010 to 2013, however, were below

the threshold (Parks Victoria, unpublished data). At present, there is insufficient data to meet ‘regularly

supports’ part of the criterion (see Text Box 1). With further monitoring this criterion may be met in the future,

but currently the data do not meet this criterion.



31

Table 9: Waterbirds species for which maximum counts exceed one percent of the relevant population (those with sufficient evidence to meet the provision of “regularly supports”; Text Box 1).

Common name Species name Population

(one percent)

Maximum

count

Years with counts

above threshold

Sanderling Calidris alba 220 610 (in

2005)

1981, 1983, 2005,

2008, 2009

Text Box 1: Definition of regularly supports (Ramsar 2009, 2012).

Criterion 7

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous

fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are

representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.

Guidance from the Ramsar Convention (Ramsar Convention 2009) indicates that in order to meet this

criterion, a site should have a high degree of endemism or biodisparity in fish communities.

The fish species records for the site include 53 species from 41 genera and 25 families, with a moderate

level of biodisparity in regard to morphology and life history strategy. Compared to some other, larger

Ramsar sites within the bioregion the fish species richness is low (e.g. Western Port 92 species, Gippsland

Lakes over 170 species). The site is not considered to be significant at the bioregion or global scale and as

such does not meet this criterion.

Criterion 8

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for fishes,

spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere,

depend.

Under the guidelines for this criterion coastal wetlands are identified as important feeding, spawning nursery

habitats and as such supporting essential ecological processes for fish stocks, even if they do not

necessarily harbour large adult fish populations themselves (Ramsar Convention 2009).

Regularly (Criteria 5 and 6) - as in supports regularly - a wetland regularly supports a population of a given size if:

i. the requisite number of birds is known to have occurred in two thirds of the seasons for which adequate

data are available, the total number of seasons being not less than three; or

ii. the mean of the maxima of those seasons in which the site is internationally important, taken over at least

five years, amounts to the required level (means based on three or four years may be quoted in provisional

assessments only).

In establishing long-term 'use' of a site by birds, natural variability in population levels should be considered

especially in relation to the ecological needs of the populations present. Thus, in some situations (e.g., sites of

importance as drought or cold weather refuges or temporary wetlands in semi-arid or arid areas - which may be

quite variable in extent between years), the simple arithmetical average number of birds using a site over several

years may not adequately reflect the true ecological importance of the site. In these instances, a site may be of

crucial importance at certain times ('ecological bottlenecks'), but hold lesser numbers at other times. In such

situations, there is a need for interpretation of data from an appropriate time period in order to ensure that the

importance of sites is accurately assessed.

In some instances, however, for species occurring in very remote areas or which are particularly rare, or where

there are particular constraints on national capacity to undertake surveys, areas may be considered suitable on the

basis of fewer counts. For some countries or sites where there is very little information, single counts can help

establish the relative importance of the site for a species.

The International Waterbird Census data collated by Wetlands International is the key reference source.



The Glenelg Estuary provides nursery habitat for several species of recreationally important fish including

black bream (Acanthopagrus butcheri) and estuary perch (Macquaria colonorum). In particular, the seasonal

opening and closing of the estuary is considered important in providing conditions for spawning of black

bream (Jenkins et al. 2008).

In addition, the site supports at least 14 species of fish that migrate between habitats for parts of their

lifecycle including: short finned eel (Anguilla australis), tupong (Pseudaphritis urvillii), estuary perch

(Macquaria colonorum) and common galaxias (Galaxias maculatus). A recent tagging study has indicated

that mulloway that feed in the Glenelg Estuary may migrate up to 400 kilometres to the Murray Mouth to

spawn (Lieschke and Stoessel, in prep.).

The site provides a range of fish species with sources of food, spawning grounds and nurseries, and acts as

a migration path on which diadromous fishes of the region depend, as such it is deemed to meet this

criterion.

Criterion 9

A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports one percent of the

individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal species.

The application of this criterion relies on estimates of the total population of non-avian wetland dependent

species. While several species may be supported in numbers greater than one percent of the population

(e.g. growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis); Yarra pygmy perch (Nannoperca obscura)), there is insufficient

data to determine population sizes. As such an assessment against this criterion for these species is not

possible at this time.

There are recent data on the Ancient greenling (Hemiphlebia mirabilis) with the species first recorded at

Long Swamp in 2008 and a detailed mark and recapture program completed in 2013 (Cordero-Rivera 2015).

The species is the only extant representative of this superfamily of damselfly globally.

To date, 24 sites have records for the species across Victoria (19), South Australia (3) and Tasmania (2)

(Crowther 2011, D. Crowther unpublished data), however four of the Victorian sites lack recent sightings.

The sub-population at Long Swamp likely represents more than 1% of the total global population for this

species, possibly as much as 5%, as Long Swamp represents the largest known area of habitat with the

species present (D. Crowther unpublished data, Crowther 2011, Cordero Rivera 2013, Cordero-Rivera

2015).

This criterion is met on the basis of the site supporting more than 1% of the population of ancient greenling.

Figure 17: Ancient greenling adults in mating wheel at Long Swamp, Discovery Bay Coastal Park, Victoria (reproduced with permission, © Reiner Richter).



33

3.1 Definitions

In the context of this ECD the following definitions are adopted.

Ecosystem components include the physical, chemical and biological parts of a wetland (from large scale

to very small scale, e.g. habitat, species and genes) (Ramsar Convention 2005, Resolution IX.1 Annex A).

Ecosystem processes are changes or reactions which occur naturally within wetland ecosystems. They

may be physical, chemical or biological. In laymen’s terms, this equates to process such as carbon cycling,

denitrification, acidification, sedimentation, migration, breeding, reproduction, etc. (from Ramsar Convention,

Resolution V1.1).

Ecosystem benefits and services are "the benefits that people receive from ecosystems (Ramsar

Convention 2005, Resolution IX.1 Annex A). This includes benefits that directly affect people such as the

provision of food or water resources as well as indirect ecological benefits. The Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005) defines four main categories of ecosystem services:

1. Provisioning services - the products obtained from the ecosystem such as food, fuel and fresh water;

2. Regulating services – the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes such as

climate regulation, water regulation and natural hazard regulation;

3. Supporting services – the services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services such

as water cycling, nutrient cycling and habitat for biota. These services will generally have an indirect

benefit to humans or a direct benefit over a long period of time; and

4. Cultural services – the benefits people obtain through spiritual enrichment, recreation, education and

aesthetics.

3.2 Identifying critical components and processes

The basis of an ECD is the identification, description and where possible, quantification of the critical

components, processes, benefits and services of the site. Wetlands are complex ecological systems and the

complete list of physical, chemical and biological components and processes for even the simplest of

wetlands would be extensive and difficult to conceptualise. It is not possible, or in fact desirable, to identify

and characterise every organism and all the associated abiotic attributes that are affected by, or cause effect

to, that organism to describe the ecological character of a system. This would result in volumes of data and

theory but bring us no closer to understanding the system and how to best manage it. What is required is to

identify the key components, the initial state of the systems, and the basic rules that link the key components

and cause changes in state (Holland 1998). Thus, we need to identify and characterise the key or critical

components, processes, benefits and services that determine the character of the site. These are the

aspects of the ecology of the wetland, which, if they were to be significantly altered, would result in a

significant change in the system.

DEWHA (2008) suggest the minimum components, processes, benefits and services, which should be

included in an ECD are those:

1. that are important determinants of the sites unique character;

2. that are important for supporting the Ramsar criteria under which the site was listed;

3. for which change is reasonably likely to occur over short to medium time scales (less than 100

years); and / or

4. that will cause significant negative consequences if change occurs.

A simple conceptual model for Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site was developed (Figure 18)

to illustrate the components, processes and services that are critical to the ecological character of the site,

and those which are important in supporting the critical components, processes and services the site

provides.

3 Components, processes, services and benefits



Figure 18: Simple conceptual model showing the key relationships between components and processes; benefits and services (CPS) and the reasons for the site being listed as a Wetland of International Importance.

The critical components, processes and services of the site are:

• Components:

– Hydrology

– Vegetation type and extent

– Fish diversity and abundance

– Waterbird diversity and abundance

• Process:

– Stratification

• Services:

– Special features (dune slacks)

– Supports a diversity of wetland types

– Supports threatened species

– Provides physical habitat for waterbirds

– Ecological connectivity

A complete list of services for the site and a justification for the selection of critical components, processes

and services is provided in Appendix A. Descriptions of biota not considered critical to the ecological

character of the site, but locally valued are described in Appendix B.

Supporting components

and processes

Critical components

and processes

Critical benefits and

services

Ramsar listing criteria

ClimateGeomorphic

setting

Water qualityHydrology

Stratification

Vegetation type and

extent

Fish diversity and

abundance

Waterbirddiversity and abundance

Special features

(dune slacks)


types

Threatened

species &

communities

Physical habitat for waterbirds


Criterion 1 Criterion 2 Criterion 4 Criterion 8 Criterion 9

Dune scrub vegetation



35

3.3 Supporting components and processes

Four components and processes have been identified as being important in supporting the critical CPS.

These supporting components and processes are important in managing the site to maintain ecological

character and some may provide early warning indicators of change. As such, this ECD includes a

description of the following components and processes that are important in supporting the ecological

character of the site (Table 10):

• Climate

• Geomorphic setting

• Water quality

• Dune scrub vegetation

Table 10: Summary of supporting components and processes within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Component / process Description

Climate Rainfall is winter dominant and plays a significant role in supporting the local groundwater

aquifers. Average annual rainfall is in the order of 800 millimetres per year. Evaporation

exceeds rainfall in the non-winter months.

Geomorphic setting The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is located on the south Victorian

coastal plain in a barrier complex geomorphic unit (Rowan et al. 2000). The geology,

topography and soils are described as belonging to three land systems: Discovery Bay land

system, which comprises the area from the coast to behind the barrier dunes, Long Swamp

land system which runs parallel to the coast and comprises a chain of low lying wetlands

and the Nelson land system, which covers the Glenelg Estuary. Soils are peat, calcareous

and alkaline (Gibbons and Downes 1964).

Water quality –

nutrients, pH, turbidity

Available water quality data for the freshwater lakes (Long Swamp complex, Bridgewater

Lakes) indicate that nitrogen levels are moderately high, while phosphorus levels are low.

The wetlands are typically clear, fresh and alkaline.

Water clarity in the estuary is influenced by freshwater inputs from the Glenelg River as well

as inflowing marine water. Water clarity is generally high (i.e. low turbidity), particularly

when tidal exchange is high, but can vary with high turbidity inflows from the Glenelg River.

Dune scrub vegetation Dune scrub vegetation is a terrestrial community that is critical for stabilising the matrix of

dunes within the site and the dune slacks in which the many of the site’s freshwater

wetlands are formed.

3.3.1 Climate

Climate plays an important role in wetland ecology; primarily through its effects on hydrology and the

hydrological cycle. Attributes of climate which are most important are temperature and rainfall. Temperature

determines the rate of biological processes such as decomposition, respiration and photosynthesis; the

amount and timing of rainfall determines whether surface water will accumulate (Mitsch and Gooselink,

2000). Temperatures affect evaporation and transpiration, rainfall has a direct influence and solar radiation

and day length affect the biological components of wetland systems.

The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is situated within the temperate (moderately dry winter,

warm summer) climate zone of south-eastern Australia (Bureau of Meteorology 2011,

http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/climate_averages/climate-classifications/IDCclimclasgrids.jsp).

Rainfall is winter dominated with the highest monthly median rainfall in July (104 millimetres) and lowest in

February (20 millimetres; Figure 19). Annual average rainfall at Nelson is in the order of 800 millimetres per

year. As indicated above, there is some degree of variability in annual rainfall (ranging from around 200

millimetres up to 900 millimetres in the past five decades) (Figure 20).

http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/climate_averages/climate-classifications/IDCclimclasgrids.jsp



Rainfall exceeds evaporation during the winter months (May to August). For the remaining months, however,

evaporation exceeds rainfall and in the height of summer evaporation is on average 10 times greater than

rainfall (Figure 21).

Figure 19: Median, 10th and 90th percentile monthly rainfall at Nelson (1859 – 2010; Bureau of Meteorology).

Figure 20: Average annual rainfall at Nelson (1955 – 2014; Bureau of Meteorology). Note horizontal line shows long term average.



37

Figure 21: Average monthly rainfall (Nelson) and evaporation (Mt Gambier) (1940 – 2014; Bureau of Meteorology).

Temperatures are moderate year round (Figure 22), with average summer maximum temperatures around

22 degrees Celsius and average minimum temperatures around 12 degrees Celsius. During winter, average

maximum temperatures are cooler (13 to 15 degrees Celsius) as are average minimum temperatures (six to

seven degrees Celsius).

Figure 22: Average monthly maximum and minimum temperatures at Portland (1982 – 2014; Bureau of Meteorology).

3.3.2 Geomorphic setting

Geomorphic setting is another key driver of wetland ecology. Geomorphology (formation and configuration of

landforms) exerts a strong influence on surface and groundwater connections in aquatic and adjacent

terrestrial ecosystems. Geomorphic setting influences wetland morphology and soils and characteristics of

the hydrological regime such as flooding depth as well as frequency and duration of inundation.

The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is located on the south Victorian coastal plain in a

barrier complex geomorphic unit (Rowan et al. 2000). The geology, topography and soils are described as

belonging to three land systems: Discovery Bay land system, which comprises the area from the coast to

behind the barrier dunes; Long Swamp land system, which runs parallel to the coast and comprises the low

lying swamps, and former lakes behind the dune system and Nelson Land system which covers the



estuarine portion of the site (Figure 23 and Figure 24, Gibbons and Downes 1964). The region is underlain

by Tertiary limestone deposited in the early Miocene, resulting in large karst areas (underground drainage

and cave systems).

The Discovery Bay land system is characterised by steep dunes of highly calcareous sands made up largely

of finely broken sea shells. The soils are mineral, with increasing organic material inland from the sea. These

soils have been described as unique, with high alkalinity (pH > 9), which limits the types of plants that can

survive (Gibbons and Downes 1964). The dunes vary along the site, but are largely mobile and unstable with

constant shifting sands a feature in several locations.

The Long Swamp land system is a narrow stretch of low lying, poorly draining land between the coastal

dunes of the Discovery Bay land system, and the Pleistocene inland dunes of the Nelson land-system. The

aquatic ecosystems of the freshwater wetland complexes lie within this land system. Soils are peat,

calcareous and alkaline (Gibbons and Downes 1964). The landscape diagram shows the position of the low

lying freshwater wetlands between the two dunes systems (Figure 24).

The Nelson land-system is associated with the hardened limestone dunes of the coastal plains and the less-

acid sands derived from them. The profile is low; ranging from dunes at the seaward side to inland plains and

soils vary from sandy loam to orange sands further inland with pockets of acid white sand. There is a density

of cave systems surrounding and underneath the Glenelg Estuary (White 1998).

Figure 23: Land systems in the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site (Gibbons and Downes 1964).



39

Figure 24: Landscape diagram showing the position of the three dominant land-systems “Discovery Bay”, “Long Swamp” and “Nelson” on a transect running inland from the ocean (Gibbons and Downes 1964).

3.3.3 Water quality

The supporting components associated with water quality include water clarity, nutrients and phytoplankton

biomass (for a description of the critical processes associated with stratification (salinity and dissolved

oxygen) see 3.5.1 below). Water quality is important for supporting ecological character for several reasons.

It is a source of nutrients, driving primary production, and variables such as pH, water clarity and

temperature have a strong influence over the presence and distribution of aquatic species.

Water quality data for the aquatic ecosystems within the Ramsar site are limited. Data collected in the Lower

Glenelg Estuary indicate a dynamic system that is heavily influenced by inflowing river water, tidal exchange

and entrance conditions. Water clarity in the lower estuary is generally high, particularly at times when tidal

exchange is the dominant factor. Data from 2002 to 2008 indicate turbidity is generally less than the

detection limit, but can exceed 100 NTU on occasions. Monthly water quality monitoring at four sites

(upstream at Dartmoor to downstream at Nelson) illustrates the generally low turbidity levels with occasional

peaks (Figure 25). Of note are the occasional peaks in turbidity (e.g. April 2004; November 2007 and in 2010

– 2012). These coincide with periods of high freshwater inflow and represent both a movement of sediment

into the estuary from upstream and resuspension of sediments within the estuary itself.

Figure 25: Turbidity (NTU) in surface waters at three sites in the Glenelg Estuary and one upstream (Dartmoor) from October 2003 to April 2012 (data provided by Glenelg Hopkins CMA).

A snapshot of nutrients in the Glenelg Estuary during 2002 indicated moderately high levels of total nitrogen

(600 – 800 microgram per litre) and total phosphorus (5 – 60 microgram per litre), which were in excess of

ANZECC water quality guidelines for marine and estuarine systems (Mondon et al. 2003). However, there is

insufficient data to determine if this is typical of the estuary or what seasonal or longer-term cycles may be.

Data from reaches of the Glenelg River upstream of the Ramsar site (at Dartmoor) indicate high

concentrations of both nitrogen and phosphorus (Figure 26) much of which would flow through into the

estuary. The extent of nutrient retention, versus flushing into the ocean would be a factor of tidal flows and

entrance conditions.



Figure 26: Total nitrogen (left) and total phosphorus (right) in the Glenelg River at Dartmoor; upstream of the Ramsar site (data from Victorian Water Information System http://data.water.vic.gov.au/monitoring.htm).

The Lower Glenelg Estuary is neutral to slightly alkaline, with median pH from 2002 to 2008 of eight (Glenelg

Hopkins unpublished data). This is typical of estuaries, as seawater has a high carbonate content and

buffering capacity. There is no indication from available data of instances of acidity (low pH).

Data is limited, but the results of snap-shot water quality sampling in mid-1970s (Timms 1977) and 2007

(EPA Victoria 2010) indicate generally good water quality in the freshwater lakes of the system. The water in

Lake Bridgewater is fresh (electrical conductivity, 940 – 1500 micro Siemens per centimetre); clear (turbidity

< 2 NTU) and alkaline (pH, 7.7 – 8.9). Concentrations of total nitrogen are moderately high (500 – 900

microgram per litre) but concentrations of total phosphorus are low (5 – 10 g/L), and concentrations of

bioavailable dissolved inorganic nutrients (e.g. nitrate-nitrite and filterable reactive phosphorus) are generally

very low (< 5 microgram per litre). Phytoplankton biomass (as indicated by chlorophyll-a is also generally

low (< 5 microgram per litre) although periodic peaks of up to 10 g/L have been recorded.

Available data indicate that water quality in Lake Moniboeng (part of the Long Swamp complex) is similar to

that of Lake Bridgewater (EPA Victoria 2010), with high concentrations of total nitrogen, but remaining

parameters are indicative of good water quality conditions. Similarly, the water quality of the other wetlands

indicates fresh, clear (except for tannin stained Sheepwash Lagoon) and alkaline conditions (Table 11).

Table 11: Summary of water quality of the some of the lakes within the Ramsar site (Timms 1977). Note that all values are approximate and the names of the lakes are as described by Timms 1977.

Lake Water clarity Mean salinity (ppt) Mean pH

Lake Mombeong (Bong Bong) High – bottom visible 0.3 8.2

Sheepwash Lagoon High – bottom visible 0.4 8.0

Cains Hut Swamp High – bottom visible 0.5 8.1

Lagoon No. 4 High – bottom visible 0.4 7.6

Malseed Lake High – bottom visible 0.4 8.5

Swan Lake Moderate 0.4 7.8

Main Bridgewater Lake High 0.6 8.5

3.3.4 Vegetation community: Dune scrub

Dune scrub vegetation distribution has been modelled by DEWLP 2005 as two Victorian Ecological

Vegetation Classes (EVC): Coastal dune scrub (EVC 160) along the primary dune and coastal alkaline scrub

(EVC 858) across the remainder of dune field that covers the site. The latter EVC incorporates the extensive

areas of bare sand associated with actively migrating dunes and formation of blowouts when vegetation is

lost.

Coastal dune scrub occupies the primary dune along the full length of the ocean beach of Discovery Bay. It

is a closed scrub to three meters tall with occasional emergent trees on siliceous and calcareous sands that

are subject to high levels of salt spray and continuous disturbance from onshore winds. It includes a narrow

http://data.water.vic.gov.au/monitoring.htm



41

band of grassland immediately adjacent to the beach, common native species include hairy spinifex (Spinifex

sericeus) and coast fescue (Austrofestuca littoralis). This transitions to a wind-pruned scrub and heath on

the dunes with dominant shrubs including coast tea-tree (Leptospermum laevigatum), coast wattle (Acacia

longifolia var. sophorae), drooping she-oak (Allocasuarina verticillata), and sweet bursaria (Bursaria

spinosa), with an understorey of common beard-heath (Leucopogon parviflorus), sea box (Alyxia buxifolia)

and coast everlasting (Ozothamnus turbinatus).

Behind the dunes, coastal dune scrub transitions into coastal alkaline scrub which forms the dominant matrix

of vegetation covering the deep calcareous (alkaline) and largely stable sand dunes and swales of the site in

which wetlands habitats are embedded. The coastal alkaline scrub is a low woodland or tall shrubland to

eight metres tall, typically with a medium shrub layer, small shrub layer and sedges, grasses and herbs in the

ground layer. The species canopy composition is dominated by “moonah” (Melaleuca lanceolata ssp.

lanceolata) and other canopy species similar to coastal dune scrub. The scrub is patchily distributed in some

areas playing a critical role stabilising shifting sand dunes. Large and frequent “blow-outs” of bare unstable

sand are common within this vegetation type, particularly in the eastern end half of the site (Figure 27).

Figure 27: Large bare “blow-outs” of sand sprinkled with coastal alkaline scrub dominate the eastern end of the dune field in Ramsar site (boundary shown as black line).

3.4 Critical components

The attributes and characteristics of each of the identified critical components of Glenelg Estuary and

Discovery Bay Ramsar Site are described below (sections 3.4.1 to 3.5.3). Where possible, quantitative

information is included, however, as with many Ramsar sites in Australia, there are a number of knowledge

gaps (see section 7).



A summary of the critical components within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is provided

in Table 12.

Table 12: Summary of critical components within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Component Description

Hydrology While a knowledge and quantification of ecosystem water regimes is limited, it is understood that

many of the wetlands in the site, including the Glenelg Estuary are groundwater dependent. It is

suspected that groundwater is a significant water source for these systems, at times contributing

more than surface water sources.

The hydrology of the Glenelg Estuary is influenced by the tidal cycle, when the estuary is open

and freshwater river inflows, the latter of which are seasonal.

A range of wetland water regimes are present and several of the wetlands, such as the

Bridgewater Lakes are permanently inundated.

Vegetation –

type and extent

Nationally threatened coastal saltmarsh is present at Oxbow Lake.

Freshwater sedgelands and tall marsh vegetation extend across the Long Swamp wetlands

Lake bed macrophytes - submerged macrophyte communities are a characteristic of the

permanent lakes. Bridgewater Lakes supports a submerged macrophyte community dominated

charophytes, although the diversity and extent of this community is a knowledge gap.

Fish – diversity

and abundance

Fifty-three native fish species from 29 families have been recorded in the site, 28 of which are

considered to be regularly supported.

This includes fish with a range of life-history strategies including freshwater, estuarine, marine and

diadromous species that move between habitats.

The site provides feeding, spawning and nursery areas for a range of fish species including

several that are recreationally important such as black bream.

Waterbirds –

diversity and

abundance

Ninety-five species of waterbird have been recorded within the site, including 24 listed under

international migratory bird agreements.

Complete counts are not available and waterbird abundance is a knowledge gap for the site.

Nine species have been recorded breeding in the site, including several beach nesting species

such as red-capped plover and little terns.

3.4.1 Hydrology

Groundwater connectivity is a critical component of the Ramsar site, with large areas of habitat at the site

being groundwater dependent (Figure 28). However quantitative information on groundwater levels,

connectivity and variability is limited.

Hydrological information for the site is largely limited to the Long Swamp complex and the Glenelg Estuary.

The other components of the site are largely data deficient. The Bridgewater Lakes are permanent, but

variability in water levels and information on primary sources of water (surface and groundwater) are

unknown.



43

Figure 28: Groundwater dependent ecosystems reliant on surface and subsurface expression of groundwater showing Lower Glenelg National Park and Long Swamp complex (modified from GDE Atlas reports from Bureau of Meteorology, http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/weave/gde.html?max=true accessed September 2015). Bridgewater Lakes not shown.

Long Swamp

The hydrology of Long Swamp appears to be complex, the source of water being a mixture of local

runoff/rainfall inputs and groundwater connectivity to the estuary via Eel Creek and the sea via Nobles Rocks

and White Sands (Figure 29). The frequency and duration of inundation varies across the site and has been

described historically as being deeper and more permanent than at present. A local long-time resident, Edna

Millhouse, stated that

“around about 1944-45 some misguided person or persons cut a channel from the long swamp to

drain into the sea near Noble Rocks. The long swamp used to run from Lake M…g into the estuary

near the mouth of the Glenelg River. As the years went by the channel became wider and more

water went to the sea the swamp became nearly dry. As no water flowed along the course the sand

drift became bad. What was once teeming with bird life, eels, tench and spotted trout and little fish all

have gone along with the water”

Letter from Edna Millhouse, aged 89, 19/2/2009.

Two channels were cut through the coastal dune, one at White Sands and one at Nobles Rocks, the

locations most likely dictated by the narrowness of the dune, to increase the land available for agriculture

(Reynolds 2007). The effect of this was to reduce the duration, extent and frequency of inundation within the

complex.

During the Millennium drought, the channel at White Sands naturally closed, and in 2014, works were

completed to close the channel at Noble Rocks. While insufficient time has passed to adequately

characterise the water regime under current (restored) conditions, early observations indicate increased

duration, depth and extent of inundation and restored connectivity between the chain of wetlands that

comprise the Long Swamp complex (Figure 30) and potentially the Glenelg Estuary (Bachmann

unpublished).

http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/weave/gde.html?max=true



Figure 29: Groundwater dependent ecosystems reliant on surface and subsurface expression of groundwater of the Long Swamp to Moniboeng complex (modified from GDE Atlas reports from Bureau of Meteorology, http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/weave/gde.html?max=true accessed September 2015).

Figure 30: Restoration of the water regime at Long Swamp.

http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/weave/gde.html?max=true



45

While it is too early to describe the rehabilitated water regime of Long Swamp, modelling of the potential

effects of the closure of the artificial outlets provides some indication of likely hydrology. Specifically it is

predicted that (Cardno Lawson and Treloar 2008):

• Closure of the outlets (by raising the land to 4m AHD) to the open ocean may increase the depth and

period of inundation significantly in some areas of Long Swamp, particularly for the average and high

rainfall years.

• The greatest changes in the hydrological regime are predicted to occur near the closed outlets.

• Inundation extent in the swamp is unchanged under the closed outlet conditions. Flood depths may

increase by over 50 centimetres near the outlets under the closed conditions.

The model output for difference between open and closed outlets in an average rainfall year is shown in

Figure 31. See Cardno Lawson and Treloar (2008) for other scenarios for high rainfall events and large

floods.

These predictions are modelled and the water regime of the freshwater wetlands remains a knowledge gap.

Figure 31: Difference in depths – closed flood depths minus open flood depths for an average rainfall year (from (Cardno Lawson and Treloar 2008).

Glenelg Estuary

The Glenelg Estuary is a seasonally closed, salt wedge estuary (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a). During

summer, low river flows are unable to displace the sand deposited by low energy constructive waves at the

river mouth. A sand barrier forms that restricts or completely isolates the estuary from tidal exchange with

the sea. When completely closed, the estuary continues to fill with fresh water inflows from the catchment

until the barrier bar is breached. The breach may be initiated naturally by wave action on the seaward side,

or from the estuary when higher winter and spring flows raise the estuary water level to the point where

hydrostatic pressure blows through the bar or high water levels overtop the bar. At this point the draining



estuary will erode an open channel through the barrier that generally remains open until the next summer low

flow season. Glenelg Hopkins CMA can authorise the land manager (Parks Victoria) to artificially breach the

sand barrier when rising estuary water levels threaten local assets with flooding or in response to poor water

quality in the stagnant estuary (Barton and Sherwood 2004).

In the twenty year period from 1995 to 2014, the Glenelg Estuary closed 37 times (Figure 32). The duration

of open and closed periods is highly variable and weather dependent. For example, while the average period

of closure is 40 days; during the Millennium drought the estuary remained closed for over a year (January

2004 to June 2005). The estuary most often closes during autumn months (March to May) during periods of

low river flow, although on occasion has closed during winter. Summary statistics for periods of open and

closing of the estuary are provided in Table 13.

Figure 32: Records of estuary opening and closing from 1995 to 2014 (data provided by Glenelg Hopkins CMA).

Table 13: Summary statistics for the Glenelg Estuary opening and closing from January 1995 to December 2014 (data provided by Glenelg Hopkins CMA).

Parameter Open periods Closed periods

Mean duration 159 days 41 days

Median duration 92 days 25 days

Maximum period (duration) 658 513 days

Maximum period (date) 10/6/2010 to 4/4/2012 27/1/2004 to 23/06/2005

Minimum period (duration) 4 days 3 days

Minimum period (date) 30/4/2006 to 4/5/2006 17/10/1999 to 20/10/1999

% closure summer N/A 13

% closure autumn N/A 57

% closure winter N/A 13

% closure spring N/A 17

Stratification commonly occurs where low density fresh water flows over the top of dense saline water

without mixing, forming a salt wedge on the estuary floor that is pushed upstream by tidal flows. During low



47

flow conditions the salt wedge of the Glenelg Estuary often penetrates over 75 kilometres upstream almost

reaching Dartmoor (GHCMA 2006). During higher flows the wedge moves downstream as it mixes with

turbulent freshwater flows until flows are sufficient to break down the stratification entirely. River flows of

approximately 6,000 megalitres per day are needed to flush the saltwater from the river and estuary entirely

(Sherwood et al. 1998 cited by Glenelg Hopkins CMA (2006a).

When the estuary is open, it experiences a diurnal (twice-daily) tidal cycle. Tides are somewhat moderated

from those experienced in the Southern Ocean, outside the estuary and get weaker at distance upstream.

An example of tidal ranges (Figure 33) indicates a 1 – 1.2 metre tidal range in the Southern Ocean, a 0.2 to

0.3 metre tidal range in the Glenelg Estuary at Nelson, to a barely perceptible tidal range upstream at

Dartmoor (Figure 33).

Freshwater inflows to the estuary are highly variable both seasonally and over longer climatic cycles. From

1995 to 2015, total annual discharge in the Glenelg River at Dartmoor ranged from nearly 900 gigalitres in

1996 to just 73 gigalitres during the drought in 2006 (Figure 34). Most of the freshwater inflow to the estuary

occurs in late winter, early spring although there are occasional high flows during summer.

Figure 33: Hourly water levels at three sites: Southern Ocean (Wild Dog Beach); Glenelg Estuary at Nelson; and Glenelg River at Dartmoor (data from Glenelg Hopkins CMA, Victorian Water Measurement Information System and Bureau of Meteorology).

Water sources for the Glenelg Estuary include direct rainfall, river inflows, groundwater and tidal exchange

with the Southern Ocean. A water balance model for the Glenelg Estuary was completed for periods when

the estuary was closed in summer and autumn of 2006 and 2007, when river flows were low and there was

no tidal exchange. The study indicated that during these periods, groundwater was a significant source of

water to the estuary, accounting for up to 45% of total inflows (Figure 35). However, during times when the

estuary is open, marine water would account for a large proportion of the total volume and during periods of

high river flow, freshwater surface flows would be more important.



Figure 34: Daily flow (megalitres per day) and total annual discharge (gigalitres) for the Glenelg River at Dartmoor (data from the Victorian Water Measurement Information System).

Figure 35: Relative contributions (percentage) of water sources to the Glenelg Estuary during periods of closure (data from Laurenson and Coates 2010).

3.4.2 Vegetation type and extent

The site is characterised by three major wetland dependent vegetation groupings that are critical to defining

the character of the Ramsar site. These are (Figure 36, Table 14):

1. Coastal saltmarsh associated with the Glenelg Estuary including Oxbow Lake.

2. Freshwater sedgelands and tall marsh vegetation that comprise the Long Swamp wetlands

3. Lake bed macrophytes - submerged macrophyte communities of the permanent lakes.

The northern extent of the site that lies within the Lower Glenelg National Park is mostly terrestrial

heathlands and woodlands that support the ecology of the estuary but are not considered critical to the

wetland values of the site.



49

Table 14: Extent of major vegetation types critical to the ecological character of the Ramsar site.

Critical Components: Vegetation Area (hectares)

Coastal saltmarsh 26

Sarcocornia herbland 8

Juncus krausii 9

Ghania filum 9

Freshwater sedgelands and tall marsh 939

Baumea sedgelands 270

Tall marsh 32

Gahnia sedge/swamp scrub complex 637

Lake bed macrophytes 137

Swan Lake 18

Lake Moniboeng 52

Malseed Lake 6

Bridgewater Lakes (North) 32

Bridgewater Lakes (South) 29



Figure 36: Major vegetation types within the Ramsar site, those considered critical to ecological character are: coastal saltmarsh, freshwater sedgelands and tall marsh, and lake bed macrophytes).



51

Coastal Saltmarsh

Coastal saltmarsh fringes Oxbow Lake and the Glenelg Estuary and was mapped in detail by Sinclair and

Sutter (2008) (Figure 37). The saltmarsh comprises a low herbland dominated by beaded glasswort

(Sarcocornia quinqueflora) with patches of taller estuarine wetland species such as sea rush (Juncus

kraussii) and Chaffy saw-sedge (Gahnia filum) towards the drier landward zone. Coastal saltmarsh also

fringes several saline depressions located between the Glenelg river channel and western shore of Oxbow

lake. Other plant species found as scattered individuals include austral seablite (Suaeda australis), creeping

brookweed (Samolus repens), streaked arrow-grass (Triglochin striata) and Australian Salt-grass (Distichlis

distichophylla) (Sinclair and Sutter 2008).

Figure 37: Major vegetation types associated with the Glenelg Estuary.

Freshwater sedgelands and tall marsh

The vegetation of Long Swamp was mapped in detail by Sinclair and Sutter (2008) into three main

vegetation types that occur across a hydrological gradient from permanently inundated or waterlogged soils

on the seaward side of the swamp to intermittently wet and damp peaty soils on the landward side (Figure

38). The wettest (most permanently inundated areas) support small stands of tall marsh dominated by

common reed (Phragmites australis). This grades into large areas of dense sedge-lands composed almost



exclusively of twig-sedges (Baumea arthrophylla and Baumea juncea) that cover 250 hectares of

waterlogged peaty soils. The drier landward side of the swamp supports 700 hectares of mixed swamp scrub

composed of stunted woolly tea-tree (Leptospermum lanigerum) and scented paperbark (Melaleuca

squarrosa) mixed with saw sedges (Chaffy saw-sedge Gahnia filum and tall saw-sedge Gahnia clarkei)

(Sinclair and Sutter 2008).

Figure 38: Major vegetation types associated with Long Swamp.



53

Lake bed macrophytes (Figures 39 and 40)

Very little information is available on this vegetation type and reflects a general lack of data on the main

permanent lakes of the Ramsar site. The submergent vegetation of the lakes is considered a critical

component as it represents a distinct habitat and food resource for waterbirds and fish as well as having

inherent biodiversity values. Species that have been noted at the lakes include Triglochin, Chara and

Myriophilum. In 1958, Beauglehole and Wood described three species of charophytes (freshwater

macroalgae) from the Bridgewater Lakes, one species of Nitella and two of Chara (M. Casanova, pers,

comm.).

The extent and diversity of submerged macrophytes within the site remains a knowledge gap.

Figure 39: Lake bed vegetation at Bridgewater Lakes, November 2015 (R. Butcher).

Figure 40: Lake bed vegetation at Swan Lake, November 2015 (R. Butcher).



3.4.3 Fish diversity and abundance

There have been relatively few surveys of fish undertaken within the Ramsar site, with most work either

being undertaken in the Glenelg River upstream of the site, or more recently in Long Swamp in association

with a hydrological restoration project (see Bachmann et al. 2013, Veale 2014, 2016). Records for the

Malseed wetland complex and Bridgewater Lakes are very sparse. There are records of 53 native fish

species from 29 families from the site. This includes a large number (23) of marine opportunist or marine

straggler species (see Appendix F). Of the 53 native species, 28 species are considered to be regularly

supported (Table 15).

Table 15: Fish species regularly supported within the Ramsar site (additional marine stragglers are listed in Appendix F). GRE = Glenelg Estuary, OL= Oxbow Lake, EC = Eel Creek, LS = Long Swamp, LMO = Lake Moniboeng, LMA = Lake Malseed, SL = Swan Lake, BWL = Bridgewater Lakes. Data from Glenelg Hopkins CMA unpublished data, DPI data cited in Bovill 2006; Halliday et al. 2015; Hammer et al. 2007; Hughes et al. 2014; Bachmann et al. 2013; Coleman et al. 2013; Saddlier et al. 2013; Veale 2014, 2015.

Common name Scientific name GRE OL EC LS LMO LMA SL BWL

Australian herring Arripis georgianus

Black bream Acanthopagrus butcheri

Bridled goby Arenigobius bifrenatus

Climbing galaxias Galaxias brevipinnis

Common galaxias Galaxias maculatus

Little galaxias Galaxiella toourtkoourt

Estuary perch Macquaria colonrum

Flat-headed gudgeon Philypnodon grandiceps

Lagoon goby Tasmanogobius lasti

Large mouth goby Redigobius macrostoma

Mullaway Argyrosomus japonicus

Pouched lamprey Geotria australis

Prickly toadfish Contusus brevicaudus

River blackfish Gadopsis marmoratus

Sandy sprat Hyperlophus vittatus

Sea mullet Mugil cephalus

Short-finned eel Anguilla australis

Short-headed lamprey Mordacia mordax

Small-mouthed hardy

head

Atherinosoma

microstoma

Smooth toadfish Tetractenos glaber

Southern pygmy perch Nannoperca australis

Spotted galaxias Galaxias truttaceus

Southern smelt Retropinna spp.

Tamar river goby Afurcagobius tamarensis

Tupong Pseudaphritis urvillii

Yarra pygmy perch Nannoperca obscura

Yellow eye mullet Aldrichetta forsteri

Western blue-spotted

goby

Pseudogobius sp 9

A comprehensive understanding of the fish diversity and abundance across all wetland types within the site

is considered a knowledge gap, but there is some recent data on fish species in some of the wetlands

associated with the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Ramsar Site. Surveys in autumn 2014 – 2016 associated

with the Long Swamp restoration project are illustrated in Figure 41. Data indicate that Oxbow Lake is

dominated by estuarine and marine species, with the most common fish species in both years being small-

mouthed hardy-head followed by black bream. In Long Swamp, the fish community is dominated by

freshwater species with southern pygmy perch the most common species in recent surveys. Further east, at

Lake Moniboeng, while the fish community is still largely comprised of freshwater species, there are some

estuarine fish present and the most common taxa is common galaxias (Veale 2014, 2016).



55

Population distribution data was analysed for common species (Veale 2016) and indicates that common

galaxias occur across all size and age ranges, consistent with the site providing a self-sustaining breeding

population. Other species such as black bream and Yarra pygmy perch displayed multiple cohorts and

recruits, indicative of movement between different parts of the site at different stages in their life-cycles.

There is a good understanding of the spawning and recruitment of black bream in the Glenelg Estuary, with

stratification and freshwater inflows important for success. Bream egg buoyance means that they will

accumulate near the halocline in a stratified water column and without stratification, hatching and recruitment

can be impaired (Jenkins et al. 2010).

Spawning and recruitment of other fish species within the site remans a knowledge gap.

Figure 41: Fish abundance (Catch per Unit Effort; CPUE) from autumn surveys in Oxbow Lake, Long Swamp and Lake Moniboeng (data from Veale 2014, 2015). Note that survey method in 2014 varied slightly and results may not be directly comparable. Freshwater species shaded green, diadromous in yellow/brown, estuarine in blue and marine in grey.

3.4.4 Waterbird diversity and abundance

A total of 95 species have been recorded within the Ramsar site (Table 16), noting that this list excludes

vagrants and species for which the site does not provide core habitat (e.g. pelagic seabirds and penguins).

Twenty four species are listed under international migratory agreements: CAMBA (24), JAMBA (24),

ROKAMBA (21) and the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (21), although only 20 species are true

international migrants with the remaining species resident within their Australian range. An additional 34

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

2014 2015 2016

Ca

tch

pe

r u

nit e

ffo

rt

Lake Moniboeng

Yarra pygmy perch Southern pygmy perch

River blackfish Southern smelt

Common galaxias Small-mouthed hardy head

Western blue-spotted goby Lagoon goby

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

2015 2016

Ca

tch

pe

r u

nit e

ffo

rt

Oxbow Lake

Flat headed gudgeon Southern smelt Common galaxias Tupong

Shortfinned eel Small-mouthed hardy head Tamar River goby Western blue-spotted goby

Lagoon goby Estuary perch Black bream Bridled goby

Yellow eye mullet Australian herring Sandy sprat Mullaway

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

2014 2015 2016

Ca

tch

pe

r u

nit e

ffo

rt (

CP

UE

)

Long Swamp

Dwarf galaxias Yarra pygmy perch

Southern pygmy perch Common galaxias

Tupong Short-finned eel



Australian species are listed as marine under the EPBC Act 1999. A full list of waterbirds recorded at the site

is presented in Appendix E.

Waterbird abundance records for the site are limited and do not cover all habitat types. There are no

complete counts for the entire site. Shorebirds 2020 data is available from 2007 to 2013, but not all areas

were counted each year, making trend analysis or quantifying average conditions impossible. Complete

summer counts of the beaches and shorebird habitats in 2008 and 2009, indicated 707 and 448 shorebirds,

respectively (Shorebirds 2020 data). In addition, there are moderate numbers of birds in winter; with data

from 2008 and 2009, indicating 362 and 155 shorebirds respectively. These winter counts would include

juvenile birds from populations that breed in the northern hemisphere that over winter in Australia, Double-

banded Plovers which winter in Australia and resident Australian shorebirds.

Table 16: Number of waterbird species recorded from within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Functional group Description Number

Ducks and small grebes Ducks and small grebes that typically are omnivorous and shallow or

open water foragers.

16

Herbivores Black swans, hens and coots that have a vegetation diet 5

Fish eating species Gulls, terns, cormorants and grebes with a diet mainly of fish 19

Australian shorebirds Australian resident shorebird species that feed in shallow inland waters or

mud and sand flats mainly on invertebrates.

14

International shorebirds Palaearctic shorebird species that breed in the northern hemisphere and

migrate to the southern hemisphere to feed.

20

Large wading birds Long-legged wading birds with large bills, feeding mainly in shallow water

and mudflats.

16

Other Other birds that are wetland dependent such as birds of prey (white-

bellied sea eagle, swamp harrier), reed warblers and the orange-bellied

parrot.

5

Total 95

Data on abundance of individual species is also inconsistent. There are counts above the one per cent

population threshold (220) for sanderling (Calidris alba), but inconsistent and incomplete counts make trend

analysis difficult. Available data indicate (Birdlife Australia unpublished data):

• 1981 = 232

• 1983 = 560

• 2005 = 610

• 2008 = 500

• 2009 = 350

There are also some count data for the nationally threatened (vulnerable) hooded plover (Thinornis

rubricollis), which do not exceed the one percent threshold (abundance ranges from 3 to 51 individuals),

however the site is considered significant for this species (Mead et al. 2012). Counts from beaches in both

summer and winter indicate the species is a permanent resident, but there are no breeding records and only

a single observation of a juvenile from the site, suggesting that the species does not breed within the site

boundary (Mead et al. 2012).

Two other threatened birds species have been recorded within the site: the Australasian bittern (Botaurus

poiciloptilus), listed as endangered and the fairy tern (Sternula nereis nereis), listed as vulnerable. Records

for these species are sparse, but observations from the BirdLife Australia atlas indicate that they are

observed at the site regularly. Recently a single bittern with a radio tracker has been recorded using the site,

having originated from NSW (Bitterns in rice project - see http://www.bitternsinrice.com.au/).

Waterbird breeding within the Ramsar site is a significant knowledge gap with respect to species numbers

and important locations and habitats. There are breeding records of nine waterbird species from within the

site, from incidental observations (BirdLife Australia, unpublished data):

http://www.bitternsinrice.com.au/



57

• Australian pied oystercatcher (Haematopus longirostris)

• Black swan (Cygnus atratus)

• Chestnut teal (Anas castanea)

• Fairy tern (Sterna nereis nereis)

• Great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)

• Great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus)

• Little tern (Sternula albifrons)

• Pacific gull (Larus pacificus)

• Red-capped plover (Charadrius ruficapillus)

Little tern used the estuary regularly as a breeding colony in the past, with the first nesting being observed in

1988 and yearly from 2000 to 2004 (Smith and Smith 2001, Smith and Smith 2002, Campbell and Christie

2009). In 2003/04 both little and fairy terns were observed nesting together. Little terns typically breed in

small colonies of up to 50 individuals; however, the colonies established at the Glenelg Estuary were small

with typically 6-8 breeding pairs. Fairy tern also breed within the site as indicated by records at the estuary

and on the Discovery Bay beach (Figure 42).

Figure 42: Fairy tern nesting on Discovery Bay beach, December 2014 (© Marcel Hoog Antink).

3.5 Critical processes

A single critical process has been identified for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site:

stratification of the Glenelg Estuary, which is important for nutrient cycling and other ecosystem functions

and essential for successful recruitment of estuarine fish species such as black bream (Jenkins et al. 2010).

3.5.1 Stratification

The Glenelg Estuary can be described as a seasonally closed salt-wedge estuary (Glenelg Hopkins CMA

2006a). The interaction of fresh river flow and saline marine tides creates a salt wedge within the estuary,

comprising three distinct layers (Barton and Sherwood 2004):

• Upper layer of fresh, river water constantly flowing downstream,

• Lower layer of denser saline water, moving upstream on the flood tide and downstream on the ebb tide,

and



• A middle mixed layer of intermediate density that moves downstream with the freshwater layer, gradually

thickening until the freshwater layer disappears.

The position and behaviour of this salt wedge is affected by river flow volume and tidal cycles. As illustrated

in Figure 43, under an ebb tide, when the estuary is open, river water extends further downstream in a thick

layer over the more saline seawater. In a flood tide, the pressure exerted by the tide pushes the salt wedge

further up the estuary. When the estuary is closed and tidal exchange does not occur, the stratification

(layers of fresh and saline water) becomes more stable forming a distinct halocline. This prevents the mixing

of bottom water layers with the surface water (and air) and results in a decline in dissolved oxygen in bottom

waters. It is not unusual for dissolved oxygen concentrations of less than two milligrams per litre (less than

10 percent saturation) to be recorded in the bottom waters during these times (Glenelg Hopkins CMA

unpublished data).

Figure 43: Position of the salt wedge under different hydrological conditions (adapted from Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a).

The seasonal nature of freshwater inflows and opening of the estuary creates a cycle of salinity and

dissolved oxygen in the estuary (Figure 44). During winter, the water column is well mixed and most often

fresh to brackish. Although data are limited, salinity in winter is typically less than one part per thousand on

ebb tide and two to four parts per thousand on flood tide. At this time, the water column remains well

oxygenated with dissolved oxygen concentrations near 100 percent saturation and 8 to 12 milligrams per litre

(Glenelg Hopkins CMA unpublished data). The graph for winter in Figure 44 shows depth profiles for salinity

and dissolved oxygen in June 2011 during an ebb tide.

In spring, as freshwater inflows drop, the salt wedge becomes more established and water in the surface

layer remains fresh to brackish, but in bottom-waters may be as high as seawater (35 parts per thousand). At

this time, stratification is not permanent and dissolved oxygen in bottom waters remains high. Data in Figure

44 shows the depth profiles for salinity and dissolved oxygen from October 2010.

During summer and autumn, stratification becomes more stable, freshwater inflows are low and there is a

distinct halocline. Data in Figure 44 are from March 2009, and show the position of the halocline at two

metres, with a mixing zone to a depth of three metres. Water above the halocline is moderately saline with

salinity at or above 20 parts per thousand; below the halocline salinity is 10 parts per thousand higher.



59

Dissolved oxygen in surface water remains high (over 100 percent saturation) but drops to near zero in

bottom waters (Glenelg Hopkins CMA unpublished data).

Figure 44: Salinity and dissolved oxygen cycles in the Lower Glenelg Estuary (schematic adapted from Barton and Sherwood 2004; data from Glenelg Hopkins CMA unpublished).

In addition to the seasonal cycles and tidal cycles described above, dissolved oxygen concentrations vary

diurnally, generally being lower at night, when respiration exceeds photosynthesis and higher on sunny days,

when photosynthesis of algae and submerged plants releases oxygen into the water column. Data however

are too limited to determine trends in dissolved oxygen, with respect to primary productivity in the Glenelg

Estuary.

Salinity also follows a gradient from the lower to the upper estuary. The salt wedge extends up the entire

length of the estuary, with bottom water salinity often close to seawater and only occasional differences

between the lower and upper estuaries. Salinity in the upper layers is higher in the lower estuary (i.e. at

Nelson), which is closer to the mouth and marine waters, and fresher in the upper portions of the estuary

(above Pritchard’s landing), where water in the surface layers is fresher (Figure 45). The monthly data from

2003 to 2012 also show occasional periods (e.g. September 2004 and on a number of occasions in late

2010 and early 2011) where the water column became well mixed and entirely fresh. This coincides with

periods of higher freshwater flows such as occurred at the breaking of the drought in late 2010.



Figure 45: Salinity (parts per thousand) in surface water (top graph) and bottom waters (bottom graph) at three sites in the Glenelg Estuary (data provided by Glenelg Hopkins CMA).

3.6 Cultural services

3.6.1 Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Statement of Continuing Connection and Commitment

The authors of this report acknowledge the Gunditj Mirring TOAC as one of the primary guardians, keepers

and knowledge holders of Aboriginal cultural heritage for the area being nominated for Ramsar listing as a

Wetland of International Importance. As such, guidance and collaboration was sought to strengthen the case

for nominating the site through recognition of Country. The Gunditj Mirring TOAC provided the following

statement in support of the nomination of part of Country as a Ramsar site.

Creation • At the start of the Yakinitj, Prenheal sent bolitabolita Creation Beings muyuban tungatt, woorrowarook, bocara and koonang.

Continuing Connection

• For Gunditjmara people, ‘Country’ includes all living things–none better than the other but equal in its importance in forming this diverse natural landscape that is Gunditjmara Country.

• Country means people, plants and animals alike. It embraces the seasons, stories and spirits of the creation.

• This flowing, connected cultural landscape possesses its own sacred places, languages, ceremonies, totems, art, clan groupings and law.

• These features are seen as inseparable and make up what is known as Country.



61

• Our Country is a place of belonging and pride that comes with this belonging.

Impact • Gunditjmara, other people and climate change have impacted on the profile and ecology of the Bocara Estuary and Koonang Gunditj.

• The original sequence of river flow, pools and wetlands are now severely affected and the habitat and refuge provided for birds and their ecology being reduced along the Bocara Estuary and Koonang Gunditj.

Understanding Ramsar

• To help protect and conserve wetlands that provide important habitats, Gunditjmara people understand the Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, as an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

Supporting Ramsar

• Gunditjmara people welcome a Ramsar listing for the areas identified in the Bocara Estuary and Koonang Gunditj to exist alongside our continued connection to Gunditj identified by the Ramsar nomination and our rights and interests recognised in 1997 and 2007 by Commonwealth and Victorian legislation.

Continuing Connection

• We all have a right and responsibility to care for Country, working together with respectful conversations to achieve our aspirations for Country.

• We recognise the connections between people and Country; between communities and Country – past, present and future. Forever.

• We will work together to restore and improve ecosystems so that they are intact and resilient.

3.6.2 South East Aboriginal Focus Group – Statement of Connection

The authors of this report acknowledge the Traditional Owner family clan groups that fall within the South

East Natural Resource Management boundary of South Australia. These Traditional Owner family clan

groups are Bunganditj people. The South East Aboriginal Focus Group (SEAFG) is representative of the

following Bunganditj Traditional Owner family clan groups:

• Meintangk

• Potaruwutij

• Bunganditj

• Tatiara/ Ngarkat

• Tanganekald (Southern Clans)

The Bunganditj share a boundary with the Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners and support their statement of

the continuing connection and commitment in support of the nomination of part of this country as a Ramsar

site.

The Bunganditj acknowledge the Country of Gunditjmara and recognise their long and continuing

relationship with Bocara estuary and Koonang Gunditj. Our wish is to strengthen the relationship by

respecting the country of Gunditjmara whilst acknowledging our shared history.

The Bunganditj welcomes a Ramsar listing and the connections between place and people. We will work

with Gunditjmara and other recognised bodies to restore and improve the ecosystems so they remain intact

and resilient. We are fully supportive of Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Statement of Continuing

Connection and Commitment.



3.6.3 Recreation and tourism

The Ramsar site is located within the 'Green Triangle’ of southwest Victoria and southeast South Australia

that includes the cities of Warrnambool, Portland and Mt Gambier, as well as small townships such as

Nelson and Dartmoor. Visitors are attracted to the area by a range of features, mostly natural or historical

(DCE 1991). Visitor numbers to the area, including the Lower Glenelg National Park and Discovery Bay

Coastal Park can exceed 100,000 annually, while visitor numbers at townships such as Nelson can exceed

20,000 annually (Glenelg Shire Council 2005, Parks Victoria 2006, DCE 1991). Tourism contributes over $37

Million to the local economy annually (http://www.economicprofile.com.au/glenelg/tourism/value-added) and

is a significant with respect to local employment.

The Lower Glenelg National Park is a particularly important recreational area, as it contains large, relatively

unmodified areas including unique environmental settings with relatively easy access. These include features

such as the Glenelg River gorge and the Princess Margaret Rose Caves within a setting that is highly valued

for recreational activities such as sightseeing, boating, canoeing, picnicking, angling and camping. The

National Park (and the Ramsar site) are also connected to the Great South West Walk, a 250 km walking

loop linking most of the natural areas between Portland and Nelson and which is another important tourism

feature of the region (Parks Victoria 2006).

The importance of recreation and tourism, as well as the continued pursuit of adjacent agriculture, is

consistent with the wise-use concept promoted by the Ramsar convention.

3.7 Critical supporting services

Supporting services are those which are considered essential for the production of all other ecosystem

services such as water cycling, nutrient cycling and habitat for biota. These services will generally have an

indirect benefit to humans or a direct benefit over a long period of time. A summary of the critical supporting

services of the site is provided in Table 17.

Table 17: Summary of critical services within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Critical ecosystem service Description

Diversity of

wetland types

The site comprises a network of interconnected wetland types including freshwater permanent

wetlands, intermittently inundated marshes, estuarine waters and intertidal sandy beaches.

Special

geomorphic

features

The site is significant for a number of geological and geomorphic features; in particular the dune

slack system is rare, if not unique, within the bioregion.

Provides

physical habitat

(for waterbirds)

The site provides a network of habitats for waterbird feeding, roosting and breeding. Species that

are supported by the site represent a wide range of functional groups (e.g. fishers, waders, ducks)

each with different habitat requirements.

Threatened

wetland species

and ecosystems

One nationally listed ecological community and eight nationally or internationally listed species of

conservation significance are supported by the site.

Ecological

connectivity

The Ramsar site has a range of distinct wetland types which are both hydrologically and

ecologically connected. The connection between the marine, estuarine and freshwater

components is significant for fish migration and reproduction.

3.7.1 Supports a diversity of wetland types

As described in section 2.3.4, the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site contains 10 wetland

types, some of which can be considered significant in a bioregional context. This diversity of habitat is

brought about by the interactions between geomorphology, hydrology and vegetation. Water regime and

salinity are the most significant determinant of wetland vegetation, with different groups of species having

different morphological adaptations to patterns of inundation (Roberts and Marston 2011). Hydrological

processes including groundwater recharge and discharge are a key driver of the character of the site and

underpin all other services supported at the site.

http://www.economicprofile.com.au/glenelg/tourism/value-added



63

The diversity of wetlands and habitats and how they support the critical components and processes of the

site is illustrated in the conceptual model in Figure 46. More detailed conceptual models of the wetlands in

each of the broad systems (freshwater wetlands, Glenelg Estuary and beach habitat and dune fields are

provided in Appendix C).

Figure 46: Stylised conceptual model of Ramsar site showing the lower estuary below Nelson and dune, beach and Long Swamp complex

3.7.2 Special features (dune slacks)

The Special Features ecosystem service is defined by DEWHA (2008) as supporting special ecological

features, generally uncommon in the landscape, that arise from a combination of features such as

uncommon species, habitat, geomorphic features or ecological functions (including acting as refuge in terms

of drought, supporting species at a vulnerable or particular stages of their life cycle, or supporting high

productivity). Within the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site the key geomorphic feature is the

presence of a dune slack system in the dune fields. The process by which many of the wetland habitats are

formed within the Ramsar site make it unusual within the bioregion with the dune system being a key

characteristic, albeit largely terrestrial, feature of the site.

Dune slacks are the damp or wet hollows within a coastal dune terrain, where the groundwater level is

seasonally at or near the surface. As such, dune slacks are distinct from wetlands associated with swales in

other dune systems such as desert linear dunes (Semeniuk and Semeniuk 2011). A second key feature of

dune slacks are that they are subject to seasonal inundation or waterlogging and that the water levels are

maintained by groundwater. Also the chemistry of the dune slack water should be fresh or evolving from

brackish (i.e. recently marine derived) to fresh (Semeniuk and Semeniuk 2011) and typically be low in

nutrients.

The water regime of a dune slack is determined by the hydrology of the dune system and its location within

it, with local variation in the water table meaning some areas of a slack may be seasonally inundated and



others permanently inundated. Dune slacks are largely fed by infiltration of rain water and are characterised

by a pattern of pronounced annual fluctuation of the water table, related to the landform of the dune system

as well as climate and the nature of the underlying sediment (JNCC 2007). Variations in the extent and

duration of flooding of the dune surface are very important in determining the vegetation and influence the

breeding of aquatic species. Hydrological change is an inherent dune slack characteristic; with shallow lakes

becoming shallower seasonally inundated basins and eventually seasonally waterlogged basins.

A change in the water table within an existing dune slack can be attributed to a number of factors which can

occur at a regional, local or intra-basinal scale. These could include a rise or fall in the dune slack water table

(from Semeniuk and Semeniuk 2011):

• As part of a regional response to cyclic changes in rainfall patterns, progradation or erosion of the beach,

or a changing sea level; or

• Due to a set of environmental conditions within a local area such as impounding of groundwater, local

seepage, or the barring of a valley tract; or

• A response to intra-basinal conditions.

3.7.3 Provides physical habitat for waterbirds

The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site provides a variety of habitats for waterbirds. Although

waterbird usage of the site is largely unknown, the different wetland types and structural habitats of the site

provide a mosaic for waterbirds:

• Beach – sandy shores for breeding of Australian resident shorebirds such as red-capped plover, little terns,

hooded plover and pied oystercatcher. Intertidal areas provide feeding habitat for shorebirds that also

utilise the fore dunes for roosting.

• Saltmarsh can also be used by several bird species for nesting, and although not recorded breeding in the

site, bird species that have been observed in the site that also breed in saltmarsh include brolgas and ibis.

• Freshwater wetlands - open water areas provide loafing habitat for ducks and swans, and protection during

moult of primary flight feathers. The vegetated freshwater marshes are the preferred habit of the

Australasian bittern and a number of large Australian waders such as herons. Black swans build nest

mounds in emergent vegetation as do a number of other species, with important habitats ranging from tree

hollows to large trees over water and dense reed beds.

The feeding habitat requirements of waterbirds can be considered in terms of feeding functional groups. The

habitat requirements of select species known to occur within the Ramsar site are described in Table 18.

Table 18: Habitat requirements of select waterbird species from the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site

Function

group

Example

species Habitat characteristics

Fish eating

waterbirds

Pied

Cormorant

Mainly marine in eastern Australia, but also on inland wetlands.

Roost in trees near water or on cliffs, offshore rocks.

Diet consists mainly of fish, which they catch by pursuit diving.

Crested

Tern

Mainly coastal on beaches, bays, estuaries and lagoons.

Roost on bare flat sand areas

Diet mainly fish caught from the surface to or shallow waters mainly in inshore areas.

Australasian

Gannet

Pelagic, spending the majority of the year at sea and using land only for breeding.

Diet consists mainly of fish, which are caught by plunge diving.

Ducks Blue-billed

Duck

Prefer deep, large permanent open water.

Roost – nocturnally usually on open water.

Diet – seeds and leaves of aquatic plants and invertebrates (chironomids, caddis flies,

dragonflies).

Foraging – Deep diving.



65

Function

group

Example

species Habitat characteristics

Freckled

Duck

Shallow productive inland wetlands.

Roost – by day on banks.

Diet – plants and animals.

Foraging – filter feed at night in soft mud or shallow water.

Herbivores Black Swan Inland and estuarine shallow waters where floating, submerged or emergent vegetation

is plentiful.

Roost – mostly over water, but occasionally on shore.

Diet – herbivorous feeding on the shoots and leaves of aquatic plants including

filamentous algae and seagrass.

Foraging – grazers.

Shorebirds Black-

fronted

dotterel

Prefer inland freshwater marshes.

Diet – feed mainly on small molluscs but also aquatic insects and crustaceans.

Foraging – wade in shallow water and seize prey at or near the surface, but

occasionally taking sub-surface prey.

Pied oyster

catcher

Prefer coastal environments with soft sediments.

Diet – predominantly bivalve molluscs for which their bill is specifically adapted.

Foraging – predominantly for surface prey (by sight), but also probing mudflats.

Red-capped

plover

Prefer saline and brackish wetlands.

Diet – mainly molluscs and small crustaceans, but also vegetation.

Foraging – wading in shallow water / wet mud and saltmarsh.

Large

bodied

waders

White-faced

heron

Very diverse array of habitats from arid inland to temperate coasts.

Feeds on a diversity of prey including aquatic insects, molluscs, crustaceans, frogs and

fish.

Foraging – variety of techniques, wading and disturbing prey, ambush hunting and

probing crevices and mud.

3.7.4 Supports threatened species and communities

Species and communities which are listed at the national or international level and which are regularly found

within the site are considered as contributing to this critical service. The habitat preferences and general

characteristics of the listed community and key threatened taxa are shown in Table 19, with further detail

specific to the site and listed items presented in Appendix D.

Table 19: Summary of listed species and communities regularly recorded in the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Listed Species or Community

Subtropical and temperate coastal saltmarsh

Coastal saltmarsh requires some form of ongoing connection to the tidal regime. This could occur via both surface

and/or ground waters, occurring in either the intra or supratidal zones. Can also include areas that are cut off from the

sea by natural barriers but subject to seepage from the sea.

Maroon leek-orchid (Prasophyllum frenchii)

Perennial terrestrial orchid that emerges annually from an underground tuber. Grows in variety of grassland or grassy

woodland habitats. Plants grow in damp soil, which is usually well drained. At Long Swamp, the orchid grows in

seasonally wet/inundated grassy-sedgelands.

Flowers between late October and December. Produces a single slender flowering spike bearing 20-60 small flowers.

Flower spike to 60 centimetres tall. Reverts to dormancy in late February as an underground tuber, when the life-cycle



Listed Species or Community

is complete. Seed capsules may be produced and can be seen for several more months.

Swamp greenhood (Pterostylis tenuissima)

Occurs exclusively in silky tea-tree (Leptospermum lanigerum) scrub. Habitat critical for the survival of this species is

defined as all remaining areas of Silky Tea-tree Scrub (Dickson et al. 2012).

Pollinated by small gnats and mosquitoes, thought to be attracted to the flowers by scent undetectable by humans

(Jones 2006 cited in (Dickson et al. 2012). Likely to be some degree of dependence on mycorrhizae for nutrient

exchange to promote germination (Dickson et al. 2012), but specifics are not known. Unlikely to respond or require fire

to promote flowering as it predominantly occurs in wet habitats.

Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus)

Inhabits inland wetlands, and occasionally, estuarine wetlands, generally where there is permanent water. Prefers

wetlands with dense vegetation, including sedges, rushes and reeds. Freshwater is generally preferred, although

saltmarsh vegetation in estuaries and flooded grasslands are also used by the species.

Little information available regarding breeding. Breed from October to February. Nests built approximately 30

centimetres above water level from reeds or rushes.

Curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea)

Typically found on intertidal mudflats in sheltered coastal areas, such as estuaries, bays, inlets and lagoons, and also

around non-tidal swamps, lakes and lagoons near the coast.

Species doesn’t breed in Australia.

Fairy tern (Sterna nereis nereis)

Secure nesting sites within close proximity to abundant food resources (i.e. fish).

Low breeding success has meant that the adult population is typically 10 to 12 years old. Threats to the species

include predation by silver gulls, foxes, increased human disturbance of nesting areas and inappropriate water

resource management.

Hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis)

Secure nesting sites within close proximity to abundant food resources.

Can live up to 16 years, although the average longevity is less. Most birds begin breeding in the second season after

hatching, but some commence breeding in either the first or third seasons after hatching. Typically lay 1–3 eggs from

August to March. Anthropogenic nest disturbance and egg and chick predation by foxes is common. Loss of nesting

habitat through invasive species such as sea spurge (Euphorbia parallias).

Yarra pygmy perch (Nannoperca obscura)

Obligate freshwater species, most often associated with large amounts of aquatic vegetation (particularly emergent

vegetation) in fresh to slightly brackish water. Inhabits slow flowing streams of still waters and often associated with

large amounts of woody debris (Kuiter et al. 1996). It breeds in spring, at water temperatures between 16 and 24

degrees Celsius. Completes entire lifecycle in freshwater and like other pygmy perches is presumed to spawn large

demersal eggs amongst aquatic vegetation (Bray and Thompson 2011).

Growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis)

Critical habitat varies across the range of distribution, but the species utilises both permanent and temporary waters

with submergent and fringing vegetation. Preference is for permanent freshwater but non-breeding refugia and habitat

along dispersal / recolonisation routes are also important for maintaining the species (Clemann and Gillespie 2012).

Breeds in summer and spring, but may not be reliant on flows to trigger breeding (Clemann and Gillespie 2012).

Adults can overwinter alongside wetlands; tadpoles hide amongst vegetation in the shallower edges of wetlands, with

the aquatic period lasting 2 – 15 months. Preferred breeding habitat is typically shallow, up to 1.5 m, where there is

complex vegetation structure.

Ancient greenling (Hemiphlebia mirablis)

At Long Swamp the high densities of the species were in areas with 20–40 cm of water dominated by Baumea

(Cordero-Rivera 2015). They are poor dispersers, only flying very short distances, typical of some other small

damselflies. Lifespan is estimated to be in the order of three weeks (Cordero-Rivera 2015).



67

3.7.5 Ecological connectivity

Ecological connectivity can relate to water mediated movement of biota, energy and materials through the

landscape (Pringle 2001, 2003) and is a well-established principle in the maintenance of spatially structured

populations. Aspects of ecological connectivity considered critical to the character of the Glenelg Estuary and

Discovery Bay Ramsar Site include pathways for migratory fish, particularly for diadromous fish, and

interconnected habitat for waterbirds.

Fish

Fish that migrate from their home range usually do so as part of feeding or breeding strategies. Fish that

display these traits are defined as (Potter et al. 2015):

• Diadromous, which includes:

– Anadromous: diadromous fish that live mostly in the sea but migrate to fresh water to breed,

– Catadromous: diadromous fish that live mostly in fresh water and migrate to the sea to breed,

– Amphidromous: diadromous fish that spawn in fresh water, with the larvae flushed out to sea, where

feeding occurs, followed by a migration back into fresh water, where most somatic growth and spawning

occurs.

• Potamodromous: fish that migrate within freshwater habitats only, and

• Oceanodromous: fish that migrate within marine environments only.

While only one percent of the world’s fish are diadromous (Arai and Chino 2012), they are usually well

represented in estuarine environments, such as at the Ramsar site (Appendix F). Diadromy was thought to

involve regular, physiologically mediated movements which occur at predictable life history phases in each

diadromous species, they involve most members of a species' populations, and they are usually obligatory

(McDowall 1997). Recent investigations, however, have indicated variable patterns of migration are possible

(e.g. short fin eels completing whole life cycle in marine environment (Arai and Chino 2012)). The importance

of migration within the lifecycle of migratory fish means that activities such as river regulation and the

instalment of barriers to migration have resulted in diadromous fish being amongst the most threatened

vertebrate species in many parts of the world (Angermeier 1995, Jonsson 1999 cited in Miles et al. 2013,

Baumgartner et al. 2014).

Examples of fish species recorded at the Ramsar site that display different forms of migration (Drew et al.

2008) are listed in Table 20, with the common pattern of migrations illustrated in Figure 47. The number of

species with different migratory strategies contributes to the biodiversity value of the site, and is also

important in supporting fisheries elsewhere in the catchment.

Table 20: Migratory strategies for fish species recorded as occurring in the site (adapted from Cook et al. 2007, Crook et al. 2008, Drew et al. 2008).

Migration strategy Species name Common name

Anadromous Atherinosoma microstoma Smallmouth hardyhead

Geotria australis Pouched lamprey

Mordacia mordax Short-headed lamprey

Catadromous Acanthopagrus butcheri Black bream

Anguilla australis Short-finned eel

Aldrichetta forsteri Yellow-eye mullet

Galaxias maculatus Common galaxias

Macquaria colonorum Estuary perch

Mugil cephalus Sea mullet

Pseudaphritis urvillii Tupong



Amphidromous Galaxias brevipennis Climbing galaxias

Galaxias truttaceus Spotted galaxias

Redigobius macrostoma Large mouth goby

Potamodromous Nannoperca australis Southern pygmy perch (very limited)

Retropinna species Southern smelt

Figure 47: Simple conceptual model of fish migration strategies representing species from the Ramsar site (adapted from Potter and Hyndes 1999).

Waterbirds

Ecological connectivity with respect to waterbirds at the site is provided at a local scale by the diversity of

wetlands and habitat types provided for breeding, feeding and roosting. As described in sections 3.7.1 and

3.7.3. In addition, the site supports a number of migratory shorebirds from the East Asian-Australasian

Flyway. The majority of these birds migrate from breeding grounds in North-east Asia and Alaska to non-

breeding grounds in Australia and New Zealand, covering the journey of 10,000 kilometres twice in a single

year (Figure 48).

The lifecycle of most international migratory shorebirds involves (Bamford et al. 2008):

• breeding in May to August (northern hemisphere);

• southward migration to the southern hemisphere (August to November);

• feeding and foraging in the southern hemisphere (August to April); and

• northward migration to breeding grounds (March to May).

During both northward and southward migration, birds may stop at areas on route to rest and feed. These

stopovers are referred to as “staging” areas and are important for the bird’s survival. In addition, birds on



69

their first southward migration have not yet reached breeding maturity and may remain in Australia over the

southern winter period.

The exception to this lifecycle pattern is the double-banded plover, which is the only species in the East

Asian-Australasian Flyway that breeds in the southern hemisphere. This species breeds in New Zealand

from September to December and then spends the winter in Australia (May to August). There are moderate

numbers of double-banded plover recorded in the site during winter predominantly in the vicinity of the

Glenelg River mouth and Oxbow Lake (BirdLife Australia unpublished data).

Figure 48: East Asian-Australasian Flyway (Bamford et al. 2008)



4.1 Process for setting Limits of Acceptable Change

Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) are defined as the variation that is considered acceptable in a particular

component or process, without indicating change in ecological character that may lead to a reduction or loss

of the criteria for which the site was Ramsar listed (modified from definition adopted by Phillips 2006).

Natural variability needs to be considered when setting LAC, but this is rarely a simple process. For example,

change from natural variability can occur in a number of ways, not just exceeding maximum and minimum

values (Figure 49). The pattern of change and degree of change should both be considered when setting

limits that indicate a distinct shift from natural variability. This could include accounting for changes in the

frequency and magnitude of extreme events, changes in the temporal or seasonal patterns and changes in

spatial variability as well as changes in the mean or median conditions (Hale and Butcher 2008; Butcher

2011; Butcher and Hale 2011). In reality however, patterns of natural variability are rarely fully understood

and even with long time series data it can be difficult to resolve whether shifts in patterns of variability are

natural cycles occurring over longer time scales than the data available, natural shifts between different

stable states, or change in response to some external pressure (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2011).

Defining LAC is therefore rarely a purely statistical procedure, and commonly they are arrived at by

consensus of experts in a workshop, informed by available data sets and current statistical interpretation.

Figure 49: Issue of setting LAC only on upper and lower limit of natural variability. A) represents upper and lower limit of natural variation and b) which shows a changed temporal pattern as well as a declining trend, which would not be detected as it would not trigger the LAC.

4 Limits of Acceptable Change



71

The following should be considered when developing and assessing LAC:

• Limits of Acceptable Change are a tool by which ecological change can be measured. However, Ecological

Character Descriptions are not management plans and Limits of Acceptable Change do not constitute a

management regime for the Ramsar site.

• Exceeding or not meeting Limits of Acceptable Change does not necessarily indicate that there has been a

change in ecological character within the meaning of the Ramsar Convention. However, exceeding or not

meeting Limits of Acceptable Change may require investigation to determine whether there has been a

change in ecological character.

• While the best available information has been used to prepare this Ecological Character Description and

define Limits of Acceptable Change for the site, a comprehensive understanding of site character may not

be possible as in many cases only limited information and data is available for these purposes. The Limits

of Acceptable Change may not accurately represent the variability of the critical components, processes,

benefits or services under the management regime and natural conditions that prevailed at the time the

site was listed as a Ramsar wetland.

• Users should exercise their own skill and care with respect to their use of the information in this Ecological

Character Description and carefully evaluate the suitability of the information for their own purposes.

• Limits of Acceptable Change can be updated as new information becomes available to ensure they more

accurately reflect the natural variability (or normal range for artificial sites) of critical components,

processes, benefits or services of the Ramsar wetland.

4.2 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) for Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site

LAC have been set for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site to represent current conditions.

Where possible, site specific information has been used to statistically determine LAC, however, there is

relatively little data on which to set quantitative LAC. In the absence of sufficient site specific data, LAC are

based on recognised standards or information in the scientific literature that is relevant to the site. In all

cases, the source of the information upon which the LAC has been determined is provided.

The level of confidence for each LAC is also provided, and has been assigned as follows:

• High – Quantitative site-specific data; good understanding linking the indicator to the ecological character

of the site; LAC is objectively measurable.

• Medium – Some site-specific data or strong evidence for similar systems elsewhere derived from the

scientific literature; or informed expert opinion; LAC is objectively measurable.

• Low – no site-specific data or reliable evidence from the scientific literature or expert opinion, LAC may not

be objectively measurable and/or the importance of the indicator to the ecological character of the site is

unknown.



Table 21: Limits of Acceptable Change for the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site.

Critical CPS Baseline / supporting evidence Limit of Acceptable Change Confidence

Hydrology With the exception of the Glenelg Estuary, quantitative information on the

hydrological regimes of most of the wetlands in the Ramsar site is lacking.

For the inland wetlands, a change in permanence (e.g. permanent to

intermittent) would be considered a change in character. Permanent wetlands

within the site comprise: Bridgewater Lakes, Lake Moniboeng, Swan Lake,

Malseed Lake and Cain Flat Swamp.

There is insufficient data to derive a hydrological LAC for the other wetlands

in the site.

The Glenelg Estuary is seasonally closed estuary that is characterised by

periods of closure averaging 40 days, but sometimes spanning a year. A

sustained change to become permanently open or closed would represent a

potential change in character.

Bridgewater Lakes, Lake Moniboeng,

Swan Lake, Malseed Lake and Cain

Flat Swamp will not dry.

The Glenelg Estuary will not remain

closed for three consecutive years or

open for greater than five years.

Moderate

Water quality:

salinity and

dissolved oxygen

The Glenelg Estuary is a seasonally closed salt-wedge estuary with three

distinct layers that vary under different tidal and freshwater inflow conditions.

Maintaining this variability in salinity and dissolved oxygen regimes is

important for many biological and chemical functions and processes. The

variability is maintained by the opening and closing of the estuary mouth.

See LAC for hydrology (Glenelg

Estuary)

Moderate

Vegetation type

and extent

Two broad vegetation types in the site were mapped in detail in 2008

(Sinclair and Sutter 2008):


• Freshwater sedges and tall marsh - 939 hectares

A LAC has been set based on a 50% change in extent (consistent with LAC

for other Victorian Ramsar sites).

Lake bed macrophytes are also a critical component of the ecological

character of the site, but remain a knowledge gap with insufficient information

to derive a LAC for this community.

Vegetation extent will not fall below

the following:


• Freshwater sedges and tall marsh -

470 hectares, with at least 270

hectares of Baumea sedgelands.

Moderate

Fish diversity and

abundance

There is a lack of underlying knowledge of variability in fish species richness

for the site, with incomplete inventory of several of the freshwater wetlands.

Current species lists put the number of species found at the site at 45 across

four life history strategies (i.e. freshwater, estuarine, diadromous and marine

– based on Potter et al. (2015).

The LAC has been developed based on expert opinion and due to the limited

data focuses on the loss of a guild as representing a potential change in

character.

Native fish within the Ramsar site will

represent each of the following life

history strategies: estuarine

dependent, estuarine opportunists,

marine migrants, diadromous and

obligate freshwater species.

Moderate

Waterbird diversity

and abundance

The site supports a diversity of waterbirds with a total of 95 wetland

dependent species recorded from the site. Consistent count data are not

Absence of the following waterbird

guilds in any three out of five years:

Moderate



73


available, but BirdLife Australia records indicate that 32 species across

several waterbird guilds are regularly recorded (> two thirds of years) in the

site:


• Fishers




• Gulls and terns

In addition, the site supports 1.4% of the population of sanderling (Calidris

alba).

The LAC is based on representative waterbird guilds and a 50% decline in

the Sanderling.


• Fishers




• Gulls and terns

• Sanderling abundance falls below

0.7% of the global population in

three out of five years.

Diversity of

wetland types

The Glenelg Estuary Ramsar site supports a range of wetland types. Wetland

type is a product of hydrology and vegetation. This criteria service is covered

by the LACs for those respective components and processes.

See LAC for vegetation type and

extent and hydrology.

Moderate

Special

geomorphic

features: dune

slack

The formation of dune slack wetlands is a critical feature of the site and

contributes to meeting criterion 1 however this service does not lend itself to

having a threshold of change as it operates on geological time scales.

No LAC. The formation of dune slack

wetlands is a critical feature of the site

and contributes to meeting criterion 1.

This service, however, does not lend

itself to having a threshold of change

as it operates on geological time

scales.

Physical habitat

for waterbirds

This critical service is linked to changes in the frequency and duration of

wetland inundation as well as changes in extent and condition of vegetation.


extent and hydrology.

Moderate

Threatened

species: plants

Two nationally threatened plant species have been recorded on a semi-

regular basis from the site. Insufficient data to derive a quantitative LAC, LAC

based on continued presence.

Absence of maroon leek-orchid

(Prasophyllum frenchii) and or swamp

greenhood (Pterostylis tenuissima) in

three consecutive targeted surveys.

Low

Threatened

species: fish

One nationally threatened fish species have been recorded on a semi-regular

basis from the site. Insufficient data to derive a quantitative LAC, LAC based

on continued presence.

Absence of Yarra pygmy perch

(Nannoperca obscura) in any three

out of five targeted surveys

Low

Threatened

species: birds

Hooded plover are recorded at the site in over 80% of years. There is

insufficient count data, however, to derive a quantitative LAC. LAC based on

continued presence.

Absence of hooded plover (Thinornis

rubricollis) in three out of five years.

Low




Threatened

species: growling

grass frog

Growling grass frog are regularly recorded at the site, but there is insufficient

data to derive a quantitative LAC. LAC is based on continued presence.

Absence of growling grass frog (Litoria

raniformis) in any three out of five

targeted surveys at 50% of known

(recent) locations within the Ramsar

site (see Bachmann et al. 2013).

Low

Threatened

species: ancient

greenling

The Ramsar site supports at least 5 % of the total population of the ancient

greenling. LAC was derived based on expert opinion, and critical habitat

(50% loss of critical habitat).


extent.

Low

Ecological

connectivity

Ecological Connectivity is related to estuary opening. See LAC for hydrology (Glenelg

Estuary) and fish (continued presence

of diadromous fish).

Moderate



75

Wetlands are complex systems and an understanding of components and processes and the

interactions or linkages between them is necessary to describe ecological character. Similarly, threats

to ecological character need to be described not just in terms of their potential direct effects, but also

in terms of their interactions. One mechanism for exploring these relationships is the use of stressor

models (Gross 2003); the use of stressor models in ecological character descriptions has been

suggested by a number of authors to describe ecological character (Hale and Butcher 2008) and to

aid in the determination of limits of acceptable change (Davis and Brock 2008).

Stressors are defined as (Barrett et al. 1976):

“physical, chemical, or biological perturbations to a system that are either (a) foreign to that

system or (b) natural to the system but applied at an excessive [or deficient] level”

When assessing or managing threats, it is useful to separate the threatening process or activity from

the stressor(s) through which the threats affect critical CPS that underpin a site’s ecological character.

In this manner, the cause(s) of impacts to natural assets are made clear, and decisions can then be

made as to whether a response is required to address the threat or mitigate its impact.

There are a number of potential and actual threats that may impact on the ecological character of the

Ramsar site, as illustrated in Figure 50. These threats have been identified in various management

strategies and plans relevant to the Ramsar site (e.g. Parks Victoria 2015), as well as in consultation

with local stakeholders. For this ECD, the IUCN threat classification scheme (IUCN 2012b) has been

applied to the threats identified at the Ramsar site.

Figure 50: Simple stressor model for the freshwater wetlands management unit of the Ramsar site. Red and blue dashed arrows indicate a likely relationship, but are currently a knowledge gap for the site.

5.1 Agriculture and aquaculture

5.1.1 Wood and pulp plantations

The growth of trees in plantations can lead to changes to the interception of rainfall and groundwater

recharge. Rates of evapotranspiration can vary over the life of a crop, which can in turn affect water

yield and groundwater levels (e.g. Adelana et al. 2015, Benyon et al. 2008). For example, there is

likely to be less evapotranspiration and interception of rainfall and groundwater early in the production

cycle when trees are planted and establish, compared with the increased interception and

evapotranspiration (decreased water yield) that can occur as trees grow to maturity.

5 Threats to ecological character



Many of the wetlands within the Ramsar Site are connected to the local groundwater table, and have

remained so whilst nearby agricultural land has supported the production of plantation timber over

many decades. In this context, the existing timber plantations contribute to the conditions surrounding

the Ramsar site at the time of listing. The risk associated with decreased groundwater levels affecting

critical components, processes and services, such as vegetation type and extent, and habitat for

waterbirds, as well as threatened invertebrates and native fish, would occur should the area of timber

plantation in land adjacent to the Ramsar site be increased substantially from that occurring at the

time of listing.

5.2 Energy production and mining

5.2.1 Oil and gas drilling

Petroleum Exploration Licences (PEPs) 150 and 151 cover the Discovery Bay Coastal Park and

surrounding areas (Figure 51, http://www.bridgeport.net.au/otway.html). Work conducted under the

PEPs by Bridgeport Energy includes seismic processing, interpretation and mapping, and has

confirmed the existence of drilling prospects. Potential unconventional gas mining “plays” have been

identified, most likely involving fracking.

Figure 51:Location of PEP 150 and 151. Source: Bridgeport Energy, accessed September 2015, http://www.bridgeport.net.au/otway.html.

Fracking involves stimulating fractures in a rock layer in order to increase the flow of gas, oil or other

substances, such as geothermal fluids (http://www.appea.com.au/oil-gas-

explained/operation/hydraulic-fracturing-fraccing/). Fluid (often a mixture of water and sand and other

chemicals to reduce friction and control microbes) is pumped down the well at high pressure to

produce tiny cracks in the target rock reservoir. “Proppants”, such as sand or tiny ceramic beads, are

included in the fluid to hold the fissures open and improve the flow of gas or oil. While the proppants

http://www.bridgeport.net.au/otway.html

http://www.bridgeport.net.au/otway.html



77

remain behind in the rock formation, most of the injected fluid flows back to the surface where it is

recovered for storage, treatment, disposal or reuse.

Victoria has had a moratorium on the issuing of new licences and fracking since 2012 (Parliament of

Victoria 2013); and in March 2017 the Resources Legislation Amendment (Fracking Ban) Bill 2016

was passed in parliament putting a permanent ban on fracking and extending a moratorium on

conventional onshore gas exploration to 2020. The moratorium and subsequent ban was in response

to a number of potential issues with the production of coal seam gas that may have negative

environmental and social impacts. These issues include:

• The large amount and management/disposal of ‘produced water’ pumped from coal seams to

release the gas and the potential associated impacts this may cause. Produced water is often saline

and can contain other chemicals that either occur naturally or are used in the fracking process.

• The potential environmental implications of fracking should this increase the risk of creating new

fractures in the rock that intersect adjacent aquifers and contaminate water resources.

• The leakage of methane as 'fugitive emissions'.

• Potential seismic activity and land subsidence.

• Potential restrictions on access to, or management of agricultural land.

This threat would only be realised were the ban to be overturned by a future government.

5.3 Biological resource use

Excessive biological resource use has the potential to affect critical CPS via recreational or

commercial harvesting that reduces food resources that help maintain waterbird diversity and

abundance. Excessive biological resource use can also affect the provision of aquatic foods for

human consumption.

Recreational fishing is a popular activity, particularly in the Lower Glenelg Estuary and Bridgewater

Lakes. In addition, the Glenelg region has a commercial eel fishing industry that collects eels from

most lakes and wetlands in the region (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006), and this may extend to the

aquatic ecosystems within the Ramsar site boundary. However, there is no documented evidence of

any impact of recreational or commercial fishing on fish diversity and abundance within the Ramsar

site.

Pipis (Donax (Plebidonax) deltoides) are bivalve molluscs found in the sands of high-energy beaches

in eastern Australia (Early et al. 2013). They are harvested commercially and recreationally from the

Discovery Bay Coastal Park (Parks Victoria 2006). There is concern that this is unsustainable and

impacting not only on populations of pipis, but on waterbird species such as the pied oyster catcher

that feed on the small molluscs (VPNA 2015). There is little information on the extent of the pipi

population within the Ramsar site or the effect of recreational and commercial catches.

Fisheries Victoria has commenced a process to develop a fishery management plan for the Victorian

Pipi Fishery (DEDJTR 2016). A Steering Committee has been formed to provide recommendations

and expert advice in relation to the development of Victorian Pipi Fishery Management Plan (FMP)

and to ensure that the FMP conforms to requirements of the Fisheries Act 2009 and Ministerial

Guidelines.

5.4 Human intrusion and disturbance

5.4.1 Recreational activities

Recreation activities have the potential to affect CPS via noise disturbing waterbirds and physical

damage that can affect wetland vegetation and other physical habitat. Threatened species, such as

such as the maroon leek-orchid (Prasophyllum frenchii) and the swamp greenhood (Pterostylis

tenuissima), can also be put at risk from physical damage.

Recreational activities such as four wheel driving, trail bike riding horse riding and dune buggying

have all been identified as a risk to dune and foreshore stability, with increased erosion and damage

to vegetation and habitat being direct consequences (Parks Victoria 2006). Saltmarsh is particularly



vulnerable to these types of disturbance and is slow to recover (Boon et al. 2011). Recreational

activities near feeding and roosting shorebirds and nesting seabirds can cause several impacts.

Disturbance of shorebirds has shown to reduce condition and place birds at risk on the northward

migration to breed (Glover et al. 2011). Disturbance of beach nesting birds can reduce recruitment

and cause nest abandonment (Weston et al. 2012).

Bridgewater Lakes are popular for boating activities such as jet-skiing, motor boating and water-

skiing. These have the potential to disturb fauna as well as cause damage to foreshore and littoral

vegetation from backwash and erosion. For example, a recent assessment of lake habitat quality

undertaken by the Victorian EPA indicated a high score at Lake Moniboeng, which was considered

representative of a relatively unmodified lake located within a national park (EPA Victoria 2010).

However, the lake habitat modification score rated moderate and indicated threats due to human

activities, possibly including recreational activities such as camping and boating, and also moderately

intensive land uses within the catchment, including forestry (EPA Victoria 2010). Lake Bridgewater

was also assessed as part of the EPA Victoria; water quality was found to be good but the lake

habitat quality was rated as moderate, while lake habitat modification rated as poor. A number of in-

lake threats were noted as possible contributors to the low biological scores, including boating and

water sports, as well as surrounding landuse threats such as livestock grazing (EPA Victoria 2010).

5.5 Natural systems modifications

5.5.1 Fire and fire suppression

Wildfire has the potential to affect CPS through impacts on vegetation type and extent, and water

quality (e.g. increased sediment, turbidity and pollutant load), and poses a risk to threatened species

and communities. Fire management is covered by local plans (e.g. management plans for the

National Park and Coastal Park, Parks Victoria 1991 and 2006), regional fire management strategies

(DELWP 2015b) and regional management plans (e.g. Parks Victoria 2015). These plans recognise

that days of extreme fire danger occur during summer in the Lower Glenelg area in most years and

that fires may threaten life, property and natural values.

Fire is a natural part of the environment and is important for regenerating and maintaining the health

of many species and ecosystems. However, large, intense fires pose a risk to ecosystem values by

affecting vegetation diversity, type and extent and may result in vegetation communities are overly

dominated by fire-tolerant species. It can also put at risk threatened species that occur at the Ramsar

site, such as the maroon leek-orchid (Prasophyllum frenchii) (Duncan 2010). This risk posed by fires

is likely to increase under climate change, as fires are expected to be more frequent and intense and

fire seasons expected to start earlier and end later.

Fire management is carried out according to regional fire management codes of practice and

operational plans (e.g. DES 2012, Government of Victoria 2014), which aim to decrease the

incidence, spread and severity of wildfire. In the area of the Ramsar site, special consideration is

given to protecting pine plantations, National Park and Coastal Park values and the township of

Nelson. Wildfire is considered to be of lower strategic significance for fire management in the Coastal

Park than the National Park section of the Ramsar site due to proximity to the coast and presence of

coastal vegetation communities. Fires generally enter the Coastal Park when the prevailing winds are

northerly and pose less of a risk to freehold land than fires in the National Park (Parks Victoria 2006).

In addition to fire prevention, fire suppression also needs to be carefully managed to avoid loss or

damage to environmental and cultural values through such things as soil erosion, weed invasion,

increased water turbidity, fragmentation of habitats and loss of species (terrestrial and aquatic).

An improved understanding of the role of fire management in maintaining ecosystem health and

cultural values is now being built into regional management strategies (e.g. EPA Victoria 2011, Parks

Victoria 2015). This includes planned burning based on the needs and features of the landscape. Key

factors that are considered include the presence of species that require fire (e.g. for recruitment) and

the frequency of fire that can be tolerated by the species that make up a vegetation communities in

the area. Many wetland dependent vegetation communities are not reliant on fire to regenerate and

recover slowly after fire (e.g. saltmarsh). In addition, cultural burning of wetlands and dune scrub in

the indigenous protected areas may be appropriate in order to support traditional practices.



79

5.5.2 Dams and water management

Both regional and local water management activities have the potential to threaten ecological values,

through impacts on river, wetland and estuary water regimes (hydrological processes), ecological

connectivity and thus processes such as fish migration and reproduction.

Hydrological alteration of the Glenelg River

The construction and operation of Rocklands Reservoir since 1953 and the resultant regulation of

flows below the dam has altered the natural hydrological regime in the Glenelg River, particularly in

the reach below the dam. It has been estimated that the operation of Rocklands Reservoir has

reduced mean annual streamflow in the Glenelg River from approximately 113 GL to approximately

43 GL (SKM 2003). In particular, the regulated flow regime has resulted in a large decrease in the

frequency of large flow events (e.g. bankfull flows and floods) and connection of the river channel with

its riparian zone and floodplain. The operation of the dam has also altered the seasonality of flows

along the river, although this effect declines with distance downstream from the dam due to tributary

inputs. While the index of stream condition (DEPI 2015) indicated that much of the Glenelg River

remains in moderate condition, however the hydrology sub index indicated poor to very poor

condition. Other studies have also noted the degradation of the physical form, water quality and

overall health of the river that has resulted from previous land use practices (e.g. land clearing,

removal of snags) and changed hydrology (e.g. Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2002, Erskine 1994).

In 2003 an environmental flow study (SKM 2003) was conducted to develop flow recommendations to

achieve river health objectives. The flow recommendations are now refined and implemented as part

of seasonal watering plans for the river (see VEWH 2014), using water held under an environmental

water entitlement (Wimmera CMA and Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2011). While management and delivery

of the environmental water reserve will contribute (along with other river management initiatives) to

improvements in the condition and ecosystem function of the Glenelg River the influence of

environmental water delivery on the condition and ecological objectives for the estuary is not clear.

Flow recommendations for the estuary are currently being investigated.

Hydrological alteration of the Long Swamp complex

In the late 20th Century, two channels were cut through the coastal dune at White Sands and Nobles

Rocks, which are narrow, low points in the dune system, to increase the land available for agriculture

(Reynolds 2007). The effect of this was to reduce the duration, extent and frequency of inundation

within the complex. During the Millennium drought, the channel at White Sands naturally closed, and

in 2014, works were completed to close the channel at Noble Rocks. Early observations indicate

increased duration, depth and extent of inundation and restored connectivity between the chain of

wetlands that comprise the Long Swamp complex and potentially the Glenelg Estuary (Bachmann

unpublished) (see section 3.4.1).

DEPI (2014) states there is evidence that groundwater levels in the area have declined from pre-

European times. If the water table were to decline further this would further reduce the water supply of

the wetland. A decline could be caused by a drier climate, higher levels of direct extraction or

recharge interception in areas in the groundwater recharge zone outside the proposed Ramsar site.

Higher recharge interception could happen if the cleared area to the north of the swamp was used for

new forestry plantations, as this would intercept runoff that would otherwise replenish the

groundwater. New forestry developments are subject to local planning considerations and potential

impact to Matters of National Environmental Significance. Reynolds (2007) stated that plantations on

the cleared northern dunes inland of Long Swamp have been present since the 1950s, with major

harvesting and replanting occurring in the 1980s.

5.5.3 Other ecosystem modification - estuary opening

Seasonal closure of the Glenelg Estuary occurs naturally during periods of low river flow, when sand

builds up across the estuary mouth. Although the system can open naturally, artificial opening (by

mechanical means) can be carried out to alleviate flooding. The potential effects of artificial openings

include (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a):

• Reduced sand bar scour when the mouth is opened at lower water levels, leading to more rapid

mouth closure.



• Disruption to the natural patterns of variation in water quality and biotic distribution and abundance.

• Disruption of aquatic faunal migration and reproductive cycles.

Entrance opening is now managed using the Estuary Entrance Management Support System

(EEMS), which is designed to minimise adverse impacts of the artificial opening of estuaries (Arundel

2006).

Under the Water Act 1989 any works in, on or over a designated waterway require a Works on

Waterways Permit from the responsible catchment management authority. The permit process aims

to avoid adverse impacts on the health of the waterway (e.g. damage to vegetation and river banks).

The Glenelg Hopkins CMA issues a Works on Waterways Permit for the opening of the Glenelg

Estuary mouth. There are no permits in the area of the proposed site for sand or gravel extraction.

Figure 52: Closed Glenelg Estuary mouth, October 2015 (© Marcel Hoog Antink).

5.6 Invasive and other problematic species and genes

Invasive species can affect CPS either directly or via their effect on habitat availability or by reducing

food resources. Wetland vegetation extent and diversity, as well as native fish and waterbird diversity

and abundance are all threatened by invasive species, including both non-native and problematic

native species. While a number of invasive species have been recorded within the Ramsar site, the

extent of these species is largely unknown.

5.6.1 Invasive non-native plants and animals

A number of terrestrial weed species have been noted as threatening the Ramsar values of the site

(Australis Biological 2012). These include radiata pine (Pinus radiata), blackberry (Rubus fruticosus

agg.), bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum), Italian buckthorn

(Rhamnus alaternus), myrtle-leaf milkwort (Polygala myrtifolia) and sea-lavender (Limonium

hyblaeum). While these species may affect terrestrial vegetation within the Ramsar site, including



81

threatened species such as the maroon leek-orchid (Duncan 2010), they are less likely to pose a

significant threat to the aquatic ecosystems and associated biota of the Ramsar site. Of more concern

is the potential for the introduction of cord grass (Spartina spp.). Although not yet recorded in the

Glenelg region, the species is known from eastern Victoria and South Australia, and the intertidal and

saltmarsh habitats of the Ramsar site would be vulnerable to invasion by this species. It is tolerant of

inundation and salinity, is resistant to many herbicides and can rapidly outcompete native vegetation

(Boon et al. 2011).

Introduced mammals are present within the Ramsar site, with damage to soil and vegetation by

rabbits, goats, pigs, deer and sheep identified as a significant threat for the Discovery Bay Coastal

Park (Parks Victoria 2006) and an important area of management in the river forest and sea country

in the South West area (Parks Victoria 2015). In addition, foxes and feral cats pose a threat to

nesting, feeding and roosting shorebirds and seabirds.

Eastern gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki) has been recorded in the Long Swamp complex (Veale

2014) and redfin (Perca fluviatilis) and tench (Tinca tinca) are known from the Bridgewater Lakes

(Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006b). Bridgewater Lakes were stocked with brown trout (Salmo trutta) as

early as the 1940s (Border Watch 1948), but the practice no longer occurs and trout are no longer

present in the lake. Carp (Cyprinus carpio) have not been recorded in any of the estuaries or wetlands

within the Ramsar site, but they are present in the Glenelg River, and there is suitable habitat in the

freshwater systems (Veale 2014).

5.6.2 Problematic native species (plants and animals)

A number of problematic native plant species are known to occur in both the Lower Glenelg National

Park and Discovery Bay Coastal Park areas in areas included in the Ramsar site. While native

species, they are problematic because of their vigorous growth and ability to displace other native

plants, thus reducing vegetation diversity. Problematic species include coast wattle (Acacia longifolia

var. sophorae (Emeny et al. 2006; Emeny 2009) spiny rush (Juncus acutus) and beach daisy

(Arctotheca populifolia) (Parks Victoria 2006).

Coastal wattle has become a seriously invasive species in the last two decades, invading new

habitats having a profound effect on coastal heath. In south west Victoria it is now thought to infest an

estimated 10 000 hectares of indigenous vegetation (Emeny 2009). It has the potential to threaten

most of the coastal dune, heathland and woodland vegetation in the Portland area, as well as

populations of rare plant and animal species. For example, the endangered Mellblom's spider orchid

(Caladenia hastata) and the endangered heath rat (Pseudomys shortrigdei) are both thought to be

under threat. Its invasion of the Bats Ridge Wildlife Reserve, also in south-western Victoria, is

threatening the remaining populations of the spider orchid known as limestone caladenia (Caladenia

calcicola). It has also been shown to reduce the diversity of two ant populations in infested areas.

Studies have shown that the change is progressive, and that areas that had been invaded for a longer

period of time were more greatly affected. Dense infestations could often cause up to 75% of

indigenous species to be lost from the vegetation, and at worst all indigenous species may be

eliminated.

5.7 Pollution

Pollution has the potential to affect CPS through its effect on water quality (nutrients and sediments)

and estuary stratification, which in turn can affect fish and associated services such as food

production, as well as threatened species via degradation of habitat.

5.7.1 Agricultural and forestry effluents (nutrients and sediments)

Land clearing and subsequent runoff and erosion in the Glenelg River catchment has resulted in large

amounts of sediments moving into the river. It is estimated that between 10,000 and 50,000 cubic

metres of sand has been deposited per kilometre of channel (Rutherfurd and Budahazy 1996),

causing significant sand slugs and bars upstream of the Ramsar site. Unless management actions

can prevent the downstream movement of this sediment, the sand will eventually reach the lower

Glenelg Estuary (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a). It is expected that sand deposition could alter the

morphology and habitat of the estuary, impacting on associated biota (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a).



The predominantly agricultural landscape of the Glenelg River catchment also contributes large loads

of nutrients into the system, increasing the potential for algal blooms (Ierodiaconou et al. 2005).

Although nutrient concentrations in the Lower Glenelg River are not well understood, it is likely that

nutrients are entering from upstream and particularly when the system is closed, and could lead to

excessive algal growth and low dissolved oxygen concentrations. This would impact on seagrass and

aquatic fauna within the estuary system.

5.7.2 Industrial and military effluents

In June 2015, Iluka Resources Ltd applied to the EPA Victoria for a Works Approval to dispose an

estimated 2,200,000 tonnes of waste from its Douglas Mine site over the next 15 to 20 years (Kismet

Forward 2015). The mine site is located a considerable distance upstream from the proposed Ramsar

site at the catchment boundary with the adjacent Wimmera River. The waste will be predominantly by-

products from its Hamilton Mineral Separation Plant (MSP), as well as concrete and steel from other

Victorian Iluka mine sites that is contaminated with Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials

(NORM). It is proposed that the waste by-products, including NORM wastes, would be covered with a

5m thick cap of clean fill. In response to community concerns, a community conference was held to

explore the issues surrounding the application, information in relation to the issues, and proposed

mitigation measures to safeguard community and environmental health.

In terms of the current Ramsar project, the potential risk from management of wastes at the Douglas

Mine would be contamination of groundwater with waste products (including heavy metals and

NORM), which may then make its way back into the Glenelg River and the Glenelg Estuary. As part of

its assessment of the Works Approval application, EPA Victoria has recently (September 2015)

requested additional information from Iluka Resources, including details of existing or proposed

surface and groundwater monitoring and best-practice management methods. The application

process continues at the time of writing this report.

5.7.3 Garbage and solid waste

Plastics and other pollutants have the potential to affect waterbirds foraging and feeding along the

beaches of the site. Waterbirds and fish can die following ingestion of litter, or coming into contacts

with marine pollutants (e.g. oil and other toxicants) and pollutants from the catchment. In addition,

pollution can affect the aesthetic and recreational values associated with the beaches.

5.8 Climate change

Climate change has the potential to affect CPS by changes in temperature, rainfall, evaporation, sea

levels and ocean pH. These changes can affect wetland vegetation diversity and extent, fish and

waterbird populations and estuary stratification, which in turn can affect fish and associated services

such as food production, as well as threatened species via loss or degradation of habitat.

Recent climate change modelling for Australia has resulted in projections for a number of key

variables that are important to the ecological character of the Ramsar site (Table 22). The potential

effects of climate change on Victorian marine environments, estuaries and wetlands are well studied

(e.g. (EPA Victoria 2011,DSE 2013,Klemke and Arundle 2013) and are summarised in the following

sections.

Table 22: Climate change projection summaries for the southern slopes Victoria west sub-cluster (Grose et al. 2015).

Climate variable

Predicted change (relative to 1986-

2005) Confidence in

predictions 2030 2090

Air temperature (degrees Celsius) 0.4 to 1.1 1.1 to 4.0 Very high

Sea surface temperature (degrees Celsius) 0.5 0.6 to 2.2 Very high

Rainfall Decrease Decrease by 25%

(winter) and 45%

High



83

in summer

Evaporation Increase Increase High

Sea level rise (m) 0.08 to 0.18 0.29 to 0.64 Very high

Ocean pH -0.07 to -0.08 -0.07 to -0.3 Medium

5.8.1 Habitat shifting and alteration (sea level rise)

Predicted increases in sea level have the potential to reduce habitat availability for feeding shorebirds

and nesting seabirds along the coast and estuary beaches (EPA Victoria 2011). Storm surge could

result in the intrusion of seawater into the low lying freshwater wetland systems that are located close

to the ocean and estuaries (DSE 2013). In addition, any increase in water height in the Glenelg

Estuary due to sea level rise could result in the loss of littoral vegetation, unless it has the capacity to

migrate inland (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a).

5.8.2 Droughts

Reduced rainfall coupled with higher temperatures (and higher rates of evaporation) is likely to result

in a decrease in inundation frequency and duration in wetland systems (DSE 2013). It may also result

in decreased periods that systems like the lower Glenelg Estuary are open to the ocean (EPA Victoria

2011). The freshwater systems of the Ramsar site are vulnerable to prolonged decrease in inflows

from surface and groundwater sources that are likely under climate change

Decreased rainfall could also lead to increased salinity in wetlands and the estuary. Aquatic biota

have an optimum salinity range and a threshold of tolerance. If the balance is shifted towards a more

saline or brackish system, then freshwater taxa will be replaced by more salt tolerant species and

communities.

5.8.3 Temperature extremes

Air and surface water temperatures are predicted to increase and this will affect the solubility of

dissolved oxygen, reducing dissolved oxygen concentrations in many waters (EPA Victoria 2011),

particularly those that are deep and/or stratified, such as the Glenelg Estuary when it is closed. This

can affect obligate aquatic species such as fish and macroinvertebrates and lead to a higher

incidence of fish deaths.

Many biological processes are linked to temperature. An increase in temperature may stimulate the

growth of phytoplankton and result in higher biomass leading to algal blooms. The vulnerability of

Victorian marine and estuarine fish species to changed temperature under climate change was

considered to be moderate (Hirst and Hamer 2013) and seagrass and soft sediment habitats to be

variable (Morris 2013). Changes in reproductive timing, time to maturity and range extensions for

northern species, were all considered to be likely outcomes from increased temperatures.

5.8.4 Storms and flooding

An increase in extreme weather events such as storms could see destabilisation of dune vegetation

leading to blowouts. Blowouts occur when dune vegetation is removed and wind erosion prevents

reestablishment of vegetation. Blowouts are a natural process, but can be exacerbated by climate

change impacts.

5.9 Summary of threats

Although a risk assessment is beyond the scope of an ECD, the DEWHA (2008) framework states

that an indication of the impacts of threats to ecological character, likelihood and timing of threats

should be included. The major threats considered in the previous sections have been summarised for

the Ramsar site in accordance with the DEWHA (2008) framework Table 23.



Table 23: Summary of threats to the Ramsar site.

Threat or potential

threat Impact Likelihood1 Timing

Agriculture and

aquaculture

• Altered groundwater hydrology (decreased

groundwater levels)

Certain Immediate

Biological resource

use

• Reduced food resources, reduced waterbird

abundance

Certain Immediate

Human intrusion and

disturbance

• Disturbance of waterbirds

• Damage to flora and waterbird habitat

Certain Immediate

Natural systems

modification – fire and

fire suppression

• Impact on flora and fauna processes

• Impact on habitat condition

• Sediment deposition, increased turbidity and

nutrient enrichment

Moderate Immediate-

Long term

Natural systems

modification – dams

and water

management

• Altered hydrological regimes (timing,

magnitude and frequency of flows)

• Changes to water depth

• Changes to habitat availability from changes

in area, frequency and flooding

• Impacts on flora and fauna (e.g. breeding

events, vegetation distribution)

Certain Immediate

Natural systems

modification – estuary

opening

• Altered natural patterns of variation in water

quality and biotic distribution and abundance

• Disruption of aquatic faunal migration and

reproductive cycles

Low-Moderate Medium-

Long term

Invasive and other

problematic species

• Reduced habitat (e.g. changes in vegetation

structure)

• Competition with native flora and fauna

• Loss of native species

Certain-

Moderate

Immediate-

Long term

Pollution • Sediment deposition and increased turbidity

• Nutrient enrichment

• Reduced habitat quality

Certain-

Moderate

Immediate-

Long term

Climate change • Altered hydrological regimes

• Reduced water depth

• Impacts on flora and fauna (e.g. breeding

• events, vegetation distribution)

• Impacts on habitat condition and availability

• Increased erosion and habitat destruction,

possible blowouts and destabilisation of

dunes

Moderate Medium-

Long term

1 For Likelihood, Certain is defined as known to occur at the site or has occurred in the past; Moderate is defined as not known

from the site but occurs at similar sites; Low is defined as theoretically possible, but not recorded at this or similar sites. For

Timing, Immediate is 1-5 years, Medium is 5-10 years, Long term is 10+ years.



85

This ECD sets the benchmark for the time of listing as current condition, represented as at 2015. As

such there is no assessment of change in ecological character in this version of the ECD.

6 Changes since designation



There are a substantial number of knowledge gaps that need to be addressed in order to fully describe the

ecological character of this site and enable rigorous and defensible LAC to be set and are listed in Table 24.

Recommended actions aim to develop indicators of ecological character that could fill knowledge gaps and

help in the design of ongoing monitoring.

Table 24: Summary of knowledge gaps and recommended actions.

Component /

process Knowledge Gap Recommended Action/ Justification

Fish Baseline survey data for Malseed and Swan

Lakes.

Inventory assessment required to

inform LAC.

Investigation on fish breeding and nursery habitats

across freshwater lakes and estuary.

Surveillance assessment required to

strengthen case for criterion 4.

Waterbirds Baseline records for breeding. Surveillance assessment required to

strengthen criterion 4.

Relative importance and use of interconnected

habitat for waterbirds.

Surveillance survey to confirm use of

inter-connected habitats by waterbirds.

Vegetation Baseline survey data for emergent and

submergent vegetation at Bridgewater Lakes,

Lake Malseed and Swan Lake – likely to be a

critical component, but there is currently no data.

Inventory assessment required to

inform LAC.

Invertebrates Macroinvertebrate community composition across

all habitat types in the lower Glenelg Estuary,

Oxbow Lake, and freshwater wetlands.

Base line surveys be undertaken to

establish community composition and

linkages between current and future

hydrological regimes at Long Swamp.

Conditions and habitat required for oviposition by

ancient greenling.

Investigate conditions required for

oviposition.

The relative importance of fish predation and

potential changes associated with the restoration

of hydrology in Long Swamp on ancient greenling.

Surveillance monitoring of ancient

greenling.

Understanding of the microinvertebrate

community

Inventory assessment across the site.

Amphibians Baseline data on abundance and distribution

lacking at Bridgewater Lakes, Malseed and Swan

Lake, upper reaches of the Glenelg Estuary.

Inventory assessment across whole of

site.

Reptiles Baseline data on the Swamp skink (Lissolepis

conventryi).


site.

Mammals Limited data on the importance of the site for

Southern bent-wing bat, which is an important

element of the site biodiversity (but not considered

a critical CPS).

No information on the importance of the site for

other mammals, including the swamp antechinus

and water rat.


site.

Phytoplankton No data was sourced on algae (including benthic

algae) and phytoplankton.

Undertake baseline surveys of

phytoplankton across the site.

Hydrology Understanding of the hydrology of the whole

Ramsar site.

The relative influence of the Kanawinka Fault to

the east of the Ramsar site on the local hydrology.

Confirmation of the hydrology

(including groundwater-surface water

interactions) across the site is required

to inform LAC.

7 Knowledge gaps



87

As a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, Australia has made a commitment to protect the ecological

character of its Wetlands of International Importance. Under Part 3 of the Environment Protection and

Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 a person must not take an action that has, will have or is likely to have a

significant impact on the ecological character of a listed Ramsar wetland. While there is no explicit

requirement for monitoring of the site, in order to ascertain if the ecological character of the wetland site is

being protected a monitoring program is required.

A comprehensive monitoring program is beyond the scope of an ECD, but an important component of a

management plan. What is provided here is an identification of monitoring needs required to set baselines for

critical components and processes and to assess against LAC. It should be noted that the focus of the

monitoring recommended in an ECD is an assessment against LAC and determination of changes in

ecological character. The ECD monitoring is not an early warning system whereby trends in data are

assessed to detect changes in components and processes prior to a change in ecological character of the

site. This must be included in the management plan for the site.

The recommended monitoring to meet the obligations under Ramsar and the EPBC Act (1999) with respect

to the site are provided in Table 25.

8 Monitoring needs



Table 25: Summary of monitoring needs.

Component

/Process Purpose Indicator Locations Frequency Priority

Hydrology Address knowledge gap

and confirm baseline –

depth to groundwater

table at freshwater

wetlands

Depth to groundwater Freshwater wetlands Seasonal to establish

baseline over several years,

then less frequently

High, to set

baseline

Hydrology Assess against LAC Estuary opening / closing Estuary mouth Weekly Medium

Vegetation

(freshwater)

Assess against LAC and

establishment of baseline

for lake bed vegetation

Extent by community

type and baseline

composition and cover

All habitats for community extent.

Freshwater Lakes for baseline of lake

bed vegetation (Swan, Malseed,

Bridgewater and Moniboeng)

Establish baseline by

quarterly monitoring over two

years, then repeat annually

every three to five years

High

Vegetation

(saltmarsh)

Assess against LAC Extent Glenelg Estuary and Oxbow Lake Every five years Medium

Fish Assess against LAC Species and abundance Key locations in freshwater wetlands

and Glenelg Estuary

Annual Medium

Waterbirds

(abundance)

Address knowledge gap

related use of habitats

within the site

Assess against LAC

Species and abundance Key locations in freshwater wetlands,

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay

beach

Bi-annual High

Waterbird

breeding

Address knowledge gap Evidence of breeding

(nests, breeding

plumage, juveniles)

Key locations in freshwater wetlands,

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay

beach

Annual (matched to known

breeding timings)

Medium

Threatened

species: Maroon

leek-orchid,

swamp

greenhood

Assess against LAC Targeted surveys for

abundance

Known locations Annual Medium

Threatened

species:

Australasian

bittern

Assess against LAC Calls Emergent freshwater vegetation Annual Medium

Threatened

species: Hooded

plover, Australian

Assess against LAC Would be covered by the program for waterbird abundance (see above)



89

Component

/Process Purpose Indicator Locations Frequency Priority

fairy tern, curlew

sandpiper

Threatened

species: Yarra

pygmy perch

Assess against LAC Would be covered by the program for fish abundance (see above)

Threatened

species: Growling

grass frog

Assess against LAC Calls, tadpoles Freshwater wetlands Annual Medium

Threatened

species: Ancient

greenling

Address knowledge gap Abundance Freshwater wetlands Annual High

Migratory species:

fish and

waterbirds

Assess against LAC Would be covered by the programs for fish and waterbird abundance (see above)



A comprehensive CEPA program for an individual Ramsar site is beyond the scope of an ECD, but key

communication messages and CEPA actions, such as a community education program, can be used as a

component of a management plan. A number of key communication messages were identified in

consultation with stakeholders associated with the Ramsar site, and should be promoted. These include:

• The Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site is listed as a wetland of international

importance under the Ramsar Convention, meeting six of the nine criteria.

• The site supports unique aesthetic and recreational values. Includes the Great South West Walk, as

well as boating and fishing in the estuary. It is an excellent example of wise use of wetlands.

• Nomination of the Ramsar site was undertaken with funds from the Australian River Prize

(International River Foundation) awarded to GH CMA for work on the Glenelg River.

• The Ramsar site provides ecological connectivity to the Picaninnie Ponds Ramsar site across the

South Australian border – this increases protection of values associated with a national biodiversity

hotspot.

• The Ramsar site is important for supporting threatened wetland dependent species and

communities.

• The Ramsar site contains a diversity of wetland types, several of which are considered regionally

rare.

9 Communication and Education Messages



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Components and processes

The identified critical components and processes (section 3) were assessed against the four criteria given in

the National guidelines, and the scoring system described in Table 26, with the justification for each being

critical presented in Table 27.

The annex to Resolution VI.1 (Ramsar 2014) notes that there is a need to increase the value of the

information collected for describing and assessing the ecological character of listed sites, and it urges that

emphasis should be given to:

• establishing a baseline by describing the ecological character of the site “from which derive the

ecosystem services of international importance” (necessary because the existing Ramsar Criteria do

not cover the full range of wetland benefits and values that should be considered when assessing

the possible impact of changes at a site); and

• providing information on human-induced factors that have affected or could significantly affect the

benefits and “values of international importance”.

Table 26: Key to scoring assigned to CPS (modified from Butcher and Cottingham 2015).

Criteria Score

+ ++ +++

Criterion 1 - CPS is

an important

determinant of the

site’s unique

character

CPS is thought to be important

based on inferred data from

other sites, but may be lacking

evidence from the site.

Reasonable expectation by

community that CPS would be

present at the site.

Site specific evidence of the

significance of the CPS in

determining the sites

character.

High expectation by

community that CPS would

be present at the site.

Considered an ecological

driver or controlling

variable. Strong support in

literature with clear

relationship between CPS

and character of the site.

Criterion 2 –

important for

supporting the

Ramsar or DIWA

criteria under which

the site was listed

Indirect, or limited, relationship

between CPS and listing

criteria, for example may be a

service or benefit which is

reliant on other critical CPS

directly related to the listing

criteria.

Strong, direct relationship

between CPS and listing

criteria.

Criterion 3 – of a

nature for which

change is

reasonably likely to

occur over short or

medium time scales

(<100 years)

Possible: Could occur but not

expected.

Likely: Will probably occur

in most circumstances.

Almost certain: Is expected

to occur in most

circumstances.

Criterion 4 – of a

nature that will cause

significant negative

consequences if

change occurs

Change likely to cause relatively

slow but significant

declines/deterioration in other

critical CPS (for species/

populations <20% loss over 10

years or three generations;

whichever is the longer).

Affects minority of the CPS

(<50%) and a possible change

in ecological character.

Change likely to cause

rapid declines/ deterioration

in other critical CPS (for

species/ populations 20–

30% over 10 years or three

generations; whichever is

the longer).

Affects the majority of the

CPS (50-90%), likely

change in ecological

character but may be short

lived.

Change likely to cause

very rapid

declines/deterioration in

critical CPS (for species/

populations >30% over 10

years or three generations;

whichever is the longer).

Affects the vast majority of

CPS (>90%), and definite

sustained change in

ecological character.

Appendix A: Justification for critical components, processes and services



101

Table 27: Justification for critical components and processes against criteria listed in DEWHA (2008).

Component

/ process

Criterion 1 –

important

determinants

Criterion 2 – support

listing criteria

Criterion 3 – change

is likely <100 years

Criterion 4 – will

cause significant

negative

consequences

Hydrology +++ The site is a

significant groundwater

dependent ecosystem

strongly influenced by

hydrology.

+++ Ramsar criterion 1

– wetland type and

hydrology (i.e.

groundwater

dependent ecosystem).

++ Drought and water

resource use are likely

to continue to impact

on the hydrology of the

site. Both surface

water and groundwater

impacts are possible.

++ Linked to the

opening and closing of

the estuary mouth and

also the depth and

extent of wetland

habitat.

Vegetation

– type and

extent

++ Characteristic types

are associated with the

freshwater wetlands,

fens, dunes and

estuary. Provides

habitat and breeding

areas for biota.

+++ Ramsar criterion

1, 2 and 4. Threatened

plant communities and

species. Provision of

habitat for waterbird

feeding.

+++ Invasive species,

fire and recreational

impacts are all likely to

cause changes to

vegetation type and

extent.

+++ Invasive species,

particularly in the dune

scrub habitat is likely to

lead to significant loss

of diversity.

Fish –

diversity

and

abundance

++ Threatened and

obligate freshwater

species in a

groundwater

dependent ecosystem,

and diadromous

species.


2, 4 – supports two

threatened fish

species, and important

regional populations of

obligate freshwater

species.

++ Changes to regional

and local groundwater

could lead to a loss of

threatened and

obligate freshwater

species from some of

the site (i.e. Long

Swamp).

+++ Species specific -

loss of some species

could represent

regional extinctions.

Waterbirds

– diversity

and

abundance

++ Threatened,

migratory, cryptic

species and 1% of

Sanderling flyway

population are

regularly present as

part of a diverse

waterbirds community.


2, 4 and 6

++ Declines in

shorebirds have been

reported at a number

of Victorian coastal

Ramsar sites (e.g.

Minton et al. 2012,

Hansen et al. 2015),

and these declines are

predicted to continue.

++ Part of the

Discovery Bay beach

area contributes to a

significant bird area –

with any substantial

losses in diversity and

abundance likely to

reflect broader patterns

of decline in the flyway

(migratory species).

Water

quality

stratification

++ The estuary mouth

naturally opens and

closes, dictating

connectivity both

hydrologically and

ecologically.

+ Ramsar criterion 1 –

contributes to

maintaining good water

quality (Ramsar

Convention 2009)

+ Extended periods of

mouth closure could

lead to increased

periods of stratification.

++ Increased periods

of stratification could

fundamentally change

the ecology of the

lower estuary.

Services and benefits

Fisher et al. (2008) redefined the MEA “ecosystem services” as including: benefits, intermediate and final

ecosystem services. They also redefine the MEA “benefits people obtain from ecosystems” as the aspects of

ecosystems utilised (passively or actively) to produce human wellbeing. This redefinition is illustrated in

Figure 53 and was derived to avoid problems of double counting in environmental-economic accounts of

ecosystem services. Fisher et al. (2008) define intermediate and final ecosystem services as follows:

• Intermediate ecosystem services as those that form part of a ‘cascade of services’ that support

one another and underpin final services, and

• Final ecosystem services as those that are directly used by people to provide benefits.



The MEA is one of the most widely accepted categorisation (i.e. provisioning, regulating, cultural and

supporting services) and was originally developed to promote the general acceptance of the concept of

ecosystem services (Reid-Piko et al. 2010). The ecosystems services classification used in this ECD follows

the terminology of the National Guidelines for developing ECD (DEWHA 2008), but also adopts the

separation of services and benefits as described by Fisher et al. (2008).

Figure 53: Modified Fisher et al. (2008) model of ecosystem services and benefits (all in shaded blue box) with the Ramsar definition of processes and functions added (modified from Butcher 2014).

The services and benefits which occur at the Ramsar site are summarised in Table 28 and justification for

critical services and benefits are presented in Table 29.



103

Table 28: Ecosystem services and benefits provided by the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site using Fisher et al. (2008) type (those critical to the ecological character of the site are shaded; see section 3).

Category/service Description Fisher et al.

(2008) type

Provisioning

Provision of aquatic

foods for human

consumption

The site supports recreational fisheries with the main species

including mulloway, black bream, and pipi. These fisheries are

considered critical to the character of the site and incorporate aspects

of cultural services (i.e. recreation) as well. Gundijtmara have a long

established history of fishing in the region, particularly for the short fin

eel and of molluscs and crustaceans.

Benefit

Genetic resources This service is about the role the site potentially plays in preserving a

natural reservoir for biological diversity and providing genetic

resources that can support colonisation, contribute to maintaining

intra-species diversity, and allow for research and development such

as selective breeding. Includes the provision of genetic resources for

resistance to pathogens, or tolerance to environmental conditions,

and the development of new medicines. This service does not relate

to maintaining populations of threatened species per se, which are

covered under supporting services. This is not considered a critical

service provided by the site.

Final service

Regulating

Maintenance and

regulation of

hydrological cycles and

regimes

Oxbow Lake is the terminal wetland complex on the Glenelg River

and plays an important role in influencing groundwater–surface water

balances through local recharge and discharge processes although

this is poorly understood at the site. Not considered a critical service.

Final service

Coastal shoreline

stabilisation and storm

protection

Occurs at the site and may be critical to the character of the site over

long time spans, however not considered critical within this ECD.

Final service

Natural hazard

reduction – reduced risk

of wildfire

Presence of surface water may provide a reduced risk of fire. Not a

critical service.

Benefit

Cultural

Cultural heritage and

identity/ Spiritual and

inspirational

At the start of the Yakinitj, Prenheal sent bolitabolita Creation Beings muyuban tungatt, woorrowarook, bocara and koonang.

For Gunditjmara people, ‘Country’ includes all living things–none better than the other but equal in its importance in forming this diverse natural landscape that is Gunditjmara Country. Country means people, plants and animals alike. It embraces the seasons, stories and spirits of the creation. This flowing, connected cultural landscape possesses its own sacred places, languages, ceremonies, totems, art, clan groupings and law. These features are seen as inseparable and make up what is known as Country.

Our Country is a place of belonging and pride that comes with this

belonging. Statement provided by Gunditj Marra TOAC.

Benefit

Science and education The site is one of the more significant coastal dune lake systems in

the bioregion having different limnological characteristics than other

south eastern Australian coastal dunes (e.g. Timms 1977, Head

1987, Head 1988). Recent investigations are contributing to the

understanding of the national biodiversity hotspot – i.e. regional,

cross border. Not considered a critical service.

Benefit

Aesthetic amenity Not critical, but occurs at the site. Includes unique waterscapes such

as the estuary mouth, river gorge sections of the Glenelg River, and

Benefit



Category/service Description Fisher et al.

(2008) type

beachscapes along Discovery Bay. Closely linked to recreational

activities.

Recreation Considered a critical benefit relating to the character of the site.

Bridgewater Lakes is used for a range of recreational activities

including boating, fishing, swimming, and water skiing. Other lakes

including Lake Moniboeng are also used for canoeing, small yacht

sailing and swimming (Parks Victoria 2006). The Glenelg River as

part of the Lower Glenelg River National Park supports a large

number of recreation activities as does the Discovery Bay section of

the site (i.e. the Great South West Walk).

Benefit

Tourism Occurs at the site but is not considered a critical service relating to

the character of the site.

Benefit

Supporting


types

The site supports the cyclic movement of water through the surface,

subsurface, and atmospheric compartments associated with a

wetland, and the resultant variation of the spatial and temporal

distribution supports a diverse array of wetland types considered

critical to the character of the site.

Intermediate

service

Special ecological,

physical or geomorphic

features

The site is significant for a number of geological and geomorphic

features; in particular the dune slack system is rare, if not unique

within the bioregion. Considered a critical service.

Final service

Provides physical

habitat (for waterbirds)

Ninety-five species of wetland bird have been recorded within the

Ramsar site. A number of different environments are found within the

Ramsar site which supports a range of waterbirds including feeding

and breeding areas. Considered a critical service at the site.

Final service

Threatened wetland

species, habitats and

ecosystems

One nationally listed ecological community and 10 nationally or

internationally listed species of conservation significance, nine of

which are considered to be regularly supported at the site, or for

which the wetlands of the site represent core habitat. Considered a

critical service.

Final service

Priority wetland species

and ecosystems

The site supports a number of migratory waterbirds listed under

international treaties. Numbers and diversity are low, compared to

comparable sites and so this is not considered a critical service.

Final service

Nutrient cycling Not critical to the character of the site, but is believed to play an

important role in biogeochemical process, although this remains a

knowledge gap for parts of the site.

Intermediate

service

Primary production Not critical to the character of the site, but plays an important role as

a supporting service, underpinning food webs within the system.

Intermediate

service

Ecological connectivity The Ramsar site has a range of distinct wetland types which are both

hydrologically and ecologically connected. Connectivity is critical for

the maintenance of biodiversity values. The connection between the

marine, estuarine and freshwater components is significant for fish

migration and reproduction. Considered a critical service for fish

migration.

Intermediate

service

Food webs The food webs of the Ramsar site are not well understood and whilst

considered important in supporting the character of the site, at this

point in time, none are considered critical. Not a critical service.

Final service



105

Table 29: Justification for critical services against criteria listed in DEWHA (2008). See Table 26 above for scoring system.

Service/ benefit

Guideline 1 –

important

determinants

Guideline 2 – support

listing criteria

Guideline 3 –

change is

likely <100

years

Guideline 4 – will cause

significant negative

consequences

Diversity of wetland types

+++ +++ (C1) ++ +++

Special ecological, physical or geomorphic features

+++ +++ (C1) dune slack system ++ +++

Provides physical habitat (for waterbirds)

+++ +++ (C1, 2, 4) ++ ++ Loss of habitat identified as key off site impact on populations, potential for loss of habitat on site (i.e. nesting habitat, feeding habitat) could increase rate of decline.

Threatened wetland species, habitats and ecosystems

++ +++ (C1, 2) – supports globally threatened fen peatlands, grassy wetlands, dune slack, threatened plant communities and a number of listed species.

+ ++


++ + (C4, 7 and 8) + +



Invertebrates

Invertebrate data is limited for the Ramsar site and constitutes a knowledge gap. (Bovill 2006) sampled

macroinvertebrates from four permanent wetlands within the Ramsar site, including Lake Moniboeng, Cain

Hut swamp, and Lake Bridgewater north, middle and south (three disjunct basins) in early winter 2006. In

total 90 taxa were identified (not all aquatic) with the results indicating the wetlands were significantly

different for taxon richness. Species richness is scale dependent with all richness measures being affected

by sample size, abundance and effort (Hurlbert 1971, Hammond 1994, Gaston 1996, Gotelli and Colwell

2001, Butcher 2003). Variation in sampling effort can result in widely variable result. Even for what are

considered as exhaustive samples estimates of species richness are often largely dependent on the

effectiveness of the sampling method and its ability to successfully detect all species present (Butcher 2003).

Figure 54: Total macroinvertebrate taxon richness of individual wetlands (pooled samples) in May and June 2006, including counts of taxa unique to particular wetlands (modified from (Bovill 2006)

Bovill (2006) suggested that the macroinvertebrate fauna of the wetlands assessed is different to other

wetlands in the region and also other coastal wetlands; however, the timing and amount of sampling is not

comparable to many other inventory projects which typically collect data in early spring to summer and

autumn. The fauna collected by Boville (2006) is characteristic of permanent waters (i.e. trichopterans,

crustaceans, mayflies); however, there are insufficient data to determine if the fauna is in fact different to

other coastal systems. For example, the Victorian EPA undertook a snapshot assessment of

macroinvertebrates across a number of Victorian lakes whilst developing a lakes assessment protocol that

included Lake Moniboeng and Bridgewater Lakes. The macroinvertebrate diversity was high at Lake

Moniboeng and comparable to sand dune lakes elsewhere in the bioregion (the same study) such as Lake

Barracouta and Dock Inlet. However Lake Bridgewater recorded a very low number of macroinvertebrate

families, only seven (EPA Victoria 2010). It is not possible to make a comparison to the Boville (2006) data

as it is not included as count data by site, only a taxon list, and as stated above the assessment methods

varied between the studies.

Invertebrate fauna in the temporary wetlands within the system and the estuarine components would be

expected to be different again to that of the permanent systems. Overall the invertebrate communities are

anticipated to be diverse and potentially unusual reflecting the isolation, heterogeneity of habitat, and

groundwater dependent hydrological regimes. The relative importance of fish predation and potential

changes associated with the restoration of hydrology in Long Swamp is a knowledge gap.

Microinvertebrate investigations at the site are lacking, other than early work undertaken by Ian Bayly and

Brian Timms in the 1960s and 1970s (Timms 1977). These early investigations identified some interesting

zooplankton with marine affinities, however their persistence within the site has not been assessed and an

understanding of the microinvertebrate community is another knowledge gap.

Amphibians and reptiles

Data for amphibians in the Ramsar site are limited. Early survey work indicates that Lake Malseed supported

large numbers of frogs however recent surveys by the Nature Glenelg Trust have only recorded low numbers

of individuals. This recent survey work has been largely limited to the Long Swamp complex. Seven species

have been recorded including the nationally listed growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis) (see Table 30). The

Appendix B: Other biota within the site



107

relatively low numbers of frogs within the Ramsar site recorded to date may reflect a lack of permanent water

in the areas surveyed, although further surveys of the permanent waterbodies and nearby wetlands may

show a different pattern of use and abundances. Alternatively, low numbers of frogs in the area may also

reflect a loss of ecological connectivity between inland wetlands and the coastal system through alienation of

dispersal routes.

Three other species occur in the south west of Victoria for which there are no records at the site. The two

spadefoot toads (Neobatrachus sudelli, N. pictus) are more likely to be found further inland, than in the

coastal dune system. The spotted marsh frog (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) is a common species and may

be present at the site.

The wetland dependent swamp skink (Lissolepis conventryi) has been recorded from Long Swamp (VBA

extract 2015), and glossy grass skink (Pseudemoia rawlinsoni), also a wetland dependent species may also

be present at the site (G. Peterson, DELWP, pers. comm.). Data on numbers and distribution within the site

are a knowledge gap.

Table 30: Amphibians recorded from Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site. Data provided by GH CMA (unpublished), (Bachmann et al. 2013) and G. Peterson, DELWP, pers. comm.

Species Common name Location

Crinia signifera Common froglet White Sands outlet Long Swamp, Long Swamp,

Lake Moniboeng, Swan Lake.

Geocrinia laevis Southern smooth froglet Long Swamp.

Limnodynastes dumerilii Southern bullfrog (ssp. unknown) Lake Moniboeng.

Limnodynastes peronii Striped marsh frog No location specified in VBA.

Litoria ewingii Southern brown tree frog Swan Lake.

Litoria raniformis Growling grass frog Lake Moniboeng, Swan Lake, Long Swamp.

Pseudophryne

semimarmorata

Southern toadlet Glenelg National Park

Mammals

Southern bent-wing bat

The Southern bent-wing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii bassanii) is one of only five Australian mammals that

are federally listed as critically endangered under the EPBC Act. Whilst not considered strictly wetland

dependent (advice from DELWP), it does utilise wetland environments as one of its two preferred foraging

habitats, and as such is included here.

It is an obligate cave-dwelling bat with a restricted distribution, occurring only in south-east South Australia

and south-west Victoria (Figure 55, Lumsden and Jemisen 2015). Whilst it is distributed across this region

during the non-breeding season, during the breeding season the majority of individuals congregate in just

two regularly-used breeding caves, located at Naracoorte in South Australia and Warrnambool in Victoria.

The population size of the bat has declined dramatically in recent decades, falling from an estimated 100,000

– 200,000 individuals in the 1950s and 1960s at the Naracoorte maternity site to approximately 20,000

individuals in 2009. The numbers in the Warrnambool maternity site declined from approximately 15,000 to

10,000 individuals over the same time period (Lumsden and Jemison 2015). The severity of this decline led

to listing of the Southern bent-wing bat as critically endangered under the EPBC Act in 2007. The National

Recovery Plan for the Southern bent-wing bat (Lumsden and Jemison 2015) identified numerous threats

(individually and in combination) that may have led to the decline in numbers, including:

• Loss and modification of roosting and foraging habitat,

• Human disturbance,

• Pesticides,



• Disease, and

• Drought and climate change affecting food availability.

Figure 55: Distribution of the Southern bent-wing bat (from Lumsden and Jemisen 2015).

However, the National Recovery Plan noted that there is little empirical evidence to clearly identify the main

cause/s of the current decline; filling this knowledge gap was considered a management priority, along with

protecting breeding and foraging habitat. Limited information is available on foraging habitat used by the

species; radio-tracking suggests it occurs predominantly along forested ridgelines and around wetlands and

swamps containing aquatic vegetation and fringed by terrestrial vegetation (Stratman 2005 cited in Lumsden

and Jemisen 2015). All swamp sites used by the bat provided open areas for flight and most were prone to

seasonal inundation (Stratman 2005).

This species whilst not considered a critical CPS, does contribute to the biodiversity value of the site and as

such further data on this species should be collected. The caves in the Lower Glenelg Estuary are roosting

sites, however recent surveys of these sites are lacking and the population size using the site is a knowledge

gap.

Other mammals

Two other wetland dependent mammal species present in the site include the water rat (Hydromys

chrysogaster), and swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus maritimus) (G. Peterson, DELWP, pers. comm.).

Swamp antechinus is being considered for listing as vulnerable under the EPBC Act (Department of

Environment 2015a), however the outcome of the nomination has not yet been determined. The species in

Victoria and South Australia is believed to be a distinct subspecies to that found more commonly in

Tasmania. The distribution and abundance of these species within the Ramsar site are a knowledge gap.



109

Three conceptual models have been developed to show how critical and supporting CPS interact. The

models are:

• Estuarine habitat (Figure 56) showing lower section of Glenelg estuary in open and closed state.

• Beach habitat and dune fields (Figure 57) illustrates beach, dune and dune slack in area of Long

Swamp.

• Freshwater habitat (Figure 58) represented by a model of Bridgewater Lakes.

Within the estuary the critical CPS which are illustrated in Figure 56 include provision of habitat to support

waterbird feeding (critical supporting service - hydrological processes, wetland diversity), ecological

connectivity allowing freshwater fish to move downstream and marine species to move into the estuary.

Roosting habitats in the lower sections of the estuary are important for waterbirds, both waders and

waterfowl. Fish reproduction also occurs in the estuary providing stocks for recreational fishing and food for

piscivorous birds. The closing and opening of the estuary mouth has a strong influence on the water quality

within the area of the estuary, below Nelson in particular, but the extent of influence is a knowledge gap.

The upper reaches of the estuary are not shown in the estuary model however, this section of the estuary is

characterised by high levels of groundwater inflows, surface water inflows from the upper catchment and the

presence of a salt wedge. The river/estuary is largely constrained lying within an area of limestone, with high

cliffs and numerous karst features (none fully aquatic).

Figure 56: Conceptual model of opened and closed estuary.

Appendix C: Conceptual models



The beach and dune management units are relatively poorly surveyed and there are very limited data

available. This area of the site is considered important for migratory shorebirds and waterbird breeding. The

trophic relationships between near shore environments and the species supported by the Ramsar site are a

knowledge gap. The beach environment is one of the most active in Victoria with strong consistent winds

shifting significant amounts of sand, constantly contributing to and reshaping the dune system. Within the

western end of the Discovery Bay system the dune field supports dune slacks, a particular type of wetland

reliant on groundwater likely derived from the dune system rather than deeper tertiary aquifer. The actual

wetlands within the dune system are included in the freshwater management unit. The dune vegetation

stabilises the system, however in the middle section of the dune field (towards the eastern end of the

Ramsar site) the vegetation is sparse and blowouts have occurred leading to mobile dunes.

Figure 57: Conceptual model of near shore, beach and dune system in vicinity of Long Swamp.

The characteristics of each of the freshwater wetlands differ in relation to dominant groundwater source,

depth and size. The Long Swamp complex is relatively shallow and has a connection with the ocean via

Oxbow Lake on the western end of the wetland. Two artificial drainage points have been recently closed and

the wetland is returning to a more ‘natural’ hydrology. Data on Lake Moniboeng, the Malseed and Swan Lake

wetlands and Bridgewater lakes is scarce. Water quality in all of these lakes are good and the submergent

and emergent aquatic vegetation appears to be both diverse and abundant, however there are no data on

the lake bed aquatic vegetation other than broad estimates of extent. These wetlands provide critical habitat

to obligate freshwater species and support a range of waterbirds and fish.



111

Figure 58: Conceptual model of groundwater dependent Bridgewater Lakes.



Coastal saltmarsh

The Subtropical and Temperate Coastal Saltmarsh ecological community was listed as vulnerable under the

EPBC Act in 2013 (TSSC 2013). It commonly occurs in the upper intertidal zone of estuaries and includes

the assemblage of plants, animals and micro-organisms associated with intertidal saltmarsh vegetation. The

seaward extent of the Coastal Saltmarsh ecological community is determined by the depth, duration and

periodicity of tidal submergence, and the landward extent is typically determined by the penetration of the

highest tide (TSSC 2013).

This definition can be problematic as saltmarsh vegetation often extends landward beyond tidal influences

and intergrades with other vegetation types (Boon et al. 2011). For the purposes of this ECD the mapped

extent of saltmarsh patches that are known to be predominantly influenced by tides are assessed against the

listing advice for the community. The listed coastal saltmarsh community includes marshes that may become

intermittently disconnected from tidal influence (e.g. when the mouth of the estuary becomes closed by sand

bars) and supratidal saltmarshes that have groundwater connectivity to tidal groundwater flows (TSSC

2013). All the coastal saltmarsh within the site fits these two categories. The saltmarsh fringing the estuary is

isolated from tidal influence when the shallow mouth of the Glenelg River is closes seasonally through the

deposition of a barrier bar and supratidal saltmarshes fringe several saline depressions located between the

river channel and western shore of Oxbow Lake. These are presumably also cut off from tidal influence when

the river mouth closes.

At the state level, the listed community includes two Victorian Ecological Vegetation Classes (EVC): coastal

saltmarsh (EVC9) and estuarine wetland (EVC 10) (DELWP 2015a).

Maroon leek-orchid - Prasophyllum frenchii

The maroon leek-orchid prefers open sedge, wet grassland and wet heathland generally bordering wetland

areas. Typography is general flat and the species typically only occurs in low altitude locations. Often found

in association with kangaroo grass (Themeda spp.), wallaby grass (Rytidosperma spp.), twig-rush (Baumea

spp.) and sword-sedge (Lepidosperma spp.) and sometimes with saw-sedge (Gahnia spp.), tussock grass

(Poa spp.) and speargrass (Austrostipa spp.). Associated taller stratum species include Woolly Teatree

(Leptospermum lanigerum), Swamp Paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia) and Scented Paperbark (Melaleuca

squarrosa) (Department of Environment 2015b) .

The orchid was formerly more widespread in much of south-eastern Australia, but has undergone declines in

both range and abundance (Duncan 2010). A number of threats have potentially contributed to the decline of

the species. Altered fire regimes may be one such factor, with fires likely to reduce competition. Altered

hydrology and reduced soil moisture are also threats to the species (Duncan 2010). Detailed information on

the community at Long Swamp is lacking and is a knowledge gap for the site.

Swamp greenhood - Pterostylis tenuissima

Pterostylis tenuissima is a perennial terrestrial greenhood orchid which appears as a rosette in the non-

reproductive stage, however, the rosette is absent when in flowering form. The flowering form has up to five

stem-sheathing leaves (10-30 mm long) along its flower stem. The stem reaches up to 300 mm in length and

supports a single, nodding flower (Dickson et al. 2012) (Figure 59). Pterostylis tenuissima colonises very

moist soils under dense silky tea-tree (Leptospermum lanigerum), in close proximity to the groundwater

table. Threats within the Ramsar site could include invasion of habitat by Coastal wattle which has been

shown to have significant impacts on groundcover species (Dickson et al. 2012).

Appendix D: Threatened species and communities



113

Figure 59: Swamp greenhood, Pterostylis tenuissima. (© Laura Weedon).

Australasian bittern - Botaurus poiciloptilus

The Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus) is a shy and cryptic wading species of wetland bird, typically

solitary in nature, but sometimes occurring in pairs or dispersed aggregations of up to 12 birds. The breeding

ecology of the species is poorly known but is believed to breed in solitary, territorial pairs. The bitterns tend

to be residents, or sedentary, in suitable permanent habitat, but can undertake regular short distance

movements in winter (Marchant and Higgins 1990). This has been recently supported by the Bitterns in Rice

project, which suggests bitterns have altered their movement and breeding patterns to adapt to using rice



crops as habitat (Herring et al. 2014). It may also account for the regular coastal influxes of birds in winter

around Melbourne and Geelong (BirdLife Australia, Atlas database) which may be post-breeding birds

originating from the rice fields in NSW (Herring et al. 2014).

Preferred habitat includes permanent wetlands with tall dense vegetation (e.g. Phragmites, Cyperus,

Eleocharis, Juncus, Typha, Baumea, Bolboschoenus) or cutting grass (Gahnia) growing over a muddy or

peaty substrate, with still, shallow water up to 0.3 metres deep (Marchant and Higgins 1990; TSSC 2011a).

The birds are often found in the littoral zone, or on platforms or mats of vegetation over deep water (TSSC

2011a).

In 2010, the total population of the Australasian bittern in Australia was estimated to be between 250 and

800 individuals (Birds Australia, unpublished data, 2010 cited in (TSSC 2011a).

Figure 60: Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus) (© Ian Montgomery, Birdway).

Curlew sandpiper - Calidris ferruginea

In Victoria, curlew sandpiper were widespread in coastal bays and inlets. Despite recent declines these are

still their Victorian strongholds; they are widespread in near-coastal wetlands, and they occur intermittently

on inland wetlands (e.g. in the Kerang area, Mildura, and western districts). A generation time of 7.6 years

(BirdLife International, 2014) is derived from an age at first breeding of 2.0 years, an annual survival of adults

of 79% and a maximum longevity of 14.8 years, all extrapolated from congeners (Garnett et al., 2011).

Estimates of apparent and true survival rate respectively for curlew sandpipers in Victoria are 73.1% and

80.5% (Rogers and Gosbell 2006). Rogers and Gosbell (2005) demonstrated that long-term decline in

Victorian curlew sandpipers, although influenced by consecutive years of low breeding success, has been

driven by reduced adult survival.



115

Figure 61: Curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) (© Ian Montgomery, Birdway).

Fairy tern – Sterna nereis nereis

Fairy tern (Sternula nereis nereis) was listed in 2011 under the EPBC Act as a vulnerable threatened

species, and is also listed as vulnerable under the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2015). The total number of mature

birds is limited, and estimated to range between 3000 to 9000 individuals (Baling et al. 2009 cited in TSSC

2011b). The listing advice for the species suggests a decline in the population of approximately 24 percent

over the past three generations (1974–2007), and anticipate this decline to continue over the next three

generations or 33 years as there is no evidence that the threats affecting this subspecies are abating (TSSC

2011b).

Fairy terns are single prey item, central-place foragers (Orians and Pearson 1979), and as such their

foraging locations are restricted by the location of their nest site, being the central place they return to

consume their prey. As a small bird, fairy terns are also limited in the size of the prey and this is thought to

constrain the location of nesting sites to a close reliable source of suitable-sized fish (Paton and Rogers

2009). Fairy terns were recorded breeding within the site, near the mouth of the estuary, alongside little terns

in 2003/2004. Breeding is also occurring elsewhere within the site, along Discovery Bay beach as evidence

by photograph taken in December 2014 (see Figure 42 above).

Threats to the species include predation by silver gulls, foxes, increased human disturbance of nesting areas

and Inappropriate water resource management (Baker-Gabb and Manning 2011, DENR 2012).

Hooded plover - Thinornis rubricollis rubicollis (eastern)

Hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis) listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2012b) and EPBC Act

(TSSC 2014), occurs on ocean beaches, typically above the high water mark and also at coastal lakes

across southern Australia (Buick and Paton 1989, Weston and Elgar 2005). Buick and Paton (1989) reported

that densities along ocean beaches are typically less than one per kilometre. More recent data collected

under the biennial counts indicates that densities of hooded plover have varied considerably within the



Ramsar site, with densities of 0.47 birds per kilometre in 2008, 0.36 in 2010 and 1.15 birds per kilometre in

2012 (Mead et al. 2012).

The adults forage across the beaches preying on insects, sandhoppers (Orchestia sp.), small bivalves and

soldier crabs (Mictyris platycheles). Nests are shallow scrapes in the sand or fine gravel and may be

encircled or lined with pebbles, seaweed and other beach debris. One to two eggs hatch approximately 30

days after laying with the young leaving the nest shortly afterwards. Chicks rely heavily on fore-dunes and

dunes as their main site of concealment from potential predators (Weston and Elgar 2005, Baker-Gabb and

Weston 2006).

Figure 62: Hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis) (© Ian Montgomery, Birdway).

Within the Ramsar site, the birds nest on the ocean beach above high tide mark and close to the base of the

dunes. Data from the 2012 biennial count indicated 41 birds present within the Ramsar site, however there

was no evidence of breeding that year (no scrapes, nests, eggs or young) (Mead et al. 2012).

The presence of birds on a beach may indicate there is available food and nesting habitat, but it doesn’t

reflect the overall quality of the habitat. Hooded plovers are known to continue to breed at sites without

success for six to nine years (Mead et al. 2012). This indicates that while there is physical habitat, it can be

impacted by recreational use and predators so that the birds have repeated unsuccessful nesting attempts

over time (Mead et al. 2012). Estimates of population size is also not a good indicator of the health of the

population, as the birds are a long-lived species (up to 18 years, but typically 10-15 years once adulthood is

reached – G. Maguire BirdLife, pers. comm. 2013) with high adult survival (greater than 90% G. Maguire

BirdLife, pers. comm. 2013), populations are likely to remain stable for many years as the main impacts to

the species are not on the adults (Mead et al. 2012). Limited breeding success over consecutive years will

mean poor recruitment into the adult population and as they start to die off, then a crash may occur (Mead et

al. 2012).



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Yarra pygmy perch – Nannoperca obscura

The Yarra pygmy perch occurs in Victoria and South Australia and is listed as vulnerable under the EPBC

Act. Declines in populations have been attributed to habitat changes to rivers, creeks and shallow freshwater

wetlands (particularly wetland drainage) (Saddlier and Hammer 2010). Yarra pygmy perch typically occur in

slow flowing waters which have abundant aquatic vegetation, in particular emergent vegetation. Most often

found in small numbers, occasionally co-occurring with Southern pygmy perch (Saddlier and Hammer 2010).

The ecological requirements of Yarra pygmy perch are poorly understood but assumed to have similar

requirements to that of the southern pygmy perch (Humphries 1995 cited in Saddlier et al. 2013). Yarra

pygmy perch is an obligate freshwater species completing its life cycle in freshwater, and is most often

associated with large amounts of aquatic vegetation (particularly emergent vegetation) in fresh to slightly

brackish water (e.g. (Woodward and Malone 2002; Bice and Ye 2006 cited in Saddlier et al. 2013). Yarra

pygmy perch is believed to live between 1-5 year, spawns in spring (September–November) at water

temperatures of 16–24°C (Saddlier et al. 2013).

Current total population status is not known as comprehensive surveys have not been undertaken from the

known locations (Figure 63) post the Millenium drought (Saddlier et al. 2013). Within the Ramsar site, local

population size is not known, however Veale (2014) reported a slight decrease in the number of Yarra pygmy

perch caught in 2014 compared to 2012. The data are too limited however to establish if there is a declining

trend, but Veale (2014) reported length frequency data which suggested recruitment was occurring. Also,

there are other habitats within the Ramsar site which should be surveyed to establish the presence of the

species across the whole site. The major threats to Yarra pygmy perch include wetland drainage, habitat

damage through grazing and lack of regeneration, altered hydrology and introduced fish (Saddlier et al.

2013).

Figure 63: Distribution of Yarra pygmy perch (Nannoperca obscura) in Victoria and South Australia (from Saddlier et al. 2013).



Growling grass frog - Litoria raniformis

The growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis) is listed under the EPBC Act as vulnerable, and endangered

under the IUCN Red List. The species occurs across the south-eastern States, and whilst it can be locally

common, it is in decline in many areas of its range. Adults are typically found near water or in wet areas in

woodlands, shrubland or open and disturbed areas, but prefer still waters. Tadpoles hide amongst vegetation

in the shallower edges of wetlands, with the aquatic period lasting 2 – 15 months, in which time they grow to

110 mm and, in the later stages of development, have a characteristic green to yellowish dorsal colouration

(Anstis 2002 cited in Clemann and Gillespie 2012). They will occupy both permanent and temporary wetland

habitats, actively moving onto recently flooded areas and using permanent wetlands as refuges in dry

periods (Bannerman 2005). Refuge habitat could include soil cracks in dry wetland beds, fallen timber,

debris and dense vegetation on low frequently inundated floodplains (Bannerman 2005).

Adult frogs have a varied diet and will eat terrestrial invertebrates, small reptiles, other frogs and even small

fish. They are sit-and-wait predators, and predominantly nocturnal. Breeding typically occurs between

November and March (Bannerman 2005) following rises in water levels, from rain events or flooding. In the

southern part of its range the species often has a long larval phase, so permanent waterbodies, or those in

close proximity to permanent water, can be favoured by the species (Clemann and Gillespie 2012). Adult

frogs overwinter beneath thick vegetation, logs, rocks and other ground debris, sometimes at considerable

distances from waterbodies (P. Robertson, Wildlife Profiles pers. comm. cited in Clemann and Gillespie

2012).

The Chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis causes the disease chytridiomycosis, which has been

implicated in the declines of amphibians throughout the world including Australia (Berger et al. 1999 cited in

Clemann and Gillespie 2012). Chytrid fungus is known to infect growling grass frogs and is considered a

significant threat to the species. The National Recovery Plan identified the following additional processes that

have potentially caused declines and/or are still operating as threats to growling grass frog populations (from

Clemann and Gillespie 2012), many of which have the potential to act in concert:

• Loss and degradation of habitat

• Barriers to movement (may be important at the Ramsar site)

• Disease (see above)

• Predation

• Biocides

• Ultra-violet B radiation

The relative importance of these threats within the Ramsar site are a knowledge gap.

Ancient greenling - Hemiphlebia mirabilis

Recent investigations suggest an extremely large population of ancient greenling damsel fly (Hemiphlebia

mirabilis) exists at Long Swamp, estimated to be more than one million specimens per season (Cordero

Rivera 2014). The species has been found in the Grampians and also at nearby Piccaninnie Ponds Karst

Wetland Ramsar site and other sites in South Australia (Haywood and Richter 2013) (Figure 64). This

species is listed under the FFG Act and is on the IUCN Red List as endangered (IUCN 2015). The species

has been considered at risk of global extinction, given its small population size, its localised distribution, and

the fact that it is a ‘living fossil’, described as the oldest extant damselfly, however several authors suggest it

is not critically endangered (Cordero-Rivera 2015).



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Figure 64: Locations of Hemiphlebia mirabilis in South West Victoria and South Australia (Haywood and Richter 2013).

The area of favourable habitat for H. mirabilis at Long Swamp is difficult to estimate, but that maximum

density was observed at areas with 20-40 centimetres of water, which probably dry up in summer. This

supports habitat preferences listed for other populations with water depth listed as < 50 centimetres

(Crowther 2011). Preferred habitat in Long Swamp included dense stands of bare-twig sedge, Baumea

juncea. This vegetation is found mainly associated with the fen peatlands Ramsar type U (Figure 65).

The greenling has been observed to be a weak flier, spending the majority of its time perched, (New 1993

cited in Cordero Rivera 2014) and possibly has weak dispersal abilities. This could make populations

vulnerable to local extinction events. The expected longevity for males was calculated as 7.3 days and for

females 4.4 days as adults (excluding the teneral phase), with mean observed lifespan for individuals

recaptured at least once being 4.7±0.27 (168) for males and 4.4±0.47 (46) for females (Cordero Rivera

2014).

Mating frequency observed at Long Swamp was considered to be surprisingly low, and there were no data

collected on oviposition and this remains a significant knowledge gap for the species.

Figure 65: Preferred reed habitat within Long Swamp (image taken from Cordero Rivera 2014).



EPBC Act listing: M = Listed as migratory or marine under the EPBC Act; J = JAMBA; C= CAMBA; R =

ROKAMBA, B = BONN; CE = critically endangered internationally, Vu = vulnerable, En = endangered.

Breeding: Limited = one or two records of breeding, usually with low counts, Regular = less than annual,

Annual = breeding occurs annually with strong data record.

Common Name (by family) Scientific Name Breeding EPBC/IUCN/

International treaty

Accipitriformes - Accipitridae

Swamp harrier Circus approximans M

White-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster M, C

Anseriformes - Anatidae

Australasian shoveler Anas rhynchotis M

Australian shelduck Tadorna tadornoides M

Australian wood duck Chenonetta jubata M

Black swan Cygnus atratus Yes M

Blue-billed duck Oxyura australis M

Cape Barren goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae M

Chestnut teal Anas castanea Yes M

Freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa M

Grey teal Anas gracilis M

Hardhead Aythya australis M

Musk duck Biziura lobata M

Mallard (introduced) Anas platyrhynchos

Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa M

Pink-eared duck Malacorhynchus membranaceus M

Anseriformes - Anseranatidae

Magpie goose Anseranas semipalmata M

Charadiiformes - Charadriidae

Banded lapwing Vanellus tricolor M

Black-fronted dotterel Elseyornis melanops

Double-banded plover Charadrius bicinctus M,C

Greater sand plover Charadrius leschenaultii M,B,C,J,R

Grey plover Pluvialis squatarola M,B,C,J,R

Hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis V (EPBC), M

Masked lapwing Vanellus miles

Oriental plover Charadrius veredus M,B,J,R

Pacific golden plover Pluvialis fulva M,B,C,J,R

Red-capped plover Charadrius ruficapillus Yes

Appendix E: Wetland birds recorded at the Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site



121



Red-kneed dotterel Erythrogonys cinctus

Charadiiformes - Haematopodidae

Australian pied oystercatcher Haematopus longirostris Yes

Sooty oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus

Charadiiformes - Laridae

Caspian tern Hydropogne (Sterna) caspia M,C, J

Crested tern Thalasseus bergii Yes M

Fairy tern Sternula (Sterna) nereis V (EPBC), M

Gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica M

Kelp gull Larus dominicanus M

Little tern Sternula (Sterna) albiforns Yes M,B,C,J,R

Pacific gull Larus pacificus Yes M

Silver gull Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae M

Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida M

White-fronted black tern Sterna striata

Charadiiformes - Recurvirostridae

Banded stilt Cladorhynchus leucocephalus

Black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus M

Red-necked avocet Recurvirostra novaehollandiae M

Charadiiformes - Scolopacidae

Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica M,B,C,J,R

Black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa M,B,C,J,R

Broad-billed sandpiper Limicola falcinellus M,B,C,J,R

Common greenshank Tringa nebularia M,B,C,J,R

Common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos M,B,C,J,R

Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea CE (EPBC), M,B,C,J,R

Eastern curlew Numernius madagascariensis CE (EPBC), M,B,C,J,R

Great knot Calidris tenuirostris M,C,J,R,B

Grey-tailed tattler Tringa (Heteroscelus) brevipes M,B,C,J,R

Latham’s snipe Gallinago hardwickii M,B,C,J,R

Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis M,B,C,J,R

Red knot Calidis canutus M,B,C,J,R

Red-necked stint Calidris ruficollis M,B,C,J,R

Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres M,B, C,J,R

Sanderling Calidris alba M,B, C,J,R





Sharp-tailed sandpiper Calidris acuminata M,B, C,J,R

Terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus M,B,C,J,R

Ciconiiformes - Pelecanidae

Australian pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus M

Ciconiiformes - Ardeidae

Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus CE (IUCN), En (EPBC)

Australian Little bittern Ixobrychus dubius

Cattle egret Ardea ibis M,C,J

Eastern great egret Ardea modesta M, C, J

Intermediate egret Ardea intermedia M

Little egret Egretta garzetta M

Nankeen night-heron Nycticorax caledonicus

White-faced heron Egretta novaehollandiae

White-necked heron Ardea pacifica

Ciconiiformes - Threskiornithidae

Australian white ibis Threskiornis molucca M

Royal spoonbill Platalea regia

Straw-necked ibis Threskiornis spinicollis M

Yellow-billed spoonbill Platalea flavipes

Coraciiformes - Alcedinidae

Azure kingfisher Alcedo azurea

Gruiformes - Rallidae

Australian spotted crake Porzana fluminea M

Black-tailed native-hen Tribonyx ventralis

Brolga Grus rubicunda

Buff-banded rail Gallirallus philippensis

Dusky moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa

Eurasian coot Fulica atra

Lewin’s rail Lewina (Rallus) pectoralis

Purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio

Spotless crake Porzana tabuensis M

Passeriformes - Acrocephalidae

Australian reed warbler

(Calamorous reed-warbler)

Acrocephalus australis M

Phalacrocoraciformes - Phalacrocoracidae

Australasian darter Anhinga novaehollandiae



123



Black-faced cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens M

Great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo Yes

Little black cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris

Little pied cormorant Microcarbo melanoleucos

Pied cormorant Phalacrocorax varius

Phalacrocoraciformes - Sulidae

Australasian gannet Morus serrator M

Podicipediformes - Podicipedidae

Australasian grebe Tachybaptus novaehollandiae

Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus Yes

Hoary-headed grebe Poliocephalus poliocephalus

Psittaciformes - Psittacidae

Orange-bellied parrot Neopherma chrysogaster CE(EPBC),M,J



Ecology and biological information sourced from FishBase (Froese and Pauly 2014), (Treadwell and Hardwick 2003), and Hammer (2001)(2002) and

references therein, unless otherwise stated. Fish have been assigned to four categories and associated guilds based on the estuarine usage functional

groups proposed by Potter et al. (2015):

• Marine category:

o Marine straggler (MS),

o Marine estuarine - opportunist (MO),

o Marine estuarine - dependent (MD),

• Estuarine category:

o Solely estuarine (SE),

o Estuarine and marine (EM),

o Estuarine and freshwater (EF),

o Estuarine migrant (Emi),

• Diadromous category:

o Anadromous (A),

o Semi-anadromous (SA),

o Catadromous (C),

o Semi-catadromous (SC),

o Amphidromous (Am),

• Freshwater category:

o Freshwater straggler (FS),

o Freshwater estuarine – opportunist (FO).

Table 31: List of fish recorded within the Ramsar site modified from unpublished data supplied by GH CMA, VBA data, and (Glenelg Hopkins CMA 2006a).

Family Common name Scientific name Guild/

Functional

group

Biology

Anguillidae Short-finned eel Anguilla australis C Benthopelagic; occurring in streams lakes and swamps. Feeds on fishes,

invertebrates, aquatic plants, and terrestrial and aquatic insects. Long lived species

which migrate to near the Coral sea to breed. Larval eels return as elvers (around

10 centimeters).

Arripidae Australian

herring

Arripis georgianus MO Usually found inshore in bays and estuaries over seagrass beds or near areas of

seaweed (e.g. kelp), on rocky reefs, and along ocean beaches. Juveniles are found

Appendix F: Fish species and ecology



125


Functional

group

Biology

in inshore coastal waters, bays and inlets. Feed on small fish and prawns.

Australian

salmon

Arripis truttaceus MS or MO Inhabit continental shelf waters including estuaries, bays and inlets.

Atherinidae

Freshwater

hardyhead

Craterocephalus

fulvus

FO Identified as C. stercusmuscarum in Parks Victoria (2006). Temperate, shoaling,

inhabiting the margins of slow-flowing or still freshwater rivers and lakes,

backwaters and billabongs with sand, gravel or mud substrates and aquatic

vegetation.

Marine

hardyhead

Atherinomorus

vaigiensis

MO Identified as Pranesus ogilbyi in Parks Victoria (2006). Found in shallow coastal

waters, including bays and estuaries; can tolerate salinity as low as 3 parts per

thousand.

Short-snout

hardyhead

Kestratherina

brevirostris

MS Typically found in protected marine habitats with soft bottoms or seagrass beds.

This species can be found in small aggregations below three m, however larger

schools are found nearer the surface. This species has not been collected from the

upper reaches of estuaries or lagoons (Pavlov et al. 1988 cited in IUCN 2015).

Individuals exceeding three cm are planktivorous, feeding mainly on copepods.

(IUCN 2015).

Smallmouth

hardyhead

Atherinosoma

microstoma

A Pelagic. Found in shallow coastal bays, estuaries and lakes ranging from pure fresh

to salinities in excess of seawater. Occurs abundantly in estuaries around eel-grass

thickets, occasionally penetrating the lower freshwater reaches of rivers. Feeds on

tiny crustaceans and insects. Breeds in spring (September to October). An annual

species (living for only one year), dying shortly after spawning. Estuarine resident.

Tamar

hardyhead

Leptatherina

presbyteroides

EM A schooling species found in inshore waters

Carangidae Araara, blue

trevally

Pseudocaranx

georgianus

MS or MO Large mobile schools move in and out of estuaries, and often hang around jetties

and piers.

Cheilodactylidae Dusky morwong Dactylophora

nigricans

MS A species of morwong native to the western and southern coastal reefs of Australia

where it is found down to about 60 metres (200 ft) in depth.

Silver morwong Nemadactylus

douglasii

MS A morwong of the genus Nemadactylus, found around south eastern Australia and

the north eastern coast of the North Island of New Zealand at depths of about 10 to

100 metres, on sandy and rocky coasts.

Clupeidae Sandy sprat Hyperlophus vittatus Am Schools in large numbers in shallow sandy areas of bays and estuaries.




Functional

group

Biology

Eleotrididae Flat-headed

gudgeon

Philypnodon

grandiceps

FO Demersal. Found in still and flowing waters; often abundant in dams and lakes,

usually among weeds or over mud bottoms. Occurs in reservoirs and brackish

estuaries, less common in gently flowing streams). Feeds on invertebrates and

other fishes and tadpoles. In breeding season (mainly spring to summer), males

darken and display more vibrant fin markings. Females lay a clutch of eggs on a

hard surface such as a rock or piece of wood. The male cares for the nest, chasing

away intruders and fanning the eggs with his pectoral fins. Hatching occurs after 4-6

days.

Carp gudgeon

complex*

Hypseleotris spp. FS Normally lives around littoral vegetation and can be found in dams, lakes and canals

as well as streams. Inhabits slow-flowing rivers or in still water like billabongs. It

congregates in large schools below dams and weirs.

Engraulidae Australian

anchovy

Engraulis australis MS Found mostly inshore, in bays, inlets and estuaries, sometimes in low salinities.

Older individuals tend to move out to sea in winter and back in the spring. Spawns

in inlets, bays and also estuaries, probably throughout the year but mainly in late

spring to early autumn and especially about November to February.

Gadopsidae River blackfish Gadopsis

marmoratus

FS Typically lives in clear, flowing streams with abundant cover. Prefers streams with

gravel bottoms and abundant snags. Also occurs in lakes and reservoirs. Tolerant of

slightly brackish conditions (10 p.p.t.) in the tidal reaches of rivers, and a

temperature range of 5°-25°C. Home-ranging; remaining within about a 20-30 metre

stretch of water throughout the life span. Feeds on insects, crustaceans and small

fishes; also on molluscs. The spawning season runs from November to January. A

popular angling species in the south, but large fish are rare. Highly susceptible to

overfishing, due to its home-ranging behaviour and low fecundity.

Galaxidae Climbing

galaxias

Galaxias brevipinnis Am Normally in coastal streams but can survive in landlocked systems (Lintermans

2009). Larvae spend 5-6 months at sea before migrating back into freshwater and

estuarine habitats. Inhabits mainly clear streams, often deeply shaded and relatively

fast-flowing, although it sometimes occurs in lakes, particularly in Tasmania. The

existence of a marine stage is regarded to be facultative rather than obligatory in

Australia.

Common

galaxias

Galaxias maculatus C

(marginally)

Benthopelagic, free swimming. Use a variety of habitat, but mostly prefer still or

slow-flowing waters, mainly in streams, rivers and lakes within a short distance of

the sea. Will also occur in landlocked wetlands. Feed on aquatic and terrestrial

invertebrates. Adults typically migrate downstream into estuaries during high spring

tides in autumn to spawn on fringing vegetation and also algal mats. Spawning does



127


Functional

group

Biology

not occur beyond the river estuaries, making this species 'only marginally

catadromous'. Many perish after spawning but some survive another year. Coastal

populations have a marine juvenile stage.

Spotted

galaxias

Galaxias truttaceus Am Spawn in freshwater but larvae swept out to sea – only found in coastal systems.

Occurs in still or slow-flowing waters at low elevations close to the sea; most

abundant along shore margins in rocky areas.

Little galaxias Galaxiella

toourtkoourt

FS Frequently found among vegetation along the edge of still or slow-running waters

like swamps, drainage ditches and backwaters of creeks. Adults live in both

ephemeral and permanent habitats. A short-lived fish, reaching maturity in the first

year of life and perishing shortly after spawning. Fish occupying ephemeral water

possibly aestivate or shelter in crayfish burrows when surface water evaporates

during summer.

Geotriidae Pouched

lamprey

Geotria australis A Demersal. Typically found in mud burrows in upper reaches of coastal streams for

the first four years of life, and then they migrate back to the sea. Adults inhabit the

sea for an undetermined period and are parasitic on other fishes. Migrate upstream

which may last for 16 months and spawn in freshwater. Adults are often found

below weirs and dams during their spawning migration which may take them

considerable distances upstream of the coast. Migration mostly takes place in rainy

nights when water levels are rising, with temperatures between 12-14.5°C and when

there is extensive cloud cover or during the dark phase of the moon. Sometimes

they exit the water by wriggling up the bank to bypass obstacles to migration. Adults

stop feeding while in freshwater and die shortly after spawning.

Gobiidae Blue-spot goby

(eastern

Australia)

Pseudogobius sp. 9 EF It is often found in muddy areas and seagrass beds in the upper reaches of

estuaries. It is also known to penetrate upstream into freshwater and may remain

there for extended periods of time.

Bridled goby Arenigobius

bifrenatus

EM Found in muddy coastal areas to upper estuaries, rocky reefs, in sea grass beds

and mangroves.

Glass goby Gobiopterus

semivestitus

EF Found in quiet coastal estuaries, enters fresh water, usually in small to large

schools

Nesogobius sp MS

Lagoon goby Tasmanogobius lasti EM Found in muddy areas of estuaries and bays.




Functional

group

Biology

Largemouth

goby

Redigobius

macrostoma

Am Found in estuaries, harbors and entering lower reaches of freshwater streams.

Tamar river

goby

Afurcagobius

tamarensis

EF Inhabits quiet waters of brackish estuaries and coastal lakes; also in lower reaches

of freshwater streams

Hemiramphidae Southern seas

garfish

Hyporhamphus

melanochir

MO Found inshore in surface waters of estuaries, bays, inlets and gulfs to a depth of

about 20 m

Kyphosidae Parore Girella tricuspidata MO Adults favour estuarine (including mangroves), rocky reef and inshore, coastal water

habitats

Monocanthidae Toothbrush

leatherjacket

Acanthaluteres

vittiger

MS Named as Penicipelta vittiger in Park Victoria (2006). The Toothbrush Leatherjacket

lives in a range of habitats from shallow seagrass beds to rocky reefs at depths

around 40 m. - See more at: http://australianmuseum.net.au/toothbrush-leatherjacket-acanthaluteres-vittiger#sthash.j6dyTclD.dpuf.

Mordaciidae Shortheaded

lamprey

Mordacia mordax A Adults inhabit the sea for an undetermined period and are parasitic on fishes; enter

freshwater to breed. Majority of adulthood is spent in estuaries or at sea. Upstream

spawning migrants occur in fast-flowing sections of rivers with a mud, sand or silt

substrate, sometimes seen congregated below barriers to upstream movement such

as weirs.

Moridae Southern rock

cod

Pseudophycis

barbata

MS Coastal waters of southern Australia from southern New South Wales to Rottnest

Island (WA), and New Zealand. Inhabits rocky areas in depths to 275 m (Gomon

and Bray 2011)

Mugilidae Goldspot

mullet, Flat-tail

mullet

Liza argentea C Found in fresh to marine waters throughout south east Australia, often co-occurring

with Myxus elongatus.

Sea mullet Mugil cephalus C

Sand mullet Myxus elongatus C

Yellow-eye

mullet

Aldrichetta forsteri C Found over sandy and muddy bottoms of coastal waters, bays, estuaries, and may

ascend rivers into freshwaters. Spawn in coastal waters in summer and autumn,

probably in estuaries.

Percichthyidae Estuary perch Macquaria

colonorum

EF Occurs in lentic and lotic freshwater. Most commonly found in tidal waters, but also

occurs in rivers and lakes with salinities less than 1-2 ppt. Occurs in estuaries and

http://australianmuseum.net.au/toothbrush-leatherjacket-acanthaluteres-vittiger#sthash.j6dyTclD.dpuf

http://australianmuseum.net.au/toothbrush-leatherjacket-acanthaluteres-vittiger#sthash.j6dyTclD.dpuf



129


Functional

group

Biology

lower, tidal reaches of rivers. During winter (July and August) they move to the

mouth of estuaries to breed.

Southern

pygmy perch

Nannoperca

australis

FS Benthopelagic. Occurs in lotic and lentic freshwater bodies, preferring vegetated

margins in still or gently flowing water. Forms small groups and is a very common

prey item for introduced fishes, such as the Redfin perch and trout. Prefers habitats

not affected by stock access. Feeds on small invertebrates. Breeds from September

to January, when water temperatures rise above 16°C. Reproductive habits and

biology are typical of the family. Maximum life expectancy is about 5 years.

Yarra pygmy

perch

Nannoperca obscura FS Benthopelagic. Inhabits streams and small lakes; preferring more permanent and

flowing water with abundant cover in the form of aquatic vegetation. Occurs in

creeks and lakes, usually among aquatic weeds. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates.

Breeding season is in spring, slightly earlier than the Southern pygmy perch.

Pleuronectidae Longsnout

flounder

Ammotretis rostratus MS Occurs in sandy regions of bays and offshore areas.

Greenback

flounder

Rhombosolea

tapirina

MS Common on silty sand substrates from estuaries and inshore waters down to 100 m

depth. Juveniles occasionally entering rivers.

Pomatomidae Bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix MS Occur in oceanic and coastal waters. They are most common along surf beaches

and rock headlands in clean, high energy waters, although adults can also be found

in estuaries and into brackish water.

Pseudaphritidae Tupong

(Congolii)

Pseudaphritis urvillii C Benthopelagic. Found in streams and estuaries. Inhabits slow-flowing water around

log snags, under over-hanging banks or among leaf litter. Adult fish migrate

downstream to spawn in weedy estuaries from late April to August. Predatory

feeding on invertebrates and fishes. Often buries itself in the substrate to ambush

passing prey. A highly efficient osmo-regulator, able to withstand direct transfer from

salt to fresh water without any indication of stress.

Retropinnidae Southern smelt Retropinna species FS Pelagic in fresh to brackish waters including streams, backwaters, lakes, swamps

and estuaries. One of the most widespread species in south-eastern Australia. Most

common in slow-flowing streams and still waters, shoaling near the surface or

around the cover of aquatic plants and woody debris. Forms large aggregations in

open water. Feeds on aquatic insects, microcrustaceans and algae. Spawns

throughout the Murray-Darling river system. Breeds between July and March

(mostly in spring). Spawning temperature is about 15 °C. Eggs are laid among

aquatic vegetation and hatch in about 10 days. Sexual maturity is attained by the




Functional

group

Biology

end of the first year. There are no major threats to this species.

Sciaenidae Mulloway Argyrosomus

japonicus

MO Adult fish found mainly near shore beyond the surf zone, occasionally going

inshore. Juveniles exclusively found inshore. Juveniles recruit to estuaries at about

30 cm TL.

Sillaginidae Spotted sillago Sillaginodes

punctatus

MS Inhabit shallow inner continental shelf waters, including bays and inlets. For their

first few years, they live mainly where seagrasses occur. Small juveniles like water

depths from 2 m to 20 m. Adults inhabit more exposed waters along coastal

beaches and reef areas, sometimes to depths as great as 200 m. Spawn in offshore

waters from late summer to winter. Juveniles feed on benthic amphipods and other

crustaceans.

Sparidae Black bream Acanthopagrus

butcheri

SE Endemic in coastal areas, rivers and estuaries of Australia. Most abundant in river

mouths and estuaries. Inhabit brackish waters of coastal rivers and lakes,

occasionally penetrating fresh water. Considered as the only true estuarine sparid in

Australia. Larvae and small juveniles are most abundant over seagrass beds in

shallow estuarine waters. Spawning period varies considerably between estuaries.

Remain upstream in sheltered waters to spawn and is not usually found in purely

marine habitats.

Silver

seabream

Chrysophrys auratus MS Found in rocky reefs and also in estuaries.

Tetraodontidae Prickly toadfish Contusus

brevicaudus

MO Usually observed in estuaries to about 20 m.

Smooth

toadfish

Tetractenos glaber MO Found on coastal bays on sandy flats, often in very large schools, entering fresh

water in estuaries.

Tetrarogidae South

Australian

cobbler

Gymnapistes

marmoratus

MS Occur in inshore waters. Most active at night, lying motionless during the day.

Triglidae Bluefin gunnard Chelidonichthys

kumu

MO Found from estuaries to edge of continental shelves over sand and sandy shell

seabed. Reported to be often found in rivers.



131

This plant list, compiled by Leila Huebner, represents all known wetland species in Sector A of the Discovery

Bay Coastal Park section of the proposed Ramsar site. Includes all vouchered plant species lodged in the

Melbourne Herbarium (unless stated otherwise).

Key: ^ = name change, * = alien/weed, L.I. = Livingston Island, Leila Huebner and Mary S. collected

2013/14.

Family Common name Scientific name

Isoetaceae Plain quilwort Isoetes drummondii subsp. drummondii(?)

Ophioglossaceae Austral adder’s-tongue Ophioglossum lusitanicum subsp. coricium?

Centrolepidaceae Pointed centrolepis Centrolepis aristata

Tufted centrolepis C. fascicularis

Hairy centrolepis C. strigosa subsp.strigosa

Cyperaceae Pale twig-rush Baumea acuta (AP)

Jointed twig-rush Baumea arthrophylla

Bare twig-rush Baumea articulata

Lax twig-rush Baumea juncea

Soft twig-rush Baumea laxa

Baumea rubiginosa

Sea club-rush Bolboschoenus caldwellii (AP)

Tall sedge Carex appressa

Carex breviculmis

Tassel sedge Carex fascicularis

Carex gunniana

Carex inversa

Strand sedge Carex pumila

Leafy twig-rush Cladium procerum

Leafy flat-sedge Cyperus lucidus

Tiny flat-sedge tenellus (*Isolepis levynsiana) ^

Common spike-rush Eleocharis acuta

Knobby club-rush Ficinia nodosa

Tall aaw-sedge Gahnia clarkei

Chaffy saw-sedge Gahnia filum

Red-fruit saw-sedge Gahnia sieberiana

Coast saw-sedge Gahnia trifida

Nodding club-rush Isolepis cernua var cernua?

Floating club-rush Isolepis fluitans

Swamp club-rush Isolepis inundata

Isolepis marginata

Isolepis cernua var.platycarpa

Appendix G: Plant List




Isolepis producta

Star club-rush Isolepis stellata

Hoary rapier-sedge Lepidosperma canescens

Sand-hill sword-sedge Lepidosperma concavum

Little sword-sedge Lepidosperma curtisiae (syn.lineare)

Pithy sword-sedge Lepidosperma longitudinale

Stiff rapier-sedge Lepidosperma neesii

Club-rush Schoenoplectus pungens

River club-rush Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (syn.validus)

Common bog-rush Schoenus apogon

Zig-zag bog-rush Schoenus brevifolius

Schoenus carsei

deformis

Floating bog-rush Schoenus fluitans

Leafy bog-rush Schoenus maschalinus

Shiny bog-rush Schoenus nitens

Slender bog-rush Schoenus lepidosperma (syn. tenuissimus

Hair-sedge Tetraria capillaris

Hydrocharitaceae Eel-weed Vallisneria americana var. americana (syn. gigantea)

Iridaceae Morning-flag Orthrosanthus multiflorus

Short purple-flag Patersonia fragilis

Long purple flag Patersonia occidentalis var. occidentalis(?)

Juncaceae Jointed rush *Juncus articulatus subsp. articulates(?)

Austral rush Juncus australis

Toad rush Juncus bufonius

Bulbous rush *Juncus bulbosus

Grassy rush Juncus caespiticius

Capitate rush Juncus *capitatus

Thread rush Juncus filicaulis

Joint-leaf rush Juncus holoschoenus

Sea rush Juncus krausii subsp. australiensis

Pale rush Juncus pallidus

Loose-flower rush Juncus pauciflorus

Broad-leaf rush Juncus planifolius

Juncus procerus

Finger rush Juncus subsecundus



133


Juncaginaceae Dwarf arrowgrass Triglochin nana (syn.centrocarpa)

Water-ribbons Triglochin procera

Streaked arrowgrass Triglochin striata

Lemnaceae Common duckweed Lemna minor

Blue stars Chaemiscilla corymbosa var. corymbosa(?)

Fringe-lily Thysanotus aff. bauera (LWH, Livingston Island)

Branching fringe-lily Thysanotus juncifolius (syn. dichotomus)

Orchidaceae Slender onion-orchid Microtis parviflora

Sweet onion-orchid Microtis rara

Common onion-orchid Microtis unifolia

Tall leek-orchid Prasophyllum elatum

Maroon leek-orchid Prasophyllum hartii (frenchii group)

Slender leek-orchid Prasophyllum parviflorum

Sweet leek-orchid ^Prasophyllum robustum (syn. patens var. robustum,

odoratum)

Marsh leek-orchid Prasophyllum niphopedium (syn. rogersii)(APNI/CHAH)

Swamp greenhood Pterostylis tenuissima

Austral ladies’ tresses Spiranthes australis (syn. sinensis)

Poaceae Cocksfoot *Dactylis glomerata

Common wallaby-grass Danthonia caespitosa (Austrodanthonia caespitosa)

Common love-grass Eragrostis brownii

Tall fescue *Festuca arundinacea

Coast fescue Austrofestuca littoralis

Australian sweet-grass Glyceria australis

Mat grass Hemarthria uncinata var. uncinata (aquatic plant)

Toowoomba canary-grass *Phalis aquatica

Reed canary-grass * Phalis arundinacea

Common reed Phragmites australis

Coast beard-grass *Polypogon maritimus

Annual beard-grass *Polypogon monspeliensis

Salt couch Sporobolus virginicus

Hairy rice-grass Tetrarrhena distichophylla

Potamogetonacea Fennel pondweed Potamogeton pectinatus

Restionaceae Floating pondweed Potamogeton tricarinatus

Spreading rope-rush Empodisma minus

Tassel rope rush Hypolaena fastigiata




Course twine-rush Leptocarpus brownii

Slender twine rush Leptocarpus tenax

Ruppiaceae Sea tassel (saltwater-

tolerant)

Ruppia maritime

Typhaceae Bulrush Typha domingensis

Zannichelliaceae Long-fruited water-mat Lepilaena cylindrocarpa

Apiaceae Annual celery Apium annuum

Sea celery Apium prostratum

Centella Centella cordifolia

Thread pennywort Hydrocotyle capillaris

Hairy pennywort Hydrocotyle hirta

Stinking pennywort Hydrocotyle laxiflora

Mossy pennywort Hydrocotyle muscosa

Shining pennywort Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides

Australian lilaeopsis Lilaeopsis polyantha

Cut-leaf xanthosia Xanthosia dissecta

Asteracaea Salt angianthus *Ângianthus preissianus

Grass daisy Brachycome graminea

Coast daisy Brachycome parvula

Common sneezeweed Centipeda cunninghamii

Common cotula Cotula australis

Water buttons Cotula coronopifolia

Creeping cotula ^ Cotula reptans (Leptinella reptans)

Slender cotula Cotula vulgaris var. australasica

Common billy-buttons ^Craspedia glauca (Craspedia spp undergoing revision)

Creeping cudweed ^Gnaphalium gymnocephalum (Euchiton collinus)

Tiny cudweed Gnaphalium indutum

Common lagenophora Lagenophera stipitata

Pleated podolepis Podolepis rugata var. rugata

Jersey cudweed ^Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum (Helichrysum luteoalbum)

White cudweed *Vellereophyton dealbatum

*Vellereophyton maritima subsp. maritima

Brassicaceae Slender bitter-cress *Cardamine tenuifolia

* Cardamine sp. (Rorippa sp.?)

Whitlow grass *Erophila verna subsp. verna?

Oval purse Hymenolobus procumbens



135


Hairy shepherd’s purse Microlepidium pilosulum (R)

One-row water-cress *^Rorippa microphylla (Nasturtium microphyllum)

Two-row water-cress *^ Rorippa nasturtiumaquatica (Nasturtium officinale)

Caprifoliaceae White elderberry Sambucus gaudichaudiana

Erect chickweed *Moenchia erecta

Spreading chickweed Moenchia procumbens

Coast sandspurry Spergularia media

Red sandspurry Spergularia rubra

Chenopodeacea Hastate orache *Âtriplex hastata (Atriplex prostrata)

Glaucous goosefoot Chenopodium glaucum

Trailing hemichroa Hemichroa pentandra

Seaberry saltbush Rhagodia candolleana subsp. candolleana

Thick-headed glasswort Sarcocornia blackiana

Beaded glasswort Sarcocornia quinqueflora subsp. quinqeflora

Austral seablite Suada australis

Glistening saltbush ^Theleophyton billardieri (Atriplex billardierei)

Coast bonefruit Threlkeldia diffusa

Convulvulaceae Pink bindweed Convolvulus erubescens (amongst Phragmites, Glenelg

River)

Narrow-leaf wilsonia Wilsonia backhousei

Silky wilsonia Wilsonia humilis

Round-leaf wilsonia Wilsonia rotundifolia

Crassulaceae Swamp crassula Crassula helmsii

Dillenaceae Scrambling guinea-flower Hibbertia Hibbertia empetrifolia subsp. empetrifolia

Droceraceae Forked sundew Drosera binata (LWH, allot. 4 Sect. A LS)

Tiny sundew Drosera pygmaea

Leafless globe-pea Sphaerolobium vimineum

Gentianacea White sebaea Sebaea albidiflora

Yellow sebaea Sebaea ovata

Goodeniaeae Swamp goodenia Goodenia humilis

Selliera Selliera radicans

Haloragaceae Swamp raspwort Haloragus brownii

Eichler’s raspwort Haloragus eichleri

Prickly raspwort Haloragus myriocarpa

Broad water-milfoil Myriophyllum amphibium

Myriophyllum caputmedusae




Myriophyllum crispatum

Hooded milfoil Myriophyllum muelleri

Red milfoil Myriophyllum verrucosum

Lamiaceae Slender mint Mentha diamenica

Self-heal *Prunella vulgaris

Lauraeae Slender dodder-laurel Cassytha glabella: forma dispar orglabella?

Downy dodder-laurel Cassytha pubesens

Lentibulariaceae Yellow bladderwort Urtricularia australis

Fairies aprons Urtricularia uniflora

Lobeliaceae Angled lobelia ^Lobelia alata (Lobelia anceps)

Tall lobelia ^Lobelia gibbosa

Matted pratia ^Pratia pedunculata (Lobelia pedunculata)

Tiny mitrewort ^Mitrosacme distylis (Phyllangium distylis)

Lythracaea Mediterranean loosestrife *^Lythrum flexuosum (Lythrum junceum)

Small loosestrife Lythrum hyssopifolia

Malvaceae Salt lawrencia Lawrencia spicata (Livingston Island)

Menyanthaceae Running marsh-flower Villarsia reniformis

Lax marsh flower Villarsia umbricola var. umbricola

Myrtaceae Swamp eucalyptus Eucalyptus ovata var. ovata?

Woolly tea tree Leptospermum lanigerum

Swamp paper-bark Melaleuca ericifolia (sterile, Nelson caldera, Portland west)

Slender honey-myrtle Melaleuca gibbosa

Scented paper-bark Melaleuca squarrosa

Onagraceae Robust willow-herb Epilobium billardierianum subsp. billardierianum?

Variable willow-herb Êpilobium cinereum (Epilobium billardierianum subsp.

cinereum)

Showy willow-herb Epilobium pallidiflorum

Variable willow-herb Epilobium varia

Polygalaceae Creeping willow-herb ^Polygonum prostratum (Persicaria prostrata)

Portulacaceae White purslane Neopaxia australasica

Primulaceae Creeping brookweed Samolus repens var. repens

Ranunculaceae Australian buttercup Ranunculus lappaceus

Annual buttercup Ranunculus sessiliflorus var. sessiliflorus(?)

Rosaceae Hairy sheep’s burr Acaena agnipila

Sheep’s burr Acaena echinata

Bidgee-widgee Acaena novaezelandiae



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Silverweed *Potentilla anserina

Rubiaceae Elongate woodruff * Asperula charophyton

Small woodruff *Galium murale

Rutaceaea Swamp boronia Boromia parviflora

Scrophulariaceae Purple eyebright Euphrasia collina

Austral brooklime ^Gratiola latifolia (Gratiola peruviana)

- Gratiola pubescens

Austral mudwort Limosella australis

Swamp mazus Mazus pumilio

Slender monkey-flower Mimulus gracilis

Derwent speedwell ^Parahebe derwentiana (Derwentia derwentiana)

Common parentucellia *Parentucellia latifolia

*Parentucellia viscosa

*Veronica catenata

Stackhousiaceae Stackhousia Stackhousia aspericocca (subsp.?)

Creamy stackhousia Stackhousia monogyna

Stylidiaceae Beauglehole’s trigger-

plant

Stylidium beaugleholei

Grass trigger plant Stylidium graminifolium

Hundreds and thousands Stylidium inundatum

Urticaceae Shade pellitory Paratieria debilis

Scrub nettle Urtica incisa

Violaceae Blue violet ^Viola sp. aff. hederaceae (Viola eminens)



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Documents

Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site · 4 Glenelg Estuary and Discovery Bay Ramsar Site Ecological Character Description Definitions of words associated with ecological character