Gisell Jeter

Curriculum Development Project

Dr. Beverly Gordon

June 1, 2010

Seeds of the Struggle: A Historical Recognition of Black Children in the Civil Rights Movement

I. Curriculum Overview

Not long after dawn on May 3, 1963, seven-year-old Jennifer Denise Fancher

walked down the exterior steps of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham,

Alabama. She wore a white dress and shiny black shoes and held a sign about as big as

her that read, “I’ll Die to make this Land My Home.” While most children her age were

at school, Jennifer participated in a protest against racial discrimination. In Birmingham,

Jennifer was not just a child, she was a Negro girl, and while she was too young to

articulate the definition of segregation, her decision to march proves she opposed that

which denied her the right to the same life as her white counterparts.1 Propelled by a

future limited by racist laws and practices, young Jennifer took to the streets. But why

was a child so young taking a stand against segregation?

From May 2, 1963, through May 7, 1963, over 2,000 black school children

between the ages of six and eighteen marched in the streets of Birmingham in non-violent

protest against racial inequality, a weeklong protest known as the Children’s Crusade.

During the protest more than 1,000 were arrested and jailed. The march led civil rights

1 John H. Britton, “Cute Youngster Determined ‘To Make This Land My Home’” Jet Magazine. May 17, 1963, 14.

organizations, namely the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR)

and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), along with Birmingham city

officials and members of the John F. Kennedy Administration to engage in dialogue that

eventually led to the desegregation of one of the most racially segregated cities in

America.

In the days following the initial march, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., president of

the SCLC, shared his sentiments about the protest with an audience of young

demonstrators and supporters. He stated, “There are those who write history, and there

are those who make history… I don’t know how many historians we have in Birmingham

tonight …. But you are certainly making history… and you will make it possible for the

historians of the future to write a marvelous chapter.”2 Despite the children’s invaluable

contributions to the Birmingham movement, their personal stories and historical

significance remains in the shadows.

The United States is a nation that prides itself on positive child development, yet

fails to educate its young citizens on the power and effectiveness of youth participation in

social movements. In 1957, nine students desegregated Central High School in Little

Rock, Arkansas. Six years later in 1963, over two thousand children protested and were

arrested in Birmingham, Alabama. The children took initiative to dedicate themselves to

a cause that was highly confrontational and in some cases fatal. Nevertheless their

courage to bear the struggles and dreams of other African Americans, both young and old

should be acknowledged and admired by all. The deaths of Emmett Louis Till, Denise

McNair, Addie Mae Collins, Carole Robertson, and Cynthia Wesley all served to expose

2 Ellen Levine. Freedom’s Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell Their Own Stories (New York: Puffin Books, 1993), 78.

the evil of segregation and racism in America. Whether it was self-initiative or accidental

martyrdom, the role of children cultivated an energy and passion towards the fight for

racial equality for African Americans; moreover it necessitated the state and federal

governments to respond and reform race relations in America.

This curriculum project is a tribute to the children and their involvement in the

Civil Rights Movement. The purpose is to show students the significance and the impact

they had on the social and political success of the movement. It is a chronological study

of six events which took pace between the years of 1955 through 1963. Each event was

chosen on the basis that it represented a crucial turning point in the movement. The

murder of fourteen-year-old Emmett Till “took racism out of the textbooks and editorials

and showed it to the world in its true dimension.”3 The Little Rock Nine demonstrated

the self intiative and determination of nine teenagers to enforce the momentous 1954

Brown v. Board of Education decision by desegregating a white high school. The

Children’s Crusade also exemplified the courage of children as they squared off against

the wrath of Bull Connor and brought desegregation to the nation’s most segregated city

in America. Lastly, the murder of four little girls in the Sixteenth Street Church bombing

served as a catalyst for African Americans to continue to fight for equality and for

government to reform.

Segregation was part of everyday life for African Americans, and children were

no exception. Particularly in the southern region of the United States, black children were

“not merely children but (as Negroes) the children of children.”4 In the same way

3 Steven J. Whitfield, A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 45. 4 Ibid., 319.

children were disenfranchised and lacked social and economic autonomy, so were

African American adults. Jim Crow Laws—black attended segregated schools,

restaurants, theaters, stores, and were forced to sit at the backs of buses—confined black

adults to a rudimentary role in southern society. Despite such equalities, black could not

contest without consequence; thus explaining their child-like position in society. Sadly,

southern blacks, regardless of their age, were denied their civil rights.

In addition to their less than human status, black adults had the responsibility of

raising their children in a racist society. This was a daunting task because they could not

protect their children from racial inequalities. The fear of an “ominous cloud of

inferiority” forming in the minds of children was true of many African American

parents.5 Knowing there was nothing theses mothers and fathers could do to prevent the

distortion of their children’s personalities was difficult for them to bear. Parents taught

their children how to survive in a racially conscious society. By teaching their children

how to behave and interact with white people they hoped to prevent negative interactions.

Although these mothers and fathers had good intentions it was impossible for them to

protect their children from being mistreated by whites.

Despite the numerous teachings and words of solace. Parents could neither shield

nor prepare their children for the harsh realities of Jim Crow. It was no surprise that

children decided to join the fight against racism and segregation. Children of the civil

rights era were unlike any other generation in American history. Author of The

Unfinished Journey, William Chafe commented:

5 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Why We Can’t Wait, (New York: A Signet Book, 1964), 81-82.

These young people had come of age, intellectually and politically, in the years since the Brown decision. Their parents were activists; some of them belonged to the NAACP, others to churches in the forefront of efforts to build a better political and educational life for blacks.6

Yet according psychologist Dr. Robert Coles, “modern history has no precedent for

children directly involving themselves in an attempt to change the social and political

structure of the adult.”7 It was burdensome for these children to know their parents feared

losing their jobs, and putting themselves of their family in physical danger. As a result,

many children, with encouragement of their parents, church leaders, teachers, adults and

their peers, volunteered their time and efforts to the movement.

From the early 1950s to mid 1960s black youths between the ages of six and

eighteen became the seeds of the struggle. Like a seed that is planted in the ground from

which a new plant can grow, black children were planted into the civil rights movement.

As seeds of the struggle there children produced a revitalized outlook, dedication, and

responsiveness to the movement from the back community in addition to the rest of the

United States and the world. They served as catalysts to recruit more volunteers, they

attracted different forms of media—television, radio, newsprint and magazines—and they

also influenced the federal government to take a position in the fight against segregation.

Contrary to the belief of “a childhood for every child” black children were

excluded. The mistreatment of black children corresponded to the overall degradation of

African Americans. Whether it was the murder cases of Emmett Till and the four little

girls, or the astonishing courage of the Little Rock Nine, the children in Birmingham,

6 William H. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 159. 7 Robert Coles, Children of Crisis: A Study of Courage and Fear, (Boston: An Atlantic Monthly Press Book, 1967), 319.

black youth helped steer the civil rights movement to the forefront of political and social

consciousness. Hence it is imperative that the seeds of the struggle are shared with

students today.

II. Activities

Lesson 1: Separate but Equal

Introduction

Segregation was part of everyday life for African Americans, and children were no exception. Particularly in the American South, black children were “not merely children but (as Negroes) the children of children.” Jim Crow laws confined black adults and children to a rudimentary role in society. The purpose of this exercise is to give children a glimpse into life during Jim Crow. Objectives

Aimed primarily at elementary students, this lesson seeks to provide students with critical skills needed to understand “separate but equal” as it relates to integration in public spaces.

• Students understand “separate of equal” • Students identify inequalities of Jim Crow

Materials

Photos of segregation in public spaces

Video: Eyes on the Prize Documentary

Procedure

1. Have the students watch clips from Eyes on the Prize that represent segregation. 2. Show the students photos that capture racial segregation.

3. Break the classroom into four groups. Each group is responsible for “acting out” a

scene that demonstrates laws under Jim Crow.

a. Segregated seats on the bus b. Segregated lunch counters c. Segregated playgrounds d. Segregated water fountains

4. Have the students to write down their feelings in response to the performances.

Next ask the students to share their thoughts. Ask them what think about

segregation. What did they learn from the activity.

Lesson Two: The Nine Who Dared

In 1954, the NAACP’s legal strategy succeeded in the landmark Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education Topeka. Attorney Thurgood Marshall argued that segregated schools were not equal because they inhibited the “educational and mental development of Negro children and deprived them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school.”8 Marshall emphasized the importance of all children receiving an education on equal terms. In his argument he stated: “In these days it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it is a right which must be made equal on all terms.”9

Objective:

Aimed primarily at secondary students, this lesson is going to teach children about the struggle of desegregating schools in the American South from the perspective of the students that desegregated Little Rock’s Central High School. Materials:

Video: Eyes on the Prize: Fighting Back: 1957-62

Book: Daisy Bates. The Long Shadow of Little Rock

Book: Melba Patillo Beales. Warriors Don’t Cry.

Procedure:

1. Explain the students that they will be watching a movie that documents nine black

students who were chosen to desegregate a white high school. Let the students

know they are responsible for writing a response to the movie.

2. Have the students watch Eyes on the Prize and remind them that they are going to

write a reactionary piece to the video.

3. It is encouraged that that teacher pause the documentary at the point when

Elizabeth Eckford is attempting to enter the school. Ask the students to write their

initial thoughts and reactions to the incident. Ask the students to watch the

reactions from the white mobs and write a response.

8 Clayborne Carson, The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader (New York: Penguin, 1991), 72. 9 Ibid., 71.

4. After watching the movie have the students spend twenty minutes preparing their

reactionary responses.

5. Have the each student share their written work and afterwards read them excerpts

from Warriors Don’t Cry and discuss Beales’ experiences at Central High.

6. Ask them to reflect on the writing assignment and Beales’ testimony and ask them

how they would feel if they were one of the Little Rock Nine? How would they

respond if they saw someone being discriminated against? What did they take

away from the activities?

Lesson Three: “How is it possible to explain the death of a single child?”

In August 1955, Moses “Preacher” Wright visited Chicago to see his niece Mamie Till Bradley and great nephew Emmett. While there, Wright invited Emmett and his cousin Wheeler to spend a week at his home in Mississippi. Initially, Mamie was uncomfortable with the idea of her city-sophisticated son traveling to Mississippi. According to Wheeler Parker, “the concern for Emmett was that he could be, with his fun-loving, free-spirited way of living, he could get in trouble, could have a lot of problems.”10 Chicago was not Mississippi, Mamie schooled the boys on how to conduct themselves while in the delta, know as the most southern place on earth. Mamie instructed the Emmett and Wheeler in interacting and engaging in conversation with whites. “It is yes ma’am and no ma’am, yes sir and no sir.”11 And if the boys were to encounter a white woman while walking down the street, they were to step off the sidewalk and drop their heads. It was imperative that the boys understood the social mores of the South. Failure to abide by the rules could result in violence. After mulling over Wright’s invitation, Mamie agreed and Emmett and Wheeler were on their way to Mississippi.

Objective:

Aimed primarily at secondary students, this lesson is going to teach students about racial violence, the courage of Till’s great uncle who testified against two white men accused of his nephew’s murder, and the response to Till’s death by black Americans of all ages.

Materials:

Video: The Murder of Emmett Till

Website: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/till/

Book: Steven Whitfield. A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till

Procedure:

1. Show the movie, “The Murder of Emmett Till.” Stop periodically to give students

time to process the events taking place. Be sure to pause during the court case to

discuss the racial make up of the jury and Uncle Moses’ testimony. Feel free to

ask some of the following questions:

a. What made you angry?

b. What surprised you?

10 Transcript of PBS documentary The Murder of Emmett Till www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/till/filmore/index.htm, 11 Ibid.

c. What delighted you?

d. What confused you?

2. After the movie have the students log on to http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/till/

and read William Bradford Huie’s article, “The Shocking Story of Approved

Killing in Mississippi” from Look magazine. In addition find other newspaper

articles that offer a first-hand account of Till’s murder and trial.

3. Give students the opportunity to draft a letter to anyone who was involved or

connected to Till’s murder: Mamie Till, Moses Till, Roy and Carolyn Bryant and

J.W. Milan, Emmett Till, and Wheeler Parker.

4. Ask the students to share their letters with the rest of the class.

5. Ask students the following questions:

a. What do you think about life in Mississippi in the 1950s?

b. What did you think about Moses Till’s testimony?

c. How do you think Till’s murder affected black American children?

6. Ask them to reflect on the activities.

Lesson Four: Birmingham’s Children

Ruth, Anita and Yvonne Woods, ages nine to twelve, are but one example of children whose fight for civil rights surpassed personal ambitions, They participate in the Birmingham demonstrations, were arrested, and spent time in jail. When their father, Rev. Calvin Woods, was asked by Jet magazine about his children’s involvement in the movement he remarked, “ I’ve become convinced they are serious and want to bear witness to their demand for freedom, and I am going to have to let them go on.”12

Objective:

This lesson is aimed for elementary students.

1. To capture the history of the civil rights movement from the perspective of black youth.

2. Recognize that young people can bring about social change. 3. Explain reasons and personal qualities that led children to become involved in

efforts for social change.

Materials:

Ellen Levine. Freedom’s Children

Robert H. Mayer. When the Children Marched

Video. Mighty Times: The Children’s March

Procedure:

1. Before showing the movie, Mighty Times: The Children’s March, ask the students

the following question: Do children have the power to make a difference in their

community?

2. Show Mighty Times: The Children’s Marched

3. After watching the movie, break the students into four groups. Each group will

receive excerpts from Freedom’s Children about young activists in Birmingham.

Have each group read the excerpts aloud to the rest of the class. Ask the children

if they had been a young person living in Birmingham in 1963, would they have

been involved in the civil rights movement? Why or Why not?

12 John H. Britton, “Cute Youngster Determined ‘To Make This Land My Home’” Jet Magazine. May 17, 1963, 18.

4. Ask the students what they think about the young activists? What did they learn

from them? Having watched the Children’s March and reading testimonies from

the schoolchildren, do children have the power to make changes in their

communities? Does that hold true for children today?

5. Next ask the students what problems they see in their school or surrounding

community? After listing their concerns, ask them how they can help their

community as young people. Then as a class, begin a campaign or a movement,

within the school.

Lesson Five: Who Should March?

In the wake of Emmett Till’s murder and school integration in Little Rock, Arkansas, more and more black youths committed themselves to the fight for racial equality. By 1963, civil rights organizations encountered a steady increase in youth membership; black youths were eager to fight. Objective

This lesson is aimed for secondary students. 1. Challenge the students to question the appropriate age for people to be activists. 2. Introduce students to archival research 3. Teach children how to create strong arguments 4. Demonstrate diversity within the black community during the civil rights

movement.

Materials

Articles from the Birmingham News during the week of May 2, 1963

Glenn Eskew. But for Birmingham

Robert H. Mayer. When the Children Marched

Most Segregated City in America

Taylor Branch. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-1963

Video. Mighty Times: The Children’s March

Procedure

1. Ask students the following question: If you were a black parent living in

Birmingham, Alabama in 1963, would you allow your child to march with Dr.

Martin Luther King, Jr.? Should schoolchildren be allowed to participate in mass

protest and demonstrations?

2. Divide the class into three groups: one in support of children participating, one in

opposition to youth participation, and the last group will serve as the jury. Each

group will receive the same materials and with them they are responsible for

creating an argument that will support their claim.

3. Each team will receive ten (10) minutes to state their argument. After each group

presents they will then have five (5) minutes to pose questions to the opposing

team. Once cross-examinations are complete, the third group will decide which

team had the most convincing argument.

4. Once the debate is complete, show the movie Mighty Times: Children’s March.

At the end of the movie, ask the students the question, “If schoolchildren were not

involved in the demonstrations, would the Birmingham Movement been

successful?”

5. Leave some time for reflection.

Lesson Six: Four Little Girls

The sun was shining and temperatures were in the low sixties, perfect for a Sunday morning. The date was September 15, 1963, and it was the annual Youth Day at the famous Sixteenth Street Baptist Church. Fourteen-year-old Addie Mae Collins along with her two sisters Janine and Sarah played football with using Addie’s purse as they walked sixteen blocks to church.13 Still at home, fourteen-year-old Cynthia Wesley was getting ready to leave for church wither her father Claude. Before leaving Cynthia’s mother Gertrude said to her, “young lady, your slip is hanging below your dress. You just don’t put your clothes on any way when you’re going to church, because you never know how you’re coming back.” 14 Cythia made the appropriate adjustments and before she left kissed her mother goodbye. It would be the last time Gertrude would see her daughter alive.

Objectives

This lesson is aimed to teach secondary students about racial violence in Birmingham, Alabama while also exploring how people- blacks, whites, local, outsiders, and politicians- responded to the untimely deaths of four young girls. Also teach the students how to read and analyze primary sources. Materials Video. Spike Lee’s movie, Four Little Girls Frank Sikora, Until Justice Rolls Down: The Birmingham Church Case News articles from The New York Times, The Chicago Defender, and The Birmingham News that discuss the church bombing beginning September 16, 1963 Ellen Levine, Freedom’s Children Procedure

1. You are going to show the movie, Four Little Girls, but before you do are going

to write the following question on the board: How does a community respond to

racial violence?

2. Show Four Little Girls

13 Frank Sikora, Until Justice Rolls Down: The Birmingham Church Case, (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 1991),8. 14 Ibid., 4

3. After watching the movie, ask the students to answer the following questions:

What made you angry? What surprised you? What delighted you? What confused

you?

4. Divide the class into groups and each group will have a set of newspaper articles

and testimonies from the time of the church bombing. Their job is to examine the

materials and discuss how people are responding to the deaths of these four girls.

While examining the information have the students analyze the following

questions: Whose response was rational? Irrational? What would you suggest as

the best way to respond to the racial violence?

5. Using the primary sources, ask the students to draft a letter to President Kennedy

and his administration explaining to him what happened in Birmingham and

suggestions on how his administration should handle the situation.

6. Ask the students to present their initial reactions to the movie, the documents as

well as their letters to the Kennedy Administration.

7. End the lesson by asking the students what they learned from the activity.

III. Bibliography

Books and Essays: Bates, Daisy. Long Shadow of Little Rock, A Memoir. New York: David McKay Company Inc., 1963. Beals, Melba Pattillo. Warriors Don’t Cry. New York: Simon Pulse, 1995. Brown, Robert R., Bigger Than Little Rock. Greenwich: The Seabury Press, 1958. Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-1963. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988. Branch, Taylor. Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963-1965. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998. Carson, Clayborne, Ed., In the Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981. Carson, Clayborne, Ed. David J. Garrow, Gerald Gill, Vincent Harding, and Darlene Clark Hine, The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader. New York: Penguin, 1991. Chafe, William H., The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Coles, Robert, M.D., Children of Crisis: A Study of Courage and Fear. Boston: An Atlantic Monthly Press Book, 1967. Eskew, Glenn T., But for Birmingham. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997.

Garrow, David J., Bearing the Cross. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1986. Halberstam, David. The Children. New York: Random House. 1998. Hampton, Henry, Steve Fayer and Sarah Flynn. Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s. New York: Bantam Books, 1990. Hughes, Langston. Fight for Freedom. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. 1962. King Jr., Martin Luther. Why We Can’t Wait. New York: A Signet Book, 1964. King. Mary. Freedom Songs: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. New York: William Morrow & Company, Inc. 1987. Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998. Levine, Ellen. Freedom’s Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell their Own Stories. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. 1993. Levy, Peter B. America in the Sixties- Right, Left, and Center: A Documentary History. Westport: Greenwood Press. 1998. McGevena, Allison A. “The Unsung Heroism of Ruby Hurley” (Undergraduate Departmental Honors., Rutgers University, 2005) McWhorter, Diane. Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama The Climatic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Shuster. 2001. Moody, Anne. Coming of Age in Mississippi. New York: Bantam Doubleday, 1968. Nunnelly, William A., Bull Connor. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 1991.

Pauley, Garth E. The Modern Presidency & Civil Rights: Rhetoric on Race from Roosevelt to Nixon. Texas A&M University Press. 2001. Raines, Howell. My Soul is Rested: Movement Days in the Deep South Remembered. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1997. Riley, Russell L. The Presidency and the Politics of Racial Inequality: Nation-Keeping from 1831 to 1965. New York: Columbia University Press. 1999. Sellers, Cleveland. The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC. New York: William Morrow & Company, Inc. 1973. Sikora, Frank. Until Justice Rolls Down: The Birmingham Church Case. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 1991. Thornton, J.Mills. Dividing Lines: Municiple Politics and the Struggls for Civil Rights in Montgomery, Birmingham and Selma. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 2002. Wexler, Sanford. The Civil Rights: An Eyewitness History. New York: Facts on File, Inc. 1993. Whitfield, Steven J. A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Wilson, Bobby M., Race and Place in Birmingham: The Civil Rights and Neighborhood Movements. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishes, Inc. 2000.

Journals and News Articles: Aldon D. Morris, “Birmingham Confrontation Reconsidered: As Analysis of the Dynamics and Tactics of Mobilization,” American Sociological Review, Vol.58 (October 1993). p. 621-636. Alfred Duckett, “Teenagers Give Meaning to Money: It’s Worst,” The Chicago Defender, 1 October 1955. p. 5. The Arkansas Gazette, editorial. 14 September 1958. Benjamin Fine, “Little Rock Test Aids Integration,” The New York Times, 31 August 1957. p. 7. Benjamin Fine, “Little Rock Board Seeks Stay in School Integration,” The New York Times, 6 September 1957. p. 1. The Chicago Defender, editorial. 28 May 1958. Cochran, “Till Lynching Displaces Cotton, Jim Crow As Top Topic in Delta,” The Chicago Defender, 17 September 1955. p. 5. “Emmett Till Funeral Saddens City, Nation,” The Chicago Defender. 17 September 1955. p. 4. Freeman A. Hrabowski III, “The Role of Youth in the Civil rights Movement: Reflection on Birmingham,” September 1996, personal copy. Gertrude Samuel. “Little Rock: More Tension then Ever,” The New York Times. 23 March 1958. p. SM23. “Global News Restraint Show on Birmingham,” The Washington Post, Times Herald, 27 May 1963. p. A7.

Hailey Foster, “500 Are Arrested in Negro Protest at Birmingham.” The New York Times, 3 May 1963 John Barrow, “Here’s a Picture of Emmett Till Painted by Those Who Knew Him,” The Chicago Defender, 1 October 1955. p. 4. John Herbers, “White Birmingham 4th Graders Back Negroes in Class Themes,” The New York Times. 18 September 1963. p. 25. John D. Pomfret, “Kennedy Reacts. Early Report Leads Him to Hail Racial Conferees,” The New York Times, 9 May 1963. p. 1. Joyce Ladner, “The South: Old-New Land,” The New York Times, 17 May 1979. p. 23 “Lawyer in Birmingham Blames Whites, Saying ‘We All Did It.’” The New York Times, 17 September 1963. p. 24. Marty Richardson, “Charged Two with Lynch Death of 14-Year-Old” Cleveland Call and Post, 10 September 1955 Paul Greenburg, “Eisenhower Draws the Racial Battle Lines with Orval Faubus,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 18. (Winter 1997-1998). p. 120-121. “Readers Flood Defender With Letters About Till,” The Chicago Defender. 24 September 1955. p. 3. Robert E. Baker, “Accord in Birmingham is Viewed as Milestone,” The Washington Post, Times Herald. 12 May 1963. p. A1. Robert Gordon, “Waves of Young Negroes March in Birmingham Segregation Protest,” The Washington Post, Times Herald, 3 May 1963. p. A1. Special to The New York Times, “Little Rock Faces New School Fight,” The New York Times, 31 May 1958. p. 21.

Special to The New York Times, “Lawyer in Birmingham Blames Whites, Saying ‘We All Did It’,” The New York Times, 17 September 1963. p. 24. The Associated Press, “U.S. Judge Lets Little Rock Halt Its Integration,” The New York Times, 22 June 1958. p. 1. “Till Case Reprecussions,” The Chicago Defender, 5 November 1955. p. 9. Tom Wicker, “Kennedy Decries Racial Bombings’ Impugns Wallace,” The New York Times. 17 September 1963. p. 1. U.S. News & World Report, editorial. 4 October 1957 U.S. News & World Report, statement. 4 October 1957 Wallace Terry, “Birmingham Protest had Slow, Reluctant Start,” The Washington Post, Times Herald, 12 May 1963. p. E1. William Faulkner, “Faulkner Call Lynching Test of Man’s Survival,” The Chicago Defender, 24 September 1955. p. 3. Internet Sources: Albany Movement. King Encyclopedia. <http://www. stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/albany_movement.htm> Accessed 2/4/06. Albany Movement. The New Georgia Encyclopedia. <http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1057> Accessed 2/4/06. Birmingham Campaign. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project, Stanford University. <http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/birmingham_campaign.htm> Accessed 11/13/05. Birmingham Public Library. <http://www.bcri.org> Accessed 3/14/06.

Birmingham Digital Project. <http://www.bponline.org/resources/Digital_Project/SixteenthStBaptistBomb.asp> Accessed 3/14/06. Civil Rights Act of 1957. U.S. Constitution. <http://www.usconstitution.com/CivilRightsActof1957. htm> Accessed 1/30/06. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum. Electronic Archives. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/dl/LittleRock/littlerockdocuments.html> Accessed 2/24/06. Video Recordings: Hudson & Houston, Mighty Times: The Children’s March (Montgomery, AL: Teaching Tolerance and Home Box Office, 2005), film. Stanley Nelson, The Murder of Emmett Till (Boston, MA.: Firelight Media, 2003), film and full transcript.

IV. Photos

Elizabeth Eckford and Thurgood Marshall

Elizabeth Eckford harassed by a white crowd.

Mourners gather in front of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church at the mass funeral of Cynthia Wesley, Addie Mae Collins, and Carole McNair.

Dr. King at the mass funeral.

Young protesters in jail.

Young protesters marching to a school bus.

Dr. King and the Reverend Abernathy and Shuttlesworth.

Protesters getting arrested.

Protesters loading a school bus. On their way to jail.

Protesters praying in front of police officers.

Female protesters in jail.

Schoolchildren battling the fire hoses.

Female protester struck with a fire hose.

Thurgood Marshall with Daisy Bates and six of the Little Rock Nine

Melba Pattillo Beals interviewed by a reporter