University of Nebraska - LincolnDigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln

Faculty Publications, Department of Psychology Psychology, Department of

1-1-2008

Getting Ready: Promoting School Readinessthrough a Relationship-Based Partnership ModelSusan M. SheridanUNL, ssheridan2@unl.edu

Christine MarvinUNL, cmarvin1@unl.edu

Lisa KnocheUNL, lknoche2@unl.edu

Carolyn P. EdwardsUniversity of Nebraska - Lincoln, cedwards1@unl.edu

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/psychfacpubPart of the Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research Commons, Pre-Elementary, Early

Childhood, Kindergarten Teacher Education Commons, and the Psychiatry and PsychologyCommons

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Psychology, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It hasbeen accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications, Department of Psychology by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University ofNebraska - Lincoln.

Sheridan, Susan M.; Marvin, Christine; Knoche, Lisa; and Edwards, Carolyn P., "Getting Ready: Promoting School Readiness througha Relationship-Based Partnership Model" (2008). Faculty Publications, Department of Psychology. Paper 566.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/psychfacpub/566

Getting Ready: Promoting School Readiness Through

a Relationship-Based Partnership Model

Susan M. Sheridan, Ph.D.

Christine A. Marrin, Ph.D.

Usa L Knoche, Ph.D.

Carolyn Pope Edwards, £d.D.

Nebraska Center for Researcb on Cbtklren, Youth, Famtlies and Schools/University of Nebraska-Lincoln

School readines!l is determined by the Ilk aperiences of young children between birth and en.roUment in lonnal eduation Pl:I)8I'Wns. Early Inter- , vention and education programs deSigned to promotc rK:hool 'readiness oftcn focus on skills a child fails to demonstrate that are believed to be of itnponancc to soc:lal and acildemlc sw:.:ceSS. The Gettins Ready mod<:I of early childhood intervention ",cognizes the trans...::tional natur<: of yoWll! children's development and the Imponant role parentll play in preschool readiness and rK:hool.age sU<:CC:f,s. In the G,tNng Ready model, collabora­tive pattncnhips betwUn parentI and professionals ate encouraged to promote parent's competence and confidence In maximizing children's natural lcamlpg opportunities, and pr<:paring both parentll and ch.\.Id.n:n for long-tenn school success. Parent..clllld Interactions in everyday experi­ences, mutual obsel.'V3t1ons, and goaI-direded problellMlQlving, and yoWll!

/iurlyCb/ldbOOdStrtJ/CeS '\fQI'llmI:l2, NUmber 3. pp. 1049 .. 171. Copyright ~ :l(KIS Plural Publl!lhlJ18. 10(;.

1S0 IlAIILY CHlIDHQOO SERVICES, VOl .. 2, NO, 3

clilIdn:n's successful d<:vt:lopment constitute the input, processes, and outcomell of the Getffng Ready model, The emplrlcaI tationale for and

. spedne components of th~ modtel are ~scrlbed, with pra.cti~ intpllca" lions embedded throughout this paper.

K;ry Words, schooll'Clldiocos, reiJItion$Ilips, patent engagement, triadic IItlIIteglell, ooIJJabofattv.: pIIrtOershlps

AcademiC sue"" .. for rrumy chUdren is peW/cated on tbeir preparation in the early school years (Schultlng, Malone, &: Dodge, 200~; Snow, 2(06), For aampie, clilIdren who are poor readers at the end of first grade are 3150 Ukdy tn be poor readers at the end of their fourth grade year Oud, 1988), Children's abilities to name Ietlers of the a1" phabet are hlghIy correlated with their 10th grade performance On standardl~ed tests of reading compreheosion (Stevenson & New· man, 1986), The ability to execut" simple mathematical complltations are stalled if ba· Sic spatial, mOvem""t, Ilumerical, and cate" gorlcal conceptS are not established in the first years of school (Clements & SanIma, 2007), Indeed, succ"ss In the primary grades forecasts success In lalcr groldes. However,lt Is now well establi$hed thaI children's abili­ties in the first :I years of school are depen­dent on the cognitive, Ungui.~tic, and s0-

cial comP"ICnctes they bring to instruction from their experiences prior 10 school ""try (Dale, ]enklnl'l, Mills, &- Cole, 2005; Schweill" hart et aI., 2005; Wcikart, Bond, &: McNeil, 1978),

Studi(:s of chlldn:n'$ development con. si.'tently point to the importance of early op­portunities and experiences as the fuCl.(b­m<.'RW p=ut$Ot$ to optimal outcomes later in life. Developmenlal pathways across aca­demic. soclal-emotional, and behavioral do­maills in tho:: K-12 years are readily traCed to anteCedents duting back to the period from birth to age 5 (Shonkolf & PhIUlp" 2(00). P-dnlcu1ariy In the context of children grow­Ing lip in diSadvantaged environmental con·

dltlOl18 (e,g., low Inc""",). I!OclaJ and ed­ucational poUey now clearly indicate that intentional, hlgh-qllality early learning expe­riences contributing 10 the development of academic. 5OCial, and otber school-related skills are expected in early childhood pro­gramming (Committee for Economic Oevel­opm""t, 2002), Slate and federal mandates requiring heightened standards for public preschools, teacher ptq>aration, and quality progr1Imming an: Increasingly being institut­ed in efforts to promote economic and social ~ell.ts for all children. Furthermore, many professional org;utlzations and n:search ini­tiatives routinely recognIZe the ~rltical im­portance of the euliest ute experiences of yOWlg children, and the fimdamenw nature of..,cure mlationshlPllll8 the foundation up­on which optimalleamJng OCCU", (National Association for the Education of Young ChiJ. dren, 1997; Sandall, Hemmeter, Smith, &: McLan, 2005).

The Pl1l"\X'SC of this paper is to ~ribe the empidcal fOWldation for and slmClura! features of a rellltlonship-bued modtel to pro­mote school rea~ss in young child",n and their f.unllics, The Getffng Ready model was developed and is being empirically tested I\ij part of a 1atge-.scaJe longitudinal stutly, with a primary aim of uncovering effective meth· ods fur promoting school tcadiness among low-Income clilIdrell aged birth to 5. In this paper, we deiICrlbc: the conceptual frame­W()rk, empirical foundation, and pnK.'<:duI' al detail. of the Getting Ready approach, The Getting Ready model WIllI designed 10

provide an Integrated, ecolOgiC, S1rengthll­basc:d approach to school readiness for fam· ilies with ~hildrcn from birth to 5 years of

RELATIONSHIP MODEL AND SCHOOL RIlADINESS lSI

age who are partidpatlng in home- and cen­ter-ba",d early education and intervention programs. The model Is grounded in Cami.ly­centen:d ptindples, ev:idence-based early in­tervention stt2tegles, and coIlaOOrlitive ShU<:­tures. It Is constructed on the foundatiOnal belief that optimal school readlness for chll­dren and their I'a:tnilles occurs through the development of positive relationshJps with­In the multiple intera<:till8 eoologi<: SYStems of the home (i.e., parent-chJid relationshlps) ""d between the home ""d other 8UPPOIt­lve envirorunents (I.e., parent-professional relationships). In our Con<:eptuali1.ation of school readiness, chJidren must develop cer­tain capacities to be "ready' to participate in {onrutl schooling; however, parents and oth­er caregivers must be ready to develop pos~ tive wott lelationshlps and partoer with ell­ucalionat pro{emollllls to ensure c:ons:isIent cr()lllWlettlng supporr." "ncou .. "!!,, ongoing sdmuJation, and promote positive develop­mental nurcomCllm childrc:.{l.

Parent.cbiJd School Readiness

School readiness traditionally has been defined In temlS of a young chlld'H compe­tencies at the dme of school enlrance (I.e., at 5 or 6 years of age; A<:kennan 8< lIarnett, 2005; Snow, 20(6), with limited (OCUlI on famUy readiness for school. SchOOl readiness programs have often focused on preparing young prcsch,)(,I""!I" children with the .kill. believed to be necessary tOr successfu.J par­ticipation and learning in kindergarten and firsl grade. In Ught of the current legisla­tive landscape and federal initiatives such as Good SIlIrt Grow Smart (2002), thi..tOcllS has become increa.~lngly important and rel­evant as earty education progranlS are held accountable to demon$trJ.te ~peclJic sklll de­velopment in chJidren they sel,Vt (Harbin, KOllS, &. Mcwn, 2005; No Child Left Behind Act, 2002).

The mechanisms through which thtsc speelJic school readiness sk.iJls Can be sup­ported, however, has been the subjc~i of

debate fot Jrulny years (Vernon-Feagans & Blair, 2006). 'J'he sllJIlICStion In marty school !endlne8s programs is that the child alone Is responsible (or !tis or her school success. In thIs situation, early childhood educators provide the fOundational experiences for children, and children In tum an: expected to develop the neceMaty skill. ro demon· strate success upon school entry. From Ihls perspective, when a child is det:mcd lacking necessary competendes pdor to school en­trance, it may fOllow that he or she $hould be the focus of systematic curricular attention or even "intel'Vt:ntion.' Approaches to ear­ly chJidhood intervention histortcally have been child centered, wherein teachers and other service providers worked directly and somedmes excl\lslvely with chJidren (Ma­honey & Q'Sulliv-m, 1990) and only indirect· Iy or tangentJally with parenL~. SchOOl re"J.di­ness skiDs emerged pdmarily as a n,nction of instructional experiences delivered outside the home. The critical role of instruction to promote a chJid's competence and $U<'

cessful school entry rested on school-based experiences with m.Inlmal emphasis on the role of family in chJid leaming.

In recent decades, however, theoretical and empirical advan~c:s, as well 3S pn)fc:~

slonal <Urcctivcs, have called the unidimen­$ionaJ (chJidoQnly) approaches into question, SpecllicaUy, ecologic theory (Bronfcnhren­n~r, 1979) po~its that the proximal and dis­tal context (i.e., ecology) within which chJi· dren live and develop, lneludlng events and r..<:tOIS IlI'l'C(;ti.ns their carc:s1vc:J'5 .n<.l cnvl­ronmentalsuppons, have a signlfil.:ant Influ­~nce on their overall functioning. This com­pl~x ecology includes children's day.to4ay expedences, interactions, and lelationships with family, friends, pa!eOts, .nd other care· givers. I!cologlc theory considers child de· velopment within the cont<:Xt of intcraetin8 systems including the child, peers, adults, leamintl environments, community agen· ciCII, poliCies, and a 11m! of m\~tUevel agents that influenc<: and are influenced by one an­other(Bronfenbrenner, i977).

A growing empiriC'dl tr...., .uppom a multldlmensional, family.inclusive approach

lSl EARLY CtlILDtlOOO $ElIVICES, VOL 2, NO, 3

.!Or promot.\ng child and family re-.u:line88 (or I!(hool. Fim, greater Intervention effect~ on chlklrcn and JiunIlIes have b<:c:n (ound wben public early intervention progr-~ms (e.g., Eat· ly Head Slart) make intentional efforts to work directly with parents than when pro. grammatlc supports are delivered 10 clill· dren only (BTontl:nbrenncr. 1975; Love et aI., 2(05). Second, developmental outcomes attained by cll.iIdren with biologJcal con· Cerns have been shown to b<: more related l'(l pan:nt and family mms (e.g., education, so­dal supports) than their own medical statm (Samcroff & Chandler, 1975). lbird, Dunst and colleagues (Dun~t, 1985; Dunst, Triv· ette, &CroSIJ, 1986) have reported on a nulJ). ber of studies finding that children's rates of development during intervention had Uttle relationship to the type or amount of servk· e. they received, but rather to the number and quality of parents' $OClai and family..:en· tered supports. l'lnally, prokssionaJ groups such as the National A""""iation for the Edu· cation 0( Young ChIldren (NAEVC), Council .!Ot EKceptionai Children-Division .!Or tiarly ChUdhood (DEC), and the National Gover· nor'. AssocJation (NGA) have provided a growing profe$'ilonal context for changes in the way early chUdhood servk:es are con­cepmali7.ed and delivered. For example, the NGA Task Foree on School Readiness (2005) promoted a set of principles recognizing that "the family plays the most important role in a young child's life," and that 'responsibility for I!(hool readineSIJ lies not with chUdren, but with the adults who care for them and the systems that support them" (p. I). Simi­larly, the NAEVe baM:5 its guidelines for de· velopmentally appropriate practices on val· ues that appreciate and suppOrt the close tie$ b<:tween the: child and f.llnily, and rec­ogn.iu: that children lite beIIt understood in the context of famJly, culmre, and society. Furthermore, DEC's recommended prActices

. for servlCts to children birth to age 8 with disabilities or developmental delays outline both the: importance of families and profe" siomls sharing rc$pQn"lbillty fot chlld..,n', intervention progr.lrt1s and outcomes, and the ways famUy-centered approaches can a(\. vanc:e cltlldren's development.

Oe.tinitlons of school readiness framed within an ecolOgic orienllltion have been <lffeted by DunSt (2007) and Mashburn and Pianla (2006). Specifiqlly, Dunst describes schOOl readi.rJes,_ as the "(onnal_od InfOrmal experiences and opportunities affilrded chilo dten by diffi:rcnt people and sc::ttin.IJ:S that support and strengthen their acquisition of sk.I.Ib and competendes needed to perform well in school" (p. 4). Mashburn and Planta (2006) indi<;:ate school re-.Idlness Is l "prod. uct of the ecologies within wlilch children are embedded that support their develop­ment . , . a set of interactlons and transac­tions among people (children, teaChers, parents, other caregivers), settings (borne, school, and child core) and institutions (conununities, neighborhoods and govern­ments)" (p. 152). This concepmall7.atlon indudes Strong early education program· ming, but incotpon&tc:lI a huger system of players to promote children's skill develop­ment. This broader view of school readiness emphasizes the multiple systems of Input (environmet'll$ and resources that provide enriching leart1Ing oppomutlties) and pm. cesses (interactions and mechanisms that promote children'S acquiSition of skills), and transactions among these s)'lItems, to creatt!: contexts .!Or children's developmental out­comes and skills (the produ,1S of learning opportunities and supports). The.., inputs, processes, and outcomes need to b<: consid· ered when organizing a program of cady in· tervention for a popllh'ltion of children and! or famiIJt:l; 'at risk" for poor transition to the formal education systems in their com.mun~ ties (Dunst, 2(07).

We concepmalJ.l:e getting ready for school in terms of relationships among the child, family, school, and caregiving com­munity, and their interactions with onc an· other. l"e process of getting ready happens naturally tor many tilmilles as part of routine dally activities and leaming opportunities. For some families, however, the process reo quires extra attention and guidance due to the presence 0( child and family risk factOl'$, the composite of which increases the chal­leng,'5 these families flIcc (Sameroff, 2000).

RllLATIONSHII' MODEL AND SCflOOL READINIlSS 153

The focus of I!'.ltly ~ducatlol'l ;HId interven· tion progrnms can capture a broad ~tinition of sc.hool readiness by advancing chJldren' s competenCies and readlncss slellls withill two relational contexts slmuilltlloously: the parent-<:hild relatiomhtp (md the quality of Intcmctlons between parent and ~hild), and the parentprofess;onal relatlonsbip (the parent in partnenllip with their child's ed­ucators and other professional c!lre!':ivers). Below we review the empirical evidence supporting these relational elements "' they support effectlve school readiness for chil· dren and parents, followed by the spedfic details of an Integrated intervention moo­el currently being delivered and tested in a large.,;c-.IIe raooomized trial.

Empirical Evidence for Parent-Child Engagement

and School Readiness

To effectively promote parcnt-child school readiness, parents must be aalve agents in support of their children'. devel· op1lK:nt. Parental engagement in young chl~ dren's learning is highly predictive of chilo dren's developing competence In cognitive, soclal-emotional, and bo:havioral domains. Genel"d.i qualltles of childrert's earliest rela· tiollshlps with parents set the stage for Ialer <.:omp~-tc:ncc in pl'eschool and school ou:ttings (Domstein 8< Taml&-I.cMonda, 1989; de Ruit· er & ""oUt uzcndoom, 1993; Raver & Kniucr, 2002; Shonkhoff & Phillips, 2000; Thomp­"<In, 20()2). Qualities ot'parenllll engagement have been Iillked to a number of adaptive ehard<."telistics of children in preschool and at kinderganen entry, such "" good work habits, l'rustmtiOll tolel""Jnce, fewer behavior problc:ms, and hetter social skil.l.'l. Collective­ly, studies strongly support the conclusion that chlldren'~ f;'drly l'elatlonships and ev­eryday interaCtions Impact their adjustmelll across peoons (mother, teachers and other professionals, peers), contexts (home and sc.hool), and time (prer>ehool and kindergar­ten) (PIanla, NlmelZ, 8, 8<:Met, 1997).

A semInal .rudy of early child care: con­ducted by Ule NICHO (NICflO early 01ild Care Research Network, 2002) investlgated the experiences of 1,216 iamili"'$ OVel" the child's first 3 yt:"~rs of III\: ;HId found certain parent ellsag¢1llelll bo:haviors related to s0-

cial and cognitive outcomes fot children, This study, along with others, found that parelllal warmth, sensltlllity and nspon. sitlene. •• , and aupport for u chlkl'$ -"'1'1'" ;ng autOlJOmy were parent behaviors high. 11' predictive <If childrell's sOciO¢JJlotlonal and cognitive development. Furthermore, active and meaningful parental particlpac lion in language- and literu<y-related CIe·

livities with young cblldnn have been re­ported as Importallt in /l!cllltotillg optimal school readiness and success (Arnold, Lon!· gan, Whitehurst, & Epstein, 1994; Espinosa, 2002; Pan, Rowe. 8, Sinl!er, 2005; Weigel, Martin, & Bennett, :l006; Wood, 200~. Col­lectively, a th",e-dimcnsional model of par­"ntlng, composed of responsivily (Including autonomy support), home and parent sup" port for learning, and controVdlsclpllne, has bo:en validated by Hindman olid Morrisoll (2007), with significant relationships to chilo dttn'S:l()Cial and academic learning.

1, Panmlal warmih, stJmitivity and re­s/JQfI$iveness, Parent'Scontlngem responsive· Il<:S$ to Children's cues and their emotional Wal1nth md availability have been positive­ly related to the development of secure reo laUo .... ~hip" in young childten in numcr<lw; studies over the P' ... ,t 30 y(:ats (Ainsworth, 8<:11, & Stayton, 1972; Elllde &. Robinson, 2000; Gur.dnick, 2006; wtdry et aI., 2001, 2006; Mitdtcll, 1987). Watm intcl"JCtions of the motber provide the foundation for com· pllance and illtemllll7.ed controls 111 YOllng childten (Dllvidov &. Grusec, 2006; Lecuyer & HOIl~k, 2()06; M3ccoby 8< Martin, 1983). Conversely, limit-settlng and discipline may be less effective ill the ~h.'iC",;<: of pOSitive, warm relationships (DeKlyen &. Speltz, 2001; OeKlyen, Speltz, &. Greenberg, 1998; Sulton, Cowen, Crean, &. Wyman, 1999). A parent's c:mntional avaiiabUity Is associlltc:d with the dl..'gn:e 10 which very young children explore their enylronment~ (Sorec & Erode, 1981)

1,4 IltI.RLY CHILDHOOD SERVI(;Ijl;. VOL 2. NO.3

such 0$ through extended pllIy epiSOdeS and pretend play (Slade, 1987). The parent's ex· pression of positive affect and emotional aVallabilityate also associated with child"'n's Improved short·term cognitive and language sk.il.l$ (Clarke-Stewart, 1973; Tamis-LeMonda, Bomstein, & aaumwell, 2001) and long-term positive academic: perfurmance (OQwner &: Pianta. 2006; Ilstrada, ArsenJo. Hess, & Hoi· loway, 1987), as well as their abilities to re· late to other children (Schmidt. DeMulder, & Denham, 2(02) and their reading acquisi. tlon (Merlo, Bowman. & Barnett. 2Q(7).llro­mwich (1997) and Epps and Jackson (2000) emphasized the importance of parent.. (a) remaining emotionally aVllilable to their chil­dren; (b) reading lICcurately their dtildrcn's behavIOral ctles for aU"ntion and care (e.g., smlles, signs of discomfort or distress, ex· pression of feelings); (c) responding contino gently and appropriately 10 these rues; and (d) .howing dear, positive offect in most so­dal Interactions with their children. These bthaviors continue 10 Ix: """"gnl7.ed as key Influences in young children's competence In the early years of Ufe.

2. ParentallUpport /0" child's autono­my. A second aspect of parent engagement refers to parental behavior that helps ehll. dren negotiate tasks that challenge their mastery motivation, frustration tolerance, self..:ontrol, and atU!nti()n sp-m. Parents can teach and mtRlel skills that help children ~". pion:: the environment and recognize and ex­press thelt Own fce1ln!lS. Parenting mrough Joint planning, negotiation, use of appropri. ate commaods In IImil-setdng, and antlcl­

. potory guidance help children gaIn control of melt environment In a supportive ram· er than authoritarian manner. Furthermore, support for childn:n'~ autonomy is the pro­cess by which parents f.u::ilit.te childn:n'~ Indlvld .... tIon and self-eompetenee (Clark &: Ladd, 2(00). Parents' ablltllcs to provide de· velopmentally sensitive support JOt autOnO­mous problem-solving have bcen Iss()dated witll increased levels of <:ognltlve compe­tence In young children (Conner & Cross. 2003; Mulvaney, McCartney,' Bub, &: Mar­shall, 2006: Wood. 1980), communlC'~tlon

with peers (Martinez, 1987) and Kif-regula· t()ty abilities <Neitzel 8< Sirigllt, 2(03). Chil· dren whO$<: mothers provide support for au­tonomy tend to display !DOre adaptive levels of lIO<:ia1 assertiveness and self-dlrectedneS5 in social and play interactions at preschclOl (Denham. Renwick, &: Holt, 1991) and high· er levels. of sdtO()1 readiness (e.g., ql,1llntita­tive and literacy sklIls; Hill. 2001) than chil­dren whOse m()thers display authorita.tiall or passive parenting patterns.

For example, parenc-chUd intcrac!i()11S trrdt are attentive but nondln:C!ive provide children rome guidance, but they aJs() alJ()W

children the freed()m I() be expressive, lnitl· ating, and selC-directed. Social and c()mmu. niotion deve1()pment are enhanced when children are self-ditected rather than con· stantly regulated by adults (Hart & ru.lcy, 1995; MacDonald & carroll, 1994; Roberts & H;u-ne8, 1992). Interactions that are moni­tored and resP()nses Ihat are matched to chilo dren's deve1()pmentaJ abilities and Intert.>s1S mn f()~'ter coniinued interest in a current ac· tivity, comfortable explollltion of its poten· tial dimensions, 'lind mastery motivation.

3. Parental partldpatlon In cbIld karn­Ing. Parental participation in children's learn­ing, especi2lly language and literacy Jeatnit1g, represents a tliird aspect of parent c::ngagt;" n\ent. The degree to which II parent explic' itly $UP(XlltS and coordinates me namre and fn..'q\lency of language and literacy-related activities Influences or inliibits their child's preschool experic:n<:es and school readiness (Weigel, Martin, Be Bennett, 2006; Wond, 20(2). Ample evidence exist' (or the ImPOf' t:l()Ce of ]r~=ts' participation and engage­ment in their children's educational expert. ences in the elementary years. When parents are involved. <:hUdren show Improvements in many adaptive outcOmes, Incl\ldlng prosoci:ll bellavior (Comer & Haynes, 1991; McWaync.

. Hampton, Fant1.l:l;zo, ("~)hc". &: Seklno, 2004; SIdnbt:I'g, Mounts, Lamborn, 8< Dombllsch, 1991), st!lf-eslCcm (Collins, Moles, '" Cross, 1982; Saltes. 1985), petsevenu1ce and mw;. tcry motivati!ln (J3strada, Arsenio. Hc:.'I!<, Be Hollnway, 1987; Tumer & Burke. 2003), and participation In learning activities (Col, 1i11~ c:t al., 1982; McWayne et aI., 2004: Saltes,

RELATIONSHIP MODEL AND SCHOOL READINESS l~S

1985), AC(O$:I th<: ,,"'mental")' and $(:condary school years, benctil$ for Child= and youth include ~ in academic achievement (ClIU"k, 1993; Comer, 1988; Epstein, 1991; Epstein & Becker, 1982; Fan II< Chen, 2001; fchnnann, Kdth, & Reim""" 1987; Sc:n~"Chal, 2006; Stevenson /I: Baker, 1987), f(.'WeJ" place­menu; in sp4ldal education (LaW &: DarllnS­tOn, 1978; MiedcI &; Reynolds, 1999), higher IiChool attendanc:e rates (CoUlruJ et aI" 1982), lower dropout rates (RwnbetgeJ", 1995), and fewer suspensions (Comer &; Haynes, 1991), Addltlonal evidence hJI.~ demonsti".tted the importance of parent involvement during the early childhood period (f05tCr, Lambert, Abbott-Shim, McCarty, &; Franze, 2005; Hep­burn, 2004; Marcon, 1999; Miedel /I: Rt:yII­olds, 1999),

The importance of literacy·rich home cnvironment~ on children'. language and academic outcomes Is unequivocal (Ar· nold, Lonlgan, Whitehurst, /I: Epstein, 1994; Espinosa, 2002; F"lI"n II< Iglesias, 1999; Senechal II< leFevre, 2002; Weigel, Martin, II< Bennett, 20(6), Well before starting school, children leam V".tluable Informatlon ahout print and books, sounds and letters and the decontextualized language associated with stories and lel(tbooks that prepares them for later, more formal literacy instn .. :don in school (Bums, Griffin, II< Snow, 1999), As children interact with parenl$ in routine dai­ly activides (e,g" dialing the phone, readlng the mall, writing a groccty list), they learn about critical social, linguistic, cognitive, lU"ld motor skills that will serve them weD once they start school. The degree to which pan:nts c:nsase their children in these activ­ities (e,8" by providing the opportunity to watCh, imitate, practlce or ask questions) in­fluences the amount of infomtatlon children take from these interactions, Furthermore, young chiklren who experience reading and writing as plc-.tSu["dble events are generally more successful later in schOOl (I'lIrdtore, Melzi, 8< Krol-Sinclair, 1999), Mothers who USC commcnt~ and open-ended- que"ti"ns during conversations and shared reading ac· tivltle~, Nther than predominlUltly verbal dl­re~'lives and closed questions, usually have children who develop mo", advanced '10-

~abulal")' and language .ldlls (Hart 8< Risley, 1995; Pan, Rowe. Singer, II< Snow, 2005).

Additionally, natural learning enfJlron­ments provided and facilitated by parents, such as cvetyday acdvitles (i,e., mealtimes, intera~'tions with siblings, outdoor or in­door play) In the setdngJS and community 10-eations frequented by young children of • similar age, culture and geographic region (Druder 8< Dunst, 2000), have been found to be assodated with optinJal developmental changes (Dunst, Bruder, Ttlvette, Hamby, RlIab, II< Mclean, 2001), Prlmaty family re­lationships that are focal in natumllearnlng cnvironmcnt5 often include a p:II'Cnt (fAthel', mother, grandparent) and peer (siblings, cousins), as wdl as friends and playmates that typify most dassroom-based interven· tion. and rc,;can:h (Hanft 8< Pilkington, 2000), Furthermore, !be Informal support provided to some parents in routine home or community activities (as compared to for­mal parent tNlnlng programs, for exantple) <:an reponedly producc positive outcomes (sodal and otherwise) for children and fami­lies (Allen &; Petr, 1996),-

The importance of prulitive parent-child ensasernent and interactlon during the In­fant, toddler and preschool years is weII-doo, umented for Itslnlluenee on child outcomes and school re-.nline5s, However, consistent with ecologic theoty, children interact in and permeate multiple systems and con­texts as they derelop from InJiancy 10 pre­school and beyond (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Shonkoff " Phillips, 2000), As a result, rela· tionships between parents and other adults responsible for children's learning and de­velopment arc important for cstablJJshing expericncxs that an:: consi5tf:nt, coherent, and coordirulred as children move between home and community (school) settings,

Empirical Evidence for Parent-Professional Engagement

and School Readiness

Positire relationships and couabora­tt"" partneru,lps among iJar"nts and Inv-

1,6 ~LY CHILDHOOD SERVICES, VOl ... 2, NO, 3

/esslo1Ulis an: considered primary protec­tive factOI'll (Christcnoon &: Sheridan, 2001; Weissberg &: Greenberg,. 1998) or safety nct., (Christenson, 20(0) for young chil­dren, Partnership pr~cticC$ promote an In· creallt!d focus on and engagement with fam· Illes, greater pron.ion of services In natural learning setllng.~ for children, greater cultu,," aI setlSiti,,;ty, and a community.IJa.~cd 5Y"tem of care and educ;ation (Knitzer, Stelnberg, &: P1ei$(;h, 1993; Mendoza, KatZ, Robertson, & Rothenberg, 2(03), These are particularly Important during the p,",5"hool years (Raffd. ete & Knoff, 1999) when parent.. arc fomm­lating consmlCls for their role In their chil­dren's education.

Collaboration among key adults with­in a child's life is Important for the child's early I"..tmlng and smooth transitions across

systems (Early. Pian"" Taylor. & Cox. 2001; Eayrs & Jones, 1992; Ramey. 1999). Indeed, collahoratlve partnerships among parents and professionals correlate with positive sociakmotlonal and behavioral outcomes fur children and f~milies, and bolster lnter­vt1ltion efficacy and efficieney (Grolnick & Siowiaaek, 1994; Haynes, Comer. & Hamil· ton.Lee. 1989; Masten &: Coatsworth, 1998; Siu-Om & Willms. 1996), The goal of collab­orative partnerships is "not merely to get fam­Ilies involved, bUI I"dther to coml4Xt Impor­tant conUilxts for .dwngthening children's learning and development" (Christenson &: Sheridan. 2001. p, 7; emphasis added).

Famlly-eenlered lnterventions Imple· mented col1aboratlvely with llunilies to ad· VlInce children's skill develupment and s0-

cial behaviors "place major emphasiS on supportillg and strengthening rdmlly func­tioning" (1)UIlSt &: Deal, 1994, p, 73), In· tervenllons that fucus on promoting family strengths and buDding constructive partner· ships produce changes in the family environ­ment. parent-ehild relationship, parenting skills, and family involvement in children's ieaming (Caspe &: lOpez, 20(6), For ""am­ple, research In the are. of young chl1dren'~ mentlli he.lth has found th.t the more the family participates In plannln!! servicc$, the bc:ttc:r they feel their children's needs are

being met (Koren, Paulson. KInney. Y.leh­monofl', Gordon, 8< Oc(:hilio. 1997) and the mme control they feel in intluenclng those outcomes (Curtis &: Slngh, 1996; Thompson, lobb, Elling, Hennan, JurkidwCWicz, &: Hel· Iuza, 1997), FamHy-eentered programs cre­ale conditions by which the functiQning of all family membcl'IJ is enhanced by focusing on lam/{V-idcntlJied needs. using existing family strengths. and strengthenins 50cial supports for/amllies. Effccl>i arc most po"'­erful when lnterventlons establish mean­Ingful connections between family mem­bers and professional support pel'!JOnncl to address chlldren's specific needs of impor­tance I:() the fumily unit (Haynes, Comer, &

Hamilton-Lee. 1989). Contrary to expert-drlven fiunily inter­

vention models. family partn=hip pro­grantS are c<>IJaboraUv" (str\l(,rured lU'Ound ntumaUy delennlned goals), InkinUonal (fo­cused on spedfic behaviors and needs). de­IJelopmentally "',<j}(lns;tie (appropriate to chUdren's needs across the developmental spectrum). and ,fwngtbs-based (aimed .1 building on fumlly and child competencies rather than remediating professionally.iden. tilled del\cil~), Such programs are focUllt!d on creathtg and slL~tainin!l meanlngful cross­~"ystcmic (famlly-professiona~school) con· neCtionA. ami are predicated on the aclive engagement of individual professionals and family members co-identifying needs and priorities, devdoph'l! and intple,nentlng in· terventions, and· maintaining coll.bomti"" relationships in support of chlldren's dl:­velopnlCnt. TIlis type of partnership·orient. ed intervention (versus an e:xpert-driven, clinical model) provides gre-dler ,"-"CeSS to services fur children because parent avail­ability providt'S ongoing. dally opportunity for supported leill'1ling, Also, it Is believed 10 incrcallt! fumUy acceptability and utility of effective early inlerventlon programs by engaging family members hI shared ObiSCr­vatlons, discUSsion, and brainstormlng with professionals that leads to practical slr.negy select Inn and Inwr:venllon des41ns,

These parent-professional partllCl'IJhips Kre oas<.'(f on a proaCtive approach where-

RELl.T\ONSIUP MODEL AND SCHOOL READINESS 157

by prof".s;onals support family inter.ctions with their child In everyday routines, ""her than "treat" 0, "setVe" their child in an Iso­lat~d ""nlng (e.g., ""hool, dinic) or ac'ivity. The establlshmelll or collaborntlve relation­ships WIth families creates conditions WIthin w hieh family membelll can become empow­ered and share In the responsibiUty for their child's dt:velopmc::nt and 5ChOOI n:adirlC::i~,

TIltOugh such mechanisms, family-cemered .service providc::1'5 ~'trivc to prom(Uc fAmily competence and confidence in advancing children's learning and development, the..,. by enabling family members to eventually establish their own goal. and independent­ly meet their own needs and those of their children over time (McBdde, 1999; WiI50n & Dun5l, 20(4).

Getting Ready, An Integrated Relational Model to Support

School Readiness

Optimal sehool re.din"", for children and their families occurs through the devel· opmelll of positive relationships within the multiple Interacting ecological systems of the home (Le_, parent-child relationships)

and bccwt!en the home and other support­iv" environments (I.e., parent-professional relationships). Parent-child and parelll-pro­fcssional relatIonships are firmly """,bllshed empldc.Uy as irnponalll, unique COlllexts for healthy child development. However, there currently lacks an integrnted model that drnws on the theoretical and empirical "rength. of relationshlp-hased, ecologic In­terventions in support of sehool readiness. 'I"e", exists a need for an Integrnted ear­ly intervention model couched In the mul­titude or relationshIps that predict posItive child outcomes and school =<line... The Getting Ready model, currently being tc8t.

ed In a large-seale clinical trial, was designed to provide an integrnted, ecological ap­proach to sehool readin""" that is rescarch­based, famlly-centered, and collaborative in nature, II inlegtates /be triadic Interoentlon (McCollum & Yates, 1994) and coJ/abora­

tlIlfJ «Yin/Oint) consultation mod<Jls (Sheri­dan & Kr~tochwill. 1992, 2008; Sheridan et II .. 1996) In a unique, ecologically and strengths-based Intervention that promotes skills and outcomes In children and their famUIes via enhanced relationships (FIgure I). In this model, professionals provide early Intervention and education services for par­ents and chUdren age birth to 5 years that

I'ttOMOTES .

( F(lmily and Child School Readiness ) "-----~

Figure 1. The Getting Ready Model

1'8 IlARlY CHIU)HOOD SERVICES, VQI" 2, NO, 3

focuses (In cbtld sJltills and Qutcome, by (;'I) guiding parents to engage in warm and re­spol1$lVl: illteractloos, 10 support their chil­dren's autonomy, and 10 participate in chil­dren's learning; and (b) suppol'llng p3J'(:nts and teachers in collaborative intemctlons to filcilitate c:hlldren's learning and develop­ment. 1hls approach offen opportunities for protessionaL, to support and enhance the quality of parent..;hild Interactlons in dally routines and create a shared relJpon~lbility between parent and prokssionil to benefit children's developmental SuCcess. The f0-cus on parent-<;hild and parent-profesSion­al relationships is believed to enhance not only the child's developmental readln"S5 for school but the parent's readines~ to act as an advomte and support their child's learning across ecologic and temporAl contexts (I.e., in borne, pre.chool, elementary school, and beyond),

The preCUfSOl'S to the Getr1ng Ready model-triadic and collaborative (conjoint) cOlUllltation-are teocarch-based model. that individually focus on e!lSential parent­child and parent-teacbtt relationships, re­spectively. TrUuJIc IXmsultatton is an inter­vention validated with infmts and young children with developmental delays and dis­abilities (Girolametto, Verhey, &: Tannock, 1994; Mahoney &: MacDonald, 2007; McCo­llum, GOOier, Appl, &: Yales, 2001). How­ever, despite the re!l<:lIrch base emanating from these early interv~ntiol1 programs for children with spedal needs, the basic prin­ciples and sttategies of triadic itItcrventlon apply to intel"ACtiOnS with all fum1llC8, In­cluding those dlJlt occur in pl'C1lChools, child care settings, and other programs within which young children and I\un:ilIe$ interact. 11$ aim Is to strengthen parental warmth and sel1$lti1li1y, and parental competence in sup­porting autonomy and learning, all within the context of everyday parent<hild Inter­actions, The focus is on quality dyadic (pat­ent-ehild) in«:ractions thaI re/lect It parent's ability to· recognize opportunities for en· gagement with their young cltild, maintain the chUd's Interest and attention, engage In tum-taIi.ing, foUow the child's interest,

and appropriately chal.Ienge and support the child in learoing (McCollum & Yatts, 1994). l'he professional becomes an impor­tant pl2yer ill ensuring futile dy:I.dic qualities are evident, thus establl$hlng an elkctive tri­ad (parent.child-professlonal,) for meetings with the parent and child.

The professionals' efforts in this trI.~dic model (fable 1) are characterized by strate­gies that go beyond the traditional directive. of modeling and suggesting (McCoUum &:

Yates, 1994) and indirectly prompt adjust­ments itt the immediate environment to es­tablisb a dyadic context tor parent.child interaction, affirm parenting competen,,,,, fOCUS parental att""Uon on children's .c­tlons and responses, and prmJlM tielJeIop­mental Inforrnatton to e"'plain observed or absent child behaviors, These professional practices (i.e., st"'tegl""), which prioritize positive parent<hlld interactions and a par., ent's role in enhancing their child's learning

and development, allow the parent to expe­rience ~ levels of competence and confi­dence in their Jl!renting role.

CoUaborattve (lXJ'IfIoJnt) IXJnsultaNon, based on the work of Sheridan and Knltoch­will (1992, 2008), describes how adults (par­ents, professionals, and support staft) can jOin together to address the social, develop­mental, or behaVlorJl needs of a young child for whom all parties bear SOme responsibil­ity. 1hls approach provides a Cramework for Iinkil1g systems of hom" (family) and pro­tc..stonal (hOIllC>vl$lting or pre/IChoot) agen­das to promote mutua/ {lOa! setting, lIbaYitd decision-making, and joint attention to a child'S nud •.

The coUaborative nature of thl~ consul­tation model I!.Ocollrages parents and pro­I\:sslonals to shaft! obl!<:l'V'oItlons and knowl­edge of a child, and then mutually identify relevant goals that improve the chUd's abil­Ities at home and/or ~I or child care settings, and positively lntIuence the f.un­lIy and/or professional IntenK'tions with the child. With the: assistance of a consul­tant; the parent and teacher/care provider /ielect evidence-based strAtegies that can be easily implemented aCross settings. Togeth-

IW.XflONSHlP 1II001ll. ANO SCHQOLREAOINESS 159

Table 1. Triadic Strategle. to Advance Pan:nt-Chlld Interaction.

JiSlllbl/sb II dyadic conte.¢: Arrange clement8 of the environment to inel<!aIIC the probAbility of developmentAlly matcbcd. mutually enjoyAble inte ... (;ti"n~ between paren' and child, Encourage child to engage the parent; dln!ct or move child to flce the patent,

AJ!irm parenllng comJ1e"'ru:e: Wannly ..e.:ognl~e developmentally suppordve Intem:t!ons. Col11llt£tlt on the effect of parent actlcms on child'. comp<:"""c<: and in.erest.

FOQIS IItlmll",,: ColDl1lCnt, questlon, or expMd on i$peCl$ of the ~ Inlerictlon in order to draw the paKnt'. atKntlon to a pardcular competency 01 action in seJt or the chUd,

Provide d'lJ(Jlop"umltd InjOl"mDJ/on: Label. Interpret, or ."pWn th. developm<:nwsignificance of the child'. observed emotional, cognitive, lingui.tlc, 01 motor abillt1e8 within the context of play or Interaction,

MOtU/: ..... wne panner role with child momentarily to demonstrate a strategy or elicit a desired beh.vlor in the child,

Suggest; Provide short. but specific im."trU(.'1iQn/~Qn for how [he PIU'efl[ could ildlust their interaction at the moment with the child to better adticve desired results.

,,""""': _ on McCollum 8< Y"", (1994).

er they plan for intaactions with the child to achieve mutUllily determined gools. Sug· gestlons, modeling, and feedback following observed parent and/or teacher application of Str.tc:sie~ are practices UlIed by the con· sultant 10 I\lcilltale sliccessful implementa­tion or adjustmentli In the 'plan across set· tings. Ongoing data collection of the child's response to the intervention plan is atl in­tegr.a1 fcatW'C that enti-urc::S hi!'\: or ht.'!t suc­

cessful adapmtiOtl, 'lbe shared responsibil· Ity for change, supponed implementation of evidence-hWlcd intervention strategies, ,md focused, data·bll$ed decision.making are hallmarks of this model (Sheridan &: Kra­tochwUl, 20(8). These practices are ]Yd8Cd on validated behavioral consultation mod­els designed for sehool-age children that !rtnJcture the process of identifying needi<, a.'!SClllling I!:nvironmental inpulII, develop. ing and implementing research·ba.'ied st.-dIe· gies, and evaluating child outComes through a series of stn,ct<ll:ed'pl'Oblem-solving inter­views (Bergan & Krarochwill, 1990; Sheri· dan, KratoehwUl, &: l.lergan, 1996: Sheridan

&: Kratochwill, 2008; Table 2). The process has been replicated by preschool teachers and Other education profCll!lionals (e,g" Cal'

Iy childhood special edu;:alors, school psy­chologi$~'1) in their direct work with families and younl! children (Brown, 2004; Sheridan, Clatke, Knoche, &: Edwards. 20(6),

St)(.'Cific sttaU!1Jles of the Getting Ready model used by the early childhood profession. III "'" in Table 3. Thcoc: strategle$ are """'" in • fluid IlI'Id dynamic way 10 promote: positive child $kiU development lndim:dy tllI.i:>ugh the I!r!ItllbJishmenl of parent-chlld and parelll:1'fO' fessional relationships. Use of the stratq!ies Ii! intended to (a) build a parent'S competence .nd conlidenc:e in c~1ablishinl! warm II.f1d sen­sitive intcract.lolls with their child, promOtinS their child's emerging auton(lnly, and partie. ip-dting a~'tively in their child's k:arnlng; (b) promote parent.professional partnerships; and ultlmuteiy (c) promote the child's healthy soc;iaJ.ernotlonai, cosnltive, and bdlaYlnnl1 development. The strategies that ciw'acterize the Gelttng RefU<!y model are described in the foUowing sections,

Table 2. Behavioral and Relatlonal Goals of Collaborative (Conjoint) Consultation by Stase

Needs (I'robIrm) Idmlijlcalio"

BehAvioral Goals:

• ldaltlfy 1ti'CJi81lU of the clilld, family, teacher, systelDll

• BehAviotally do!:tim: the coru:c:m or problem Ill! II is reptetlented aetoss home and lIChool settings

• l!l<pIote ""vfr(lnmenW condilions thaI may be Uthlbltins de.in:d behaviors or mollvall"ll problem behaviors

• Determine a sbated Boal Cor consultation • EstabUsh a pro.::c:dure tbr the colleetlon of budlne dala across setting.

Rclatiol1libip Coal.:

• Identify st",ngths (I/' the chlld, family, and school

• IilIlablish joint responsibility In Soal...,ttloS and decl.$lon-nWdns • Estsbli.th/lmp"""" working ",latlQllshlps between p.rents and teacher, and between the

cOnsultanl and consultees

• Validate shared gam of $Upporting the chUd • Increase comnturuClltion lind knowledge ""l1""'lI011 the child, goals, concerns, and culture of

family and school

Needs (Problem) AI'/alysl.t

Bebavioral Coal$:

• Rt:vlcw balIclioe data

• Ilxaminc: and dilicuss trends across settings/condillons

• Collabonlrlvely design lotervenllon plao sensltl"" to oettins ""Dabl"" • Jiruou..., parent and teacher understanding of Intervention plan Implementallon throllgh

demonstrate, role-play, practice, and feedback

• Rcafllrm data <:olk:<:lion procedures

Rc1aIiQnshlp Coa/$:

• Ulle lodUllY. ilII'tgIiqc to stri:nsilicn parlOCl'lIbips between ho"", and sehool

• l!ncOurllll" and validate sharing of parents' and reachers' perspectives of the priority behavior • Famer an environmenllhat facilitatc:5 'giVC1lOd-t:lke" ronlinunJcation acl'O.ll5 settings • Promote collaborative: declslon"""'-'dng and sh"",d resPQnslblllty (Qr plan development

PItm Implo_mltON BehAvioral Coa/$:

• MOnitor implementation of Intervmtion plao acroos settlnp • Provide feedback, retralnl.!l& as nece_1I/UY • DI",_ need for adjustments In plao

• Continue cIa!a CQUe~'tion PlQcedures

Relationship Coa/$:

• HIIhIIgbt consi>t<:n~'Y in plan IStIlItegy implementation across IICttlnas • Note efforts of paren" and teachers with .Iob other II kirLfor.::e inVQlvemcnt ADd eoU~boratJvc t;R'ortli at ~~n,g concerns

• Facilitate communicaliOll around Implement.tion efforu

(conNnuea)

'fable 2. (t'Otltlnrmd)

Plan Evaluation

Behavioral 00015: • Review data; adjust or continue implementation

• Decide It shared goal has been .chi"""d

• Evaluate the ell\:cttvc:ne •• of !he: intervention across all IICttlngs

• DiIJcttss ilttltcgk:ii fot maintaining pins

• Schedule additional meetlngs if nece&lllJy • &tablisb means for can:givcn and teach ... to contlnw: to partner In the future

Relationship Goals: • Continue \'1,1 promote open communicotlon and collaborative decislon.making IICI'OS8 Ihe home

and school settings

• Reinforce johU etfOlt$ In addt'esIIlng needs • Discuss Catesivc:n' and teacheh' pen:eption8 of the plan lind proc ... • Reinforce CIItClIiVCl'ii' and t,,"chel'ii' strengths and compelen.:les for addl'Cll$lns future need.. fur

the child

• &tabU$h means for CJlJ'Cglw:rs and tx:achcrs \'1,1 continue 10 paIU1er In the future

Source: ~ I)n Sh«:ridan &: Kratochwill (2008).

Table 3. Getting Ready Model intervention Saategies ~

Establlsb partmt..:blld and pa".ntpro/lI:ss/(",aI ro/atlorublP

• Establish a conteXt fot parenl-<:htld interactlon

• Llsten, respond 10 pllleRt priorities, CQIlCCm8, chaUmges

Share obllll'tJaltQlIS/imOwkrI,g~ of child over /Ime • Share/_k infOl'Il1ation .bout child's PCOSl'Cll$ • Affirm pm::nts' insights and competent observations

Idenlif.jl mutually lIJPWd "pan dwoIlopmenli.ll e;rpe.;!.at/Qtls Jor child

• Focus patents' attenllon On child otrengths and developmental needs • Share dc:vclopmcntotly appropriate information

$b;Jrv 1_ and brainstorm "",tbods for """'Ing child meet ~lIon. • MUtually IdcntllY n .. waJ iearnl.tls OppOrtunitieo in the home • Identify cum:nt and potential porent bcha.wrt that .m ."pport targeted learning

• Make SUIII .. lIo08 whe.n nece~fOIU)'

0ImJrve parmt-cblld I"hlrar:#rms Rnd provld • .feedback

• Ob$Crve parent and child in mCllJ1inSful ''OI1te.xt • Identify cuncnt strengths retAIe<! to d~ve!upm~nl .• 1 ""peet.tlons

• PrOvide:: dcv~IQpmo::ntal Information • ModcVslllllc.t on-theoflpot When necessary to _upport parcnt Int ... ctJons with th.lr child

/IIQnilOr 11><1 child' •• 10111 .ve/Qpm.nl und d.,.rml"" dlrot;tl()n8 for cant/nood growth

• Ilngasc patent in noting ~hlld'. progre .. and measlll'inl! I'~"" towar<l$ indivlduall:ted deve!upm.n,.i ""pe<:t:dtJoll5

III 01><:_ .... de::d adju,tmcot, 10 lnt<:m:tIons lind/or learning opportunities

• CYcle to neW' developmental ~xpectation5 and 1f:'",Im.ing op)XIJ'tunilies as needed

161

I I 1 I

i

162 EARLY CHlLt>NOOI) SIlRVICI'.'5, VOL. 2, NO. ~

Establish Puent-Chlld and Parent-Professional Relationship

Relationships lay the foundation for this model. From the earlJest exchanges Infants, toddlers or presc:hool-age children have with their caregivers, to the relationships parents and early childhood ptofe8slonals have with one another over time, Intention­al efforts to e5labllsh meaningful connec­tions are essential.

Professionals can encourage inl<:ndonal and positive Interactions between a parent and child durin8 home visits, conferences, Or

Infottnal meetlng.~ at schooVchlid care. This can be accompli<lhed by positioning the Pill' ent and child in dose, and if possibloe, face­tl>face proximity with one another; pO~lt!on­ina the.tllSelves iarther away from the child and parent; enCO ..... "Iling the parent to dem-0.-.4te a recent parent-dllld activity or ex­change; promplin.\l the chUd to show or tell the parent a recent developmental accom­plishment completed In the cla$$tO()m; or encoul"dging the chUd to ask the parent for help or to aoswer his or her question. HIgh­I!ghlin.\l a chUd's strengths In fmnt of a pill' ent or encounlglng a chUd to seek a parent's Input or answers to questions can foster par­enl$' 1evels of competence and confidence.

Positive, collaborative relJitionships l» tween the parent and professional are ex­hlblted In several waJlll in the GetNng Rea4Y model. l..i$tenina actively and sincerely to a parent's challenges and concerns show:; a pr0fe8slonal's Interest and dedication to their work with the parent and child. Use of open..ended questions by the profession­al allows parent.. an opportunity to describe their own ob$:rvalions and viewS and pro­mot". mutual information sharing. TIle pro­feSSional can promote a partnership orienta­don by IISking pareDlslO share !itrategle~ th~'Y have found etr~tlve to udd~ss a concern; requesting the: """,nlS' opinions about the merit of a n~w idea or focll'l for the child's development: or $Olicitlng parents' ideas for dealing with new challenges and p'dlrlng them with appropriate developmental infor­mation. These behaviors establish the pl'(>l'e$o slona1'. de.lre to partner w/tb the parent as

opposed 10 exercising an expert tole (Sht:ri­dan &: KratochwUl, 2008; Sheridan, Warnes, Cowan, Schemm, 8: Clarke, 2(04).

Share Observatioos/Knowledp of Child 0Vet' Time

Parents and professionals eaeh ean have unique, relevant experiences with children, and hold perspective.. bru;ed on rhe1r own Interactions, observations, and intl!tprem­lions. Focused Intervention in the: GetNng Ready model bcne.ftts from parents and pr0-

fessionals exchanging information about what they observe:, experience, and othel' wise nOtice about a child's progre"", includ­ing his or her behavio.-.d or affective ap­proach or response to llituations.

In internctlQns with parents, profeNloo­.1. can comment on an infant's Of pl't:Scltool­er's behavioral cues (e.g., smiles, signs of dl.comfort or distress, apression of feel· logs) to guide Ihe parent's attention and at­fum the poSitive effect of a parent'S contin­gent response and posltlve atrect with their child. The professional can ask relevant questions 10 focus the parent'S attention on a child's strengths and ne~ds, seek parental perspectives on day-to-day child Interests and activities, and clarify developmentally relt:V'4nt observations. ProfeSsional observa­tions can be shared with parents with ~f­eren.::e 10 their child's developmental mile­

. IItOnes ..... d emerging abWties as well ... the parenl'S desired cxpectado!1.8 (or the child. As parents demonotrn.tc knowledge of their child's strengths and abilities, profession­als have the opportunity to aftinn .nd ac­knowledge the p'=ntal perspective, tbere­by contributing to parental compelence and confidence.

Identify Mutually Agreed Upon Developmental Expectations for Child

By nature of 'heir re.'pectlve relation­ships with children, parents and professloll-

RELATION~H1P MODEL AND SCHOOL READINESS 163

a1s offer unique nnillge points about ap­propriate e:xpcctatiOI1ll and aspirntiOI1ll for devclopment, includlng culnLt'a! hellef's and values. Open dlscusslons of beliefs and de­sites about a child's developmental progres­sion, including its course and liming, 1c:m:llJ to the estJlblishmem of an agreed upon sct of desired developmental targets toward which the child <:an pr<IgrC$II, .. ~ well as Sl1"dteglc$ tor how the parent, and If the chUd is en· roiled in a group program, tho: t<:acher can encour:lgc iIt)d support these behaviors.

Professionals can assl:>! " lY=nt in iden­tifying appropriate developmental targets by focusing the parent's attention on their child's current Interests, challenges, emerg­ing abilities, and strengths In everyday roll­tines such as cating, dn::5sing. bathing) amI playing. Discussions of parental observa­tions during daily activities (e.g., shared book "".!dIng, TV IOVO viewing, car t ... ~v­

el, shopping, walks to the park, and visit. with relatives) and their developmental rel­evance, along with the professional'. (JWJI

observations of the chUd, focuses the par­en .. profesSlonaI meetin8$ and sets the stage Ii)r future parent-Chlld InterolCtlons and play­based leaml1Ig opportunitks.

$bare Ideas and brainstorm methods for belping child meet e;r:JJectatWru. One strength of a collaborative approach lies In the opportunity It provides tor parents and a:-.u:hcl"5 to share ideas fur routine experi­ences and planned activities that can sup­poft chUdren'$ continual progression to­.... "rd he-"Ithy development. In the Getting Ready mood, parents and professionals to­gether determine mt:1ihS by whJch opportu­nilies can be provided that match chUdren's interest and allow ehUdren to explore COS­nitive and social tasks in everyday situations,

'thereby positively alfecting development and adjustment across the various home learning contexts and acro.~s home-so::hool contexts when enrolled In center/school progratO$, Specilically, parentS and proCe$o $10na1s can dlscu$II the contexts that best elicit and support a chUd's growth and share responsibility fur monitoring changes In the child', leaminll and development. Patent ..

and professionals can work together tn scaf­fold the chUd's learning by lir8t Identifying routine OPPOftunitk:s fur the chUd to partici­pate in meaningful tasli:$ and household ro .... tines ("guided participation"; ROSQIf, 1990) in way.; tailon:d to the :>lyle and priorities of each family'S situation and cultural context, and the goals IdentUied for the chUd. The parent's o:onstructioo of his or her role as guide, support and mentor for their child Is Important 10 promote their sernIC of efficacy, and can be facilitated by the professional.

In Ihe Getting Ready roodel, parents are assisted in identifying, and affirmed fnr n:c­ognl:cinS, everyday learning opportunitles for their children that advance cognition, langul1se, literacy, and other eiU'ly learning .kills, 3.~ well 3.< children's social..,motlonal capacltles.1ly seelng their home as a learning cnvin')nmcht1 parrnt!io incrc::ase their ea.~ in providing time, matenab, and .pace fur CJ<­

ploratory play and problc:m-solving, cultur­al exploration, vocabulary growth, and print intet"~ction. Professionals might suggest de­velopmentally appropriate play-based activi­ties Of mutine dally ""vent,; and model adult bebaYiot'$ (I,e" commenting, elaborating, modeling, questioning) that (an maintain a child's Interest and support his or her learn­ing. Finally, the parent's role In supponlng their chikl's learning Is advanced through discussions with profe!lsionals about the wi, lie of various developmentally appropriate educational activities, such 115 drawing. col­oring, constnlctlon, and pretend play, and how these learning a~'tiv:lties can be routine­ly and comtOrtllhly provided and supported In home settin8$ and nonlnstructlonal In­teractiol1$ with sibUn8$, parents, and other tilmUy members.

Observe l'Brent.-ChiId Interact10nlJ and ProvIde Feedback

A goal of c()lIaboration hetween par­ents and professioollis is enhancing parents' competence and confidence In their abili­ties to interact with their child in a support­ive manner that enhan~e5 children's le;a.m ..

164 f.ARI.Y CHILDHOOD SERVICES, VOL. 2, NO.3

Ing. Parents' effective use of strategies that promo\<! the attaittment of new d,'Velop. mental achlevements for thc:ir child may be augmented In the Gett1l1g Ready model thtough the dyruunIc procell$ of observation of paren,-child inreractiOll$, mated rclIec­dOllS, profesSional guidance:, and ongoing reIInement of strategy use.

Beyond dili<:ussing and describing qual­ley learning opportunities for children, pro­fessionals providc paren,s an opportuniey to practice in tile context of triadic (pM. c:nt-child-professlonal) interactions. Profes­sionals have • number of opportunities to establish and observe: the p.rent-chlld intcr­action, and can adjust the manner In which parents support \earning with their children directly and indlrecti.y, as well as offer paren­tal validations and aflirmatlons. Triadic Inter­'ctiOll$ with parents, professionals, and chil­dren (e,g" during home \Ilsits, aJ'ter-s.;hool meetingS, family events at li<:hool or child care, or parent.teacher conferences with the chlld present) should (oms the profc!$$ion­ai's attention on the parent as learner and the parent's attention on their child as learn­er while prompting tM parent's reOecdon 01'\ the effects of their own act!Oll$, Shared play activities or routine are (i,e" dressing, feeding, bathing) can be the medium tor at­tinning a parent's ac~unllC: reading of their child's Indirect requests or Invitation to play or engage In a shated task, Parents may ben· efit from oo-thl:'1lpot suggestions (or engag­ing a passive chUd, ~Ctln!l a dlstl1JCted or Impulsive child. guldillg a discouraged child throuch a challenging new activley Or n:inforelng positive behaviors demon~~"'''tcd by their chUd,

Other hehaviors that professIonals aim to relnforee or, itS needed, .uggc~" ur mod­el for the P:Jrct'lt include nrm-Iakirtg with Children. waiting and responding with ex· aggt:r;lted pleasure/affect, or asking Olpen· ended questions to promote dialugue and extended conversations, Simple social games (I,e" peek-a-boo, I spy), and suogs or rhymes Indicative of a family's culture may be acknowledged, demonstf'"led, or sug­gest<!d by the professional 10 provide dIe

parent with awareness of the value and ef­fect of th~ simple intetllctions with chil­dren thtoughOlut I.n.tiI.ncy, toodlethood, and the preschool ~ars. finaUy, these spontane­OlUS or purposefuI opportunIties to observe pan:nl<:hild Intetllctions allow the profes­siOlnal to guide and support a parent In fol­lowing their child's lead!lntere~t.~, watching and listening to the child. communicating ill a sincere give-rutd-take manner, making comments, giving ch(liccs, and viewing the prescnt moment from the ch.ild's \IlIJ1tagc point. UkewL'Ie, setting appropriate limlls, e5UlbUshing routines, praising and reinforc­ing appropriate behavior, and redirecting a child's misbehavior are aspects of parenting that promole a child'. autonomy and social skill. but may require guidance from a pm­ksslOlnal when a parent tStruggIcs to consis­tently use these practices, Observations of the parent-<:hild interaction allow the pro-­fesslonal to COmment and support the pa,... ent in a rekovant, meanlngl'ul COntext. De­velopmental InfOI'mation provided during these triadic interactions often has meaning fOr the pareJtt as they see the value: of their own ~ctions on the child's abilities, Intet"ests and emerging skills.

MOnJtor the Child's Skill Development and DetermJne Dkecdons for Continued Growth

The Intentional, focll8ed approa<:h Pl'(lo mOled in the C..,tting Ready model nece5-$itates continual monitoring and re·estab­llslu.llent of prioritle!l and developmental expectations for the child and f.unily in a re­cur1live OlliJ1ner, As children respond to the efforts of parents and profeRRlonals, atmin new skills, and demonslr.lte putcntlal for continued gtowth within or across dev.::lop­nlentlll domains, new prlorilie8 will t:mcrge,

Just as parents and professlonal~ tog(.'thcr can determine means by which opportunitie8 can be provided that matCh chUdren's inter­esl and abilities and allow children to explore new cognitive, SOCial, and linguistic t3$ks in

RElATIONSHIP MODEL AND SCHOOL READINBSS 165

everyday situations, so 100 can profession. als and parents share n:sponsibillty for judg· ing the adequacy of those choiccs. Explicit dlscussions about a child's rcsponsc to new leaml.ng oppoltl.mities in home or school, or new parenting bel1llviors, will provide both parent and plOresslonal oppomlnities 10 re· f1e<."t on elements of th~ efforts that show evidence of efficacy or need ror modification. In addition, sensitivity to dlildrcn'~ new inter· ests and abiliti~ will also caUliC • shift in di· rections lOr continued growth. The cycJlcuJ, dynamic problem·solvlng PI'()Ccss e"<:our· ages the ongoing supp<m fur children's de­vciopment acl'O&"i ti...-.c and context. IF .... ta on children's progrc ... collected uver time, evl· dent through dircct oblicrvations, products, or artifucts, help guide systematic decision malting In the Getttng Jleady model. Mutual problemrolving fosters parental skill In mak­ing objective decisions related 10 their chlId, and also models a ptoC<:SI\. that parents can use In the future when making decisions and communicating with teachers about meth­ods for supporting their chlld's development

. ""d school perlbrmano::e.

Summary

The Ceiling Ready model provides a unique context for building children's com· petencles. In thIs model, leaming oPPOrtu­nltle. thot arc Implemented by po""nts lind professionals in famlllQr settings frequent. cd by the child promote the child's dc:vel· opm"nt QCroli-' context~. Additionally, struc­tured, data·balled collabol"dtlon Is critical to

the Gelling Ready model; when fY.m:nt$ and profell!lionals determine goals mutually and monitor children's growth coUcctively, pa· rental competenCies and ongoing involve­ment are enhancCd (8hel'ldan, Knoche, & MlIrvIn, 20(8). In tum, the childten's op­portunitieS for frequent, suppolted leam­ing in everyday activities and interaction., are advanced, resulting In targeted leaming and optimal development of readincss skills

and behaviors. This model promotes conti­nuity aCroS!! home and early education set­tings, and the use of evldence-bQSed st ... "" gies known to pnlmote children's growth in the natural context._ within which they function. fxcisions for the type and focus of services an: based on mutual und~Mand· ing of children's d(:VclopmentaJ needs and rcsJX>n.ses, and parents' !!:itrengths and per· spectives md contrihute to optimal devel· opment and school re;«lin(:1l1I for children and flunWes.

The focus On parent-child interactions as the medium fOf children's learning pri. or to school entrance allows the parent md chlId to develop. rclatlonsblp that is built on truSt and support, likely to endure across the school ye-....,.. Parents, in coilabomtlon or partnership with professlottals, are encour­aged to engage with their child to t$lQbliSh what is and what is /lOt possiblc:: at a given age. p. ....... n!S become observerS of their chll· dren, thereby enhancing their expertise on their child's preferences and abilities In ev· eryday actlvltJes, Parents also become skilled in describing these observations to prole$­slottals and comfortably engaging'ln brain­storming and decision making about optimal strategies to adV'AflCC the child's le-~rning or change his or her behavior at home: and/or school, Getting ready for school In tbis mod· el occurs within an ecology of relationsbJps anti teaming opportunities for children and parent~ in which both are supported and gUided IOward competence and confidence that will calT')' them sllccc:5!!fuUy throughout children' ~ formal ed1.1Cation.

l".u-ent.child and parent.professional rela· tionships pn>vidc the foundation for adV'AnC­

Ing children's developmental abilities and parents' roles as child adv(Jcatc and mcn­tor In the Getting R~ model. With these skillS and roles established prior 10 the SlQrt of tortnal schooling, parents and children can "nter the educational system pmpared for learning and with the tools to establish re­lationsbJps with new adults md peers, there­by contributing to ongoing academic and personal success. As typical challcJltlC'S arise

166 ilARI.Y CIiIWHOQI) SERV";es, VOL. 2, NO.3

in a child's eady years in IIChool, plU'elll8 are prepared 10 ensage in probiem'80lving with the child a.nd other professionals and identi­fy goals, plans, and Slntegjes that will result in possible n!$Olutlon of concertlll.

Gelling childml "ready' Cor' school is a multicomponent, relationship-baed en­deavor. The Getting Reody model empha­sizes in/JUt (environments and resource9 that proVide enrichb18 leamitlg opportunl­des) and processes (interaction. and mecha­nlsms that promote children's acqui$lti(ln of skills) and transa~'tion. among thc:se systems 10 create contex," fur children's develop­mental outcomes and skills (the product. of learning opportunities and support.,). F .... eusing on competence and confidence in all partlcipant~, including parents, children, and teachers, fucilitate •• systemic appro-.ch to school readiness. Teachers develop Coin­

petence and confidence in their interactions with children and parents, l'arents d"""lop competence and confidence in their abilities to interact with their children In growth..,n­hanctng ways. Ultimately, children become competent and confident learners and $UC­

cessful in social and academic endeavors in thelt formal school years and beyond.

Acknowledgment: The development of this paper was supported in part by a 8""'"t.

. awarded to Drs. SuSan Sheridan and Carolyn Pope Edwards by the Department of Health and Human Services (OHHS)­National institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), Administration for Children and Families (ACI') and Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and EV'dluatlon (ASI'Il); and the Department of Ilducation (1)06)­Office of Special Ilducation and Rehabilitative Servic::es. The opinions expressed herein are those of the investigatol'll and do nol reflect the funding agendes (GRANT # lR01H0043613S),

AddRS8 Corftsponderu::e to. s. M. Sheridan; 216 Mabel Lee Hall, Lincoln, NE 68;88-0235; Fhone 402-472-6941: E-mail: nherldan2@unl.edu

References

Adrerman, D., &: llamctt, W. (200', M.vd:!). Pre­jHm!dfor~"Wbatdoel"MitdlIUISS' moan? (Polk.y report]. New Brunswldc, /Ill: National_tote of Eatty EduClld(m Ilciearch.

Ain5wotth, M.D., Bell, S. M .. /I: SIlI)'tOO, D. J. (1972). lndlvldual differences in the dc:vclo,," ment of ..,me atIllchmen! bellavio ... MerrlH­Palmer guarlllr!Y, 18, 123-143.

AUen, R., 6< Petr, C. (\996). Toward dcvcloping I!Wldards and measurernettts for family-cen­t~m:I practices 10 Comily $Upport programs. in G. Singer, L. Pow .... , & A. Olson (Ed •. ), RedJI.

jlnlnglamHy support: InnovatllmG In pub/Jo­Private practice (pp. 57-85). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Arnold, D. H., Lonlg:m, C. J. Whitehurst, G. J .. 6< Epstein. }. N. (1994). Accelerarlng I,"suage dcvelol')Ment through plch1te book reading; Replication and e~tcoston to a videorupe training format. JOUrtJal Of &1u"~ti()'f1.all~ chology, 86, 235-243.

Bergan,}, R .. &: Ktotochwill, T. R. (1m). BobalJ­i()'l'U1 c.-rmmltatton in QPpl1etl ~ttlng$, New York: Plenum.

Bom!ltein, M. H.," TamJs..LcMonda, C. s. (1989), lllaternal responsiveness and cognlllve devel­opmcnl in chJldren. New DlrectiotlS lOt' Child DevelopHUm~ 48, 49-61.

Bromwlch, R. M, (1997). Working with lamll/us IIInd /bill. Itl/an'" at risk. Allstln, 'IX: 1'tQ-1W.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1975). 10 .. rty intervention effective? In Il. Frie<lIander, G. M, Sierrilt, &: G, E. Kirk (Eds.), I!xteplWnaJ inJant, Vot 3, A""' ........ "t and In_on (pp. 449-475), New YorI<: Jlrunnet'Malrel.

IlronfenbrellJlet, U. (1977). Toward an ""1'<:ri­merrllli ecology of human development. Amlll"icII" P$yCbo/Qf!/$t. 32, 513-530.

lIronfenbrenner, U. (1979), TlIo (ICofogy oJ bu­man developmenl. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Unlver;lity Press.

Brown, M. S. (2(l(l4), Eff"'tfi oJ M'Iy childhood­"'Onjalnt bebaviQrul (:Qnsu/tatlon (Ec.cBC) on pI'IIscbool child "",,,,pl;am: •. Unpublished doctoral d.Ili$ertatIQn, Univertllcy of Nebraska­I.Incoln.

Ilruder, M. R .. &: Dun5t, C. (2000). Expandlog l".ming uppot'tuniti •• for Inlimts and toddlers in natoml cnvlr<;lnments. Z...., t.o Tb_, 20, :14-36.

Bm". S., Gritlin, P., &: Snow, C. (1999), SlaHing out Hgbl: A guidol to promo#ng cbild,.,,,,',

1Ul.l.X110NSHIP MODEt AND SCHOOL READINESS 167

reading SUt'C.l!$$. Wa..."Ihington, OC: National A<;.d<my Pre""

Caop<. M,. &: lopez. E, M, (2006), le$$r)tr,' from Jamlly-slrongtbentng in_tlo>tS: l",arn,. 1"8 from fWide,u;'HJused pract/ClI. ('.am­bridge. MA: H~rv.rd Farnily Re_rch Ptoject.

ChrllIt.nson. S, L, (:lOOQ), Families and schoolll: Rights, resporuribiUrie9, re<ou",<o, and rela· tionship, In R, C, l'ianta Ii: M, J, Cox (l1d")' 1"bt1 transition 10 klnilerg_ (pp. 143-177), Baltimore: Ilmoke. PubIlohlng Co,

Cluistcn5On. S, 1_, Ii: Sberi¢m, S. M. (200 I), SdJooIs and Jamllk:<; C""atlng e<s<mt/aI. connectiQns ft>r 4Itur>lng, New York: GuIIfurd Prt:ss,

Clark. K, E" Ii: Ladd, G. W, (2000), O:>nm".~<.d­"eM and autononlY support in pan:nt-chikl rclationshJps: Unks to children's SOl.1oerno­tiona! orientation and peer rcbtiomhips. J.Je.. velopm.ntal P!i)I<bology, 36, 4115....198,

Clark. R, M, (1993), Homework-focused pa",n'­Ing pr:iCtlces that posltlvdy a!kc~ student och;evement, In N, F. Chavkln (Ed,), Pamtlies and schOol< I" " pl"mllstJc society (pp, 85-105), Albany: Sla .. University of Ncw York Press.

CIark<>&cw ... , K, A. (1973), Imc=rions be­tween motile... and their young children: Characteristics and consequence., Mollt)­graphs Of the Soc/ety for Re.<ear<:b In Child Developmenl. 38, 1·10$.

O..,..n ... D, H" 8< Sarama. J, (2007), Barty chUd­hood molllemotiCS learning, In p, K. tester (ed,). SIIt"()l'Id btmdbQoit o/resoar<:b on mal#). ,mat/CII tlJacblng "nd kart/Ins (1'1" 461-556), N~w Vork: lnfc)nrullion Age Publishing.

Collins, C, H" Mol~. 0" '" eross, M, (1982), "lb_ bom..scboo/ <'Onnll(.1ions: Selected partner"­,'hlp program .. In large ."llIes, BoSton: Insti­tute tbr kasp(')mJivtl ~uC""don,

Comer, J, p, (1988), Is "p.",nting" .... ntlal '0 good teaching? NEA Today, /$, 34-40,

Comer.), p" &: H.ynes, N, M, (1991), Pan::nl in­volvement in ""hooI8: .An ecologiC",1I ~r>­proaco, lil<."".n/a.,. $<"boolJournal, 91. 271-277-

Commitl<:e for Economi<; Oovdopment, (2002), Preschool for all: Inve,'lIng In " producll'Ifl andju"" ",Oc/BIy, New York: Author,

Connor, D, II" & C!<.lllli. D, R, (2003), longltudi. nal analysl. of the I".",encc, cfficacy and sta· bllity of malenlal ..,a/lQldlng during informal problem-solvlng In",=Mn •. Brltisb Joumal "I lhiwkJpmenrai P:;ycbok>gp, 21, ~ 15-3~4.

Curtis. I. W" & Singh. N, N, (1996), Family In' volvement and empowcnnenr in mental

~llh ~cc provision for children with emotiorull and behavioral _, Joul"tUlll oJ'.bi1d and Pamlly Studies. 5, 503-517,

Dale, P, Jcn.l<ln5. J" Mm., ),,, '" Cole. K, (2005), Follow.up of children from .ca<!mlle and cog· nltlve prcschool ~'Il1"ricula .t 12 and 16, E1f,.

cefJl/lmal Cblldro", 7. ~Ol-317, Davidov, M" & GnuI«, J, 5, (20C)6), UntangUng

the lln.k3 of parenM "'~pQlll!lvm... to di. Il"CSS and Wllrrnth to r;.hlld outeomc:5, Child J)eVIJlopm«l"It. 77. 44-58,

OeKJycn, M" &; Speltz, M, L. (2001), Atllldlnlcnt and conduct dl""rder, In J, Hill 8< 8, Maughan (E<\s,). Conduct disorders I,. childhood and adohiscence (pp, ~20-345), New York: Cam. bridge UnlvcrSlty Pre"",

OeK1yen. M" Sptlt>., M, I., Ii: Greenberg, M, T, (1998), Fathering .nd early onset conduct problt:ms: Po51tivc: and negative parentlng l f.J.y thel';-!lOn attachment. f'lnd dw: martial context. Clinical Cblld and Family Psychology Re· view, /, 3-21.

I)entwn, S. A .• llcnwick, S. M., & Holt, R. w. (1991). WOrking and playing tog~th<:r: PTt:dic­tlon uf praiChool oocilll-emotional c::ompe­tenc" from mother<hild Interaction, Child l)evelojJmenl, 62, l42-249,

do Ruiter, C, &. van Ij=doom, M, (l993), At· tachment and cugnltion: A review of the Utt=I'­atun:, Il'IhmIallona/journai oj Educational Resoarr:b, 19,5-20,

Downer. J" &: Pianta, R, (2006), AcademJc and cognitive functioning in tim III"'Jdo!: As9od.­ticm.'" with earlier home: and child CAre predlc­totl! and wid! concurrent homo and da¥sroom experienc" •. Scbool P:;ycbOlogy /lINlmo, 3'. 11-30,

Dunot, C, J, (1985), Rethinking early intc::tVon' don. AnQ~si.if and In~tion in Dewlap. m"mal (JIsal:!llIties, 5. 165-201,

Dun~l, C, (2007), Making 11':_ of school .. ad;. nc"~ l'I':.<earch for Infonnlng pm<."tk. ... , liarf.Y Cblldhood S<mIiCfI". 1, 1-16,

Dun~~, c.)., Brodel.'; M. 8., Trivette, C. M., Ham~ by, D" Roah. M" 8< Mclean, M, (2001), Char­>cteri.L1e. and enn""'luenccs of everyday nail­ur.1 lelIm;ng opportunities, TopiCS In Early CbIldb<xJd SprH:lul &lucallon, 21, 68-92,

OunSI, C, J" &; Deal, A. (1994), A liunIly-<:ent~red approach to devel()ping indlvlduoll~.c:d family support plan., In C, Dun .. , C. Trivette, &: A, Deal (Eds,), SupPorting and stnlngtl;<ml"S Jam/U." Volu",.I; MBibods, "~"8/e. and pracltW$ (pp, 73-119), Cambridge, MA: Brookline Book.,

16$ EARLY CHILDHOOO StRV1CES. VOl. 2.1110, 3

0u0sI, C. ]" Trlverue, C. M" &: C1'O!i5, A, H, (1986), MedlatIn& lnlIueru:es of SOCial SUp­port: pe1'SOQIII. family, and chikI outeom<:$, AmerlI;an Joumai of Mentill. De~n.:y, 90, 4o~-417,

Earty, D. M., PIlIng, R. C" Taylor. L, C. /I: Cox, M. J. (2001), Tl1IQSldoo pn,,_: FlndlnllS fn;nn • nadonal survey oIldndergarten teach· ers, Ear(Y Cbf/IIbo<xI Ellucatiotl J-4 28. 199-2Q6.

Eayn, C. n,. /I: Jones. II, S. (1992). Metl10d0IO$l' callMues and future dirx<:tJorul in the eval .... tion of carly intervention ~, Cblld.· Ca ..... HealtJ;J, alld/JetJe/QPmen~ 18, 15-28.

Emde, II. N., /I: Robinson, J. L (ZOOO), Guldinll prlnelpl"" fur • tl1eory of .,.M1y Intervendon: A den:.\opmenWpsyehoanalyti(: pcrspec!lve.ln }. P. ShOl\kQlf /I: S. J. .Meiild< (Ilds,), Hafld. 110011 of""'/Y cbi/Jbood inh!rventton. lIIew York: Qmobtld8<: University \'r"" •.

Epps, So, &: Joe!<son, B. J. (2000). Empowered famUhls, successful chiklrfm.· Earfjl In,.""" ... tton J>i'08"'''''' IbaI worlf, W~n, DC: American Psychological Association.

Epstein, J. L. (1991), EIl'ects on .... dent achieve­ment of teiichers' practices of parent involve­ment. In S, SlIvem (&I.), Advances In rruu;t.

Ing/language research: literacy """'USb fam~. communi",. alld school interaction (pp_ 261-276). G ....... wich. C1': JAi Pte8s.

Epstein, J. L, II< IlI:(:ker, H. J. (1982). Teachers' repomd pl'IIClk:es of parent . involVC1llCnt: Problems ""d pogfullitles, E/em~ Seboo/ Journal, 83, 103.-113.

Fspinosa, L M. (2002). The c~ between socJaI"""otional develop_nt and Uteracy. KaUffman l!ar(Y EdUcation £:>:>';bange, J, '1-44.

Esttadat P., ArseniQ, W. ~ .. Hess, R . .0., 81: "oUo­way, S. D. (1987)_ A/fe<:tIve quaUty of the JIlOIheN:hl1d relationship: Longitudinal con' SfJQ1K:II<:eS tor children', 8dloo~teICV1ll1t COS' nltlve functk.tlling. DeveIoJmumtal ~ D, 23,210-213.

fa.Ipn, ]., II< Jaltlll .. , A. (1999). father involve· ment ptOSftm dl'ects on frlthe.rs, father Iig. ures, and their Head SIJIrt chUdten: A quasi· expedmental study. Ear(Y Cblldbood Research l2UaHIIr!Y, 14, 243-2$.

Fan, X" It Chen. M, (2001). Parental involveDlenl and students academic aehlevoment: Am""" aNl)'liit. SdUcatton.r:d PsycbQIogy Review, J 3, l-n. .

fchtmawl, P. G., Kdlil. T. Z .. It Reimers, T. M_ (1987). Home influcn"", on school learning;

1)1=1 and irIdItect eft'ccts of parent involve· ment on hiIh school JII"Idet<. Joumal of Ed,,· r:ntlon.r:d Rfl#arch, SO, 330-~37.

Foster, M. A., Lambert, R_ Abbott-5hlm, M., Mc­Carty, F., II< Fraqze, S: (2OOlO). A model of hQme leamlng env1ronment and social dsk fa~'ton ill relatloo 10 chJIdten'. eme\'gefll UI' elaC}' atld socW outcomes. Bar(Y Chlld/:Jwd R_rdJ .QuarmrIy, 20, B-36.

G/roWnetto, L., Vcrbcy, M., II< TIUlIIOCk, R. (\994). Impravinl! Joint ~m¢ilt In par. en1><;hM mlem<:tion: An interventionlltudy. Joumai of Early InlerventtQ>J, 18, 155-167.

Good 5tIUt Grow Smart. (2002). n... BWlb Ad· ministration', Bar(Y ChiI4bood Inl/IaN..,.· /J:recutIpe summary. Retrieved April 8, 2008 from hltp://www.whiteho".....gm./infocWl/ carIychUdhood/toc.html

Gn:>lnkk, W. $., It Siowloock, M. L (1994)- Par· ents' involvemcot ill chJIdten'. schooling: A multidimen&ional conceptualization ""d moti­vational model. Child Deve/(}p_~ 65, 237-252.

Gur:dnlck. M. J. (2006). Family Influences on ..... Iy d.vdop~" Inl<:gratlng the science of nonnative development, risk and disability. and Intetvendon. In K, McGatlney II< D_ Phl~ lip. (&Is.), 8/acllwe/l bandlJ<x>lt "J .... "", chlldbaod develJJpmenl (pp, 44-61). Unolon: IllackweU Pllblishlns.

Hanft, 8., &: Pflkinston, K. (2000). Thetapy In natur:d environments: The: means ot end goal (or early intetvtntionl Inf- "lid Young Children, 12, 1-13.

Harbln,G .. ROIlS, 8., &: McLean, M. (2005). '_~uts in dtIIJsnlna .tate acrountablllty systems_ JoumaiofE"rtyln"""'ntton, 27,137-164.

HatI, T" 8< RiSley, B. (1995), MeaningfUl dlff­"" .... In u.. ~ e;(jierUmres a/young American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Broola:. Publlshlng_

HAyot$. N. M., Comer, J- P_, & HIlmHlOn·Lee, H. M. (1969). School climate enhancement through parental invoivcment. Joumal of ScbooI ~bo/Qgv, 27, 117-90,

Hepburn, K. S. (2004). Pam III.. as primary partn/lf'$ In /bel, child'. development arid school readlMSS. Baltimore:; The Anole E. Casey Foundatlon.

HllI, N. E. (2001). Pan:;ntJng and lICadcmic social· Ization as they .... late to schoolll*liness: The: rok:. of ethnidty .nd Iiomlly In<:ome, Joumal Of E4ucatton.r:d ~, 93, 686-697.

Hindman, A. H .. II< Mom50n, F. J. (2007). '!be 1m· pact of panmttng tilmeTl#om on /»'fJ.cbooI

RElATIONSHIP AND

/UWraI;Y and loamirlg-l'fllated wc1al ,kl/ls. "loIJDlIIOipt submitted for publi~tlC,)fl.

',;KlIII2ler"., Steinberg, Z .. /I: F1e1:lCh, B. (1993), AI "'" lCI/oolbOuse door: An txamlmJlIo .. OJ'

!i. progtaw and poIkles for child""" wllh be-IIfItJ/t:mrI and emoUtmal problems. New Volle: Baok $trOCt College of Education,

Koren, P. E" Paulson, R., Kioltey, II., Yalch­monofI', 0" Gordon, L .. /I: llc:Olillo, N. (1997), .Savlc:e coordination in clilldren's menw heII!h: An ..mptiiea) study from the caregiv-ers penpective, Journal oJ Emot/"I'I"'/ ,lOut BebavloM/lJisorders. 5, 62-172.

LIndry, S. H" Smtth, K, E .. SWlI1lk, P. R., As"", M, .A., I: Vdlet, S. (2001). D<>eS early I'f!Spoollivc

. parenting h."" a special ilnpl,l1'lal1cc fot chl~ (Irm's development or L. coDllioteocy aclO!lll ..arty childhood nec_ryl Dev<Jlopmlmlal l'r{JIcboIogy • • n :187-403,

war, J .. II: D.rltD!Jlt>n, II, 8" (19710. La.,<II"l!, ef jlK:I:s <IfIerpro-scbool. II report oJ the Conso" tlum j'or Longitudinal Studies. Ithaca: New York Slate Collqc of Human Ecology.

tr;OJyer, Ii. A., II: Hoock, G. M, (2006). Maternal IlmlHe!tlng in tocldler·hood: SocializatiOn straltstc~ for the dcvdopmenl of .. If.regul •• tion, InJant Mfffllai Health Journal, 27, 344-~70.

love, J. M., Kiskcr, E. E .. Ross, C, Raikes, H .. Constantine, J. BoUer, K., et aI. (2005). The ct'l\:,:ti_ of \laity Head Start for ~.ye.""'ld clilldren and their parents: \.c5lIQns for poltcy and programs, [}cV(Iw/lmmlal ,~/o8Y, 4J, 885-901.

Mlc:roby, E, 2 .. /I: Mlrtln. J. A. (1983), Sod.Ii",,· lion In the context of the family: ParcnI-<:bO<l Interaction, In E. M, Hctherifl8l<'lo (1l4.), Handbo<ill oJ child p.<ycbOlogy, Yo/. 4, socia/. Izatlon, perwntJlIIy, "nd $()dal tWve/Qpm.", (pp. 469-546), New York: Wiley.

l\otou;Donald.}. 0" /I: CruTOU,}, T. (1994). Adult communicaliOrt $tyle.: The mtilillng Unk to early language in"'nocntion. In/ant.ToddIer ITlllmXmtirm: 1I'"n.stJh;r;lpltrrary Journal, 4, 145-160.

Mahoney, G" /I: MoeOonald, J. (ZOO7), Au/Ism and dtIwIopmtmltil tW/a;Jls in young cb/~ dnm: 'Il>e Respomtw TMcht"l!, Currkulu.m for parenlS and proj'esstollQ/s. Austin, 'IX: Pro-Ed j Inc.

Mahoney, G" Ik O'SullIvan, p, (1990). Early Intel> vcntion practlc:c. with famWe$ QI clilldten with handk:a,,~, MtmItil Retardation. 28, 169-176,

Marcon, R, (1999). Dilrcrentlal Impact of pre­school models on <kYolopmcnt Ind early leamlng 01 Inner .... ity children: A three cohort study, (Jevel()ptmmtm Psycbo/O[IJI, 35, 358-~75.

Martinez, M. (1987). IlIlklgucs among children and betwt:CD children and their moth.n, Child l)eveklpmenl, 58, 1035-t 043.

Mashburn. A., II: Pian"'. R, (2006>, Sod.1 .. l2I:Ion· oltips and school "",din.,... Early Education and l)eoelopmen~ 17, 151-176,

Masten. /0., 5 .. II: C..o.llIWorth, J, D, (1998). The dCvdopm~nr or ~'OI11PC:ltnce In favorable lind W1favornblc cn~ll'()nmentll: I.e.SOM !tom no· search on succcasful children. Am<It'Ican Psy­clwl()gls~ 5;1, 20~-220.

McBride, S, (1999), F"mlly-ccntcrcd servi ....... Young Cblldren, -'4, 62..(\8,

McCollum, J, Gooier, f., Appl. D" II: Yates, '1', (2001). PIW1: Enhancing p""'nt<hlld inler",,· rion. a •• foundation for early intervention. Itifants and YOU'lli Child",", 14,34-45,

McCollum,). A., &: Ya"' •• T. J. (1994), Dyad IS ro­ClIO, triad as ",can~: A faI'IIlIy"'''''t.",d ap­pronch 10 supporting parcnt-chUd inte.l1U:­dons, It!fants arid YOUI'll! Children, 6, 54-6"

McWayne. C., Hampton, V., Fantw.:r.od.~ Cohen, H .. &; Sel<ino, y, (2004). A multlV'driate eJ\;ilni· nation of parent Involvement and the SOclltl and acad<:ntic compele!ldes of urban kinder­IIl"t<n children. PsyCbolQ8Y /tl /"" Schoolt. 41, l-IS.

Mcndo:rla, }., KatZ, L., Robertson, A., /I: Rothen· berg, fl, (2003), Conno<;ting '''lib parents In /be ..arly years, Clwnpalgn: l!iU'Iy Childhood Parentin8 CoU.b"",t\ •• , Unlverslty or Illinois .t lh1>OJllloChampalgn.

Merlo, L. J .. Oowt'Wl, M., Ik Bame", D, (2007), I'1U'ental nurturanc( promote .... <lln» .. "quI· .ilion In low oocioeconomiC .mltlS children, li<>r{» Educa/1fm ",,,a l)e,Jf1h>pmenl, J 8, 51-69.

Mledel, W, '1',. '" Reynolds, A. J, (999). Parent Involvement in _If inlCn'CDtion (Qt dlsad· van~ chlldrm: 0<>eS It matter? Journal oJ ScbooI PsycboIogy. 37, 379-402,

MltchclJ, D. R. (1987). Pan!ntll' interllCtlons with their developtnelltally di$ahl.d Ot at-Nk in· fants: A foc:us for intenoenUC)II, Aw/rlZlla and New ;UR/Q..aJou"",I,,/ Deve/Qpm .... W DIs­tlblHtll!$, 13,73-81.

Mulvaney, M, K, McCartney, K. M .. nul>, K. L" Ik Manlhall, N. L. (2006). Deb<mllnantll of oyadlc l!CaIfokliog and cognitive outcoMCS In fint

170 EARLY CHILDHOOD SEaVlCI!S. VOL. 2. NO.3

graden. Parenttng: St:IentJe .. tid I'ractko, 6, 297-~20.

N"tkmal AsIIociItlDn lor the Ilducatlon of Y0UD8 Children. (1997). !'oIiI1o,. sta/>mJmll: De1Jej. opoom.~ tJj)pr(Jprtal. pmt:/fa1I In early cbIIdbood [JI'OgNm$ HrIIing cblldmJ from b/rlb through age 8. Washington DC: AuthQr. Retrlt;\Icd AprIl 6. 2008 I\'om http://WWW. naeyc.org,labout/pOliltloI15/pdtlPSDAP98. PDF

National GovetnOl'll AssocIation. (200'). PInal ",pon of/be NGA ........ jO_ 0" sdJooI TtIItIdf.

/UW'. Washln..,:,". DC: Author. Neitzel, C., &: Strlsht. A. D. (2003). Mo""-' 1IaIf·

fuldintl of chlJdreQ's problcm solving: Estab­lishing a foundation of ac;ademic self-regulat(). ry compe!.ence.JourRtJ/ 0/ lI ..... tly hycb%gy. 17.147-159.

NlCHD 1!arI'I' Child c.re Re;leltCh Networli:. (2002). Early child care and chUdren's deve~ opm .... t priQr to school tntry: Results from the NICHD Study of _'I' Child cate. A_ CtI" BduCtlllonal R""""""b Journal. 39. 133-164.

No Child I.d't 1ldl!nd Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110. llHJat. 1425 (2002).

Pan. B. A .• Rowe. M. 1., Singer,}. 0., '" Snow, Co E. (2005). MlItttrlal comeJates of growth In I~r vocabulary production In Jow-income I'amilles. Child De1Jelopme"t, 76, 763-782.

Paratote. J. Mel:rJ. G .. &; Krol-Sinclair, O. (1999). WbtII CtlII we ~Xpecl ol/am/ly IltoracyP li:J&l* rlOllCBJI Of LtJllllo cbll4f1m whose partml$ jJaf'tIdpiIb;dl" .. ,,·lntflrtA_t/Q""'III_,. project. Newarli:. OJ!: In_tiona! Readintl Association.

PilInta. R. C .• NImc:tz. S. L, '" Bennett. tl. (J 997). Mot""""hlJd rdatlo .. hlpA, ,c .. hc""bUd ret.· tion8hlpA, and ochool outCQmeo in p""",honl ",,101 klnderprteD. Early CbIIdb<.xHI /(O$eRr<b Qutn1orIy, 12,263-280.

Ralf",lc, L. M., ..,. KDo.I!', H, M. (19m. Improving llomc:-5chool coUaboration with disadv.n· laeN pan:nts: Orpnlzatlorutl prlnclple8, pc ... spcctlves., and approaches. School PsycbokJgy R.",low. 28, 448466.

RlImey, S. 1. (1999). Head Start and preschool tducafiQn: Toward continued itnprow::nlcnt. Amorimll hycb()/og#t, '4, 344-346.

RlIvcr, C. C., & Knl ... "". J. (2002). Ready tr) "",

ter: WbtII "' ...... r'<:b 1.1Is pol/<ymak .... a/Jout S/rRlVglo, /(l promoto social ana emONt",at scboo/ readltINS ",nang tb,..,... ana foul"­yeal'l'lld cbll4Ten. New York: Natlorutl Ce".."

for Children III Povtrty. Roberts, R. N .• &: 110M"", M. L. (1992). 'Let mom·

ma &how you how": _<hlld Interac· tiOtl$ and their eJl'ecl5 on children'. cognitive per/OnDance. Joumal <if Applied lJoveIopo mmtal hycbology, 13,363-376,

Rogoft', B. (1990). Appnmt/ce$bip In thinking: Cognlllw tItweIopnwnt In cuJtumJ am_. New YorIi:: OldQt'd Unlvenlty Pn>:a.

Runthcrscr. R. w. (1995). Dtopplns OUt of mid­dle ochool: A multiievd at11tlys1s of mtdertts and schools. American /!ducat/OM/ R ... SIII!Ircb Jou.mal, 32, 583-625.

SiII1ICIOtf, A. J (2000). DevelopmentJtl systems and psychopatbology. Dr"e/oj)lr/llnldl "tid Psycbopalbo/OIlJ'. 12,297-312.

5amerott, A. J .. '" Chancllet'. M. (1975). Rep...,. ductlQn risk in the condnuum of caretalcins causality. In P. HOrowitz. E. Hetherington, S. Scatr-saJapatck, ..,. G. Sk:¢ (Eds.), R~vI.w Of cblld ~_'_r'<:b VoL 4 (pp. 187-244). Chk:l\llo: Unlverslty of ChiQlg!) P"",".

Sandall. S., !!.emmeter. M. L" Smlth. B .• & Mclean, M. (2005). DBC re(;()mmtmdeiJ pmCt/Ct/$: A C()mjmlht:r1Sl"" guide far pracf;/cul applica­tion In .arIy In","""",lIolllear!V cblldbood sfJlidal education. Mi880uia, MT: call1teO for Exceptional CIIIIdten, Dlvi~l<>n for b.rly Childhood.

Satt ... D. (1985). Parwml /"""/"",,, ... 1: A revifIW oj /be 1111frU1u,.. (Report No. 21). Charleston. WV: Appalid:lia Educational l.a))oratory.

Schmldl, M., OcMuider E. K., 81 Denloon, S. (2002). KInd~ OO<:iIlJ.cDJOtional com· petence: Developmental predietol'll and P8y· chOOOda1 impllcalion5. Early Child Dewlop. me,., aM C""" 172, 4~1-462.

Schult!ns. A. B., Mal!)nt:. P. 5 .. 8< Dodge. K. A. (2005). 'l1u; el!tect of schonl·b.....t kindergar­ten translllon polk:les and practices on child academic OU\come& De1Je/opm._ I'Ilyt:bo.I­ov, 41, 860-871.

Schweinhart, L. J" Montie.] .. Xiang, Z .. lIoMett. W .• Beilleld. C .• &; Nores, M. (200s). Ufetim~ o1l'ect.: TIte Hi8h1ScopC Perry Preschool Proj. ect Study tllt'ouih age 40. (Monographo of the HightScope Ilducatlorutl Rero:ar<:h Founda· Ron, 14). Yl"'lIanli. MI: High/ScopC Pre .. .

Senechal, M. (2006). Tc:stJns the """'" U"' ... ~y mQrJr;:;I; Parent involvement in kindergarten i~ dltl'erentlaUy related to grade 4 reading com­pn;hen.'Ii<m, Huency. spcllln8. and reading for pl ... u",. Sclontlftc Studle. oj R""dlng. '0. 59-87.

1U!LA'1'I0NSltll' MODEL AND SCllOOL READINESS 171

senEchal, M .. '" Lefevre, J. (2002). Parental in­wlvement In the d""cIopmetit of children's reading .kill: A Soy"", longitudinal study. Child J:Jevelopment. 73. ~45-460.

Sheridan, S. M" Oorke. 1,1. L .. Kn<.>che. L. L .. & BdWllrdy, C. P. (2006). The etfe<.~s of conjoint beha.ior.u consulw,tJoo In earty chlkUtood settings. Early Education and Delll1wpoomt. .17, '93-617.

Sherldatl. S. M .• Knoche. t .. I." &: Marvin.. C. A. (2008). Competent l'amllleli. eompcr.enl chil­dren: Famlly-bticd intcNenUons to promo .. social competence in you.ng children. In W. H, l.lrown, S. 1.. adom, '" S, R, McConnell (Ii(l5,), SocIal CQmpet/mce of JIOU"8 chIIdmn: RI$k, d;su.bUll,)!, "ml wf<4mt;C<basetl practlc;.. e. (2nd ed,). Baltimore: Paul H. Broom.

Shert<l;ul, S, M" & KratochwW, 1'. B.. (1992). I» Ilavlor pal'etll-teaCher consultation: Concep­tual and researel'l consi<letatlons. /ouf'1'I4I Qf SdIoo.I ~boIogy, 30, 117-139,

Sheridan, S. M., '" Kml'>chwiU, T. R. (2008). Con­jol"t behavlo'f'tll romultatl'm' PYr.>motl"f!, Jamlly-fiCbooI Ct.l1ItWCtlom und in.tlmJen­liotlS. No", York: Sprtnpr.

Sheridan, S. M., KratochwW, T78.., &: BerglUl, J. R. (19!II1). Conjoint. bebavlo'f'tll oonsu/tu#Q1i,' A proaJdu'f'tll manual, New York: I'lenwn.

Sheridan, S. M., Warnes, E., Cowan, R. J., Schen>m, A .. II: Clarke, D, L, (2004). Famlly. centc<ed positive psychoiosy' Bulkllna on ~8 Il'J promote student succeS'S. Psy­cboIogy /n the Sr;bools, 41. 7-17.

ShOllkofl', J .. & PttUlJps, D. (2000). N .... """" to n.ngbborl;o()ds: 1l>e science oJ """ry cbikJ. hood dtlwJQpmenl. WMhingtoo, DC: Nation' aI Acaden>1elI PIal.

SIu-Chu, Ii, 0" II: WilIl11li, J. D. (1996). Ef!'tru of ""rental Involvement On dgh~de achiev". men~ Sod<>lOflJl of Hducalton, 6'9. 126-141.

Slode, A. (1987). A lonlJltudlnal ot\Idy of matemaJ Invommenl ond oymboUc play durinS the t0d­dler period. Child DetJe/QpmetIt, 58, 361-515.

Snow, K. (2006). Measurill8 Iidlool readlne .. : CooccplUal and p1"ldlcal considerations. Ba", (p Bduca/t(m aNI l)evelopmonl, 17, 7-41.

Sorce, J. F .. & _, R. N. (1981). Mother'. pres­ence is not enouch: ~ffttt of emotional avail­ability on Iot'ant ""l'loratlon, l)evelopmental

hydJ%gy, 17. 7"-745. Steinberg, L, 0., Mountll, N. S., LambQm, S. D., &

DornbllOKh, S. M. (1991). Aullll'Jrtl2tl\'t pal' enting and adolcK'cnt adjustment across var­Ied ocolOlli<oJ nJches./ouf'1'I4I 0/ R_tm:b In Atlol<l""mCB, J, 19-36.

Steve_n, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1987), The raml­ly.:lCh<'lol "'Iatlon and tile child's school pet(or· rnan<:f!. Child DelJelopmlmU8, 1348-1357.

StevenOlOn, H. W .. '" Newman, ll. S. (1986). LoIl8 -term predlction of acniC1lement ond altit...:k:~ in mathematic. and reading. Child DInwIop. mom, 57, 646-659.

Sutton, S. H .. Cowon, .E. L .. Cn:an, H. P., '" Wy­amn, I'. A. (1999). Pathways Il'J ~on in young, hJghly !ltreSilCd urban children. Child StudyJ"u .... aI, 21, 49-67.

TamI.s-'-"Monda, C. S., IIornsteln, M. H., & Hawn­

well, I. (2001). Matern.I respOllsi •• ness and children'. achievement of languall" mile-010"",. Child Development, 72, 748-767.

Thompson, R. A. (2002). The tOOts of school readlness In aoclal !",d emotional develop­ment. Kauffi/lan Barry Educa#on IJ:xcba'W!, 1,8-29.

Thompson, 1.., Lobb, C .. Elling, R., Hem:wl, S., Jurkldwewk::l:, T., '" Relluu, C. (1997), Path­waY" to family ompowennent: I!lfects of €ami. ly-(;cntcn:d delivery of earty it'Itel'Vention !lei'­

vices. ~ptl()naI Cblldnm, 6'4,99-113. Turnt't, L. A., &: Burke,J. (2003). A model of mas­

tery moll.allan for al'rIsk pre!ICIv:Jo1crs. Jou,.. nul oJ Educal/onal JVcboIogy, 95, 495·505.

Turner, L. A., /I: Johnson, B. (2003). A model of mastery mollvatlon /Or al-lisk preschoolers, Journal. oJ lId.ucatlonal PsyCbai1)1JJI. 95, 495-505,

Vemon.FciI@III&, L., /I: Blair, C. (2006). Measure­ment of·schooI neodIn_, Earty Education andlJerJe/opmen~ 17. 1., ..

Wel,gel, O. }., MartIn, S. S., & Bonnett, K. K. (2006). Contributions of !he .homo literacy envilnoment Il'J p""""hool-aged children', """"lIinI titeracy ond language sIdlJ5. Bart/> Child Dtn!etopm,nt aNI Ca,.., .176, 357-378.

Welkart, D., llond, J., /I: McNeil, J. (1978). Ypn­/anll Pm:Y Pre:Jd1(J()l PYr.>ject: PrefiCbool JIfN''''' and /o"f!,itudlnal fI1sul# rbrougb fourth gmde. YpilillUlli, M1: If.\ghIS<:ope PreM.

Wel$sllerg, R. P., /I: (lreenberg, M. T. (1998). School and community compctcnc«:nhanc:e­mentlUld p-=tIon pl"OJ!l'liIIIS. III I. Siegel '" A. Renninger (Ilds.), Hand/X>t;llt. 0/ chIld jJfy­choIollJl (,th ed.), (pp. 877-9'4). New York: JobnWIIcy,

Wilson, L" '" Dunst, C. (2004). Checl<lDl! out IiunUy-cmremt practlCC8. In ij. Hom, M. 01-U'O!Iky, &; H. Jon •• (Bdl;.), You",!JxCBptiotud Chlldrrm MOnQgr,.pb Serl ... No. 5: Family­_tm;dpractlces(pp. 13-26). Missoula, MT:

I , I· ,. ",

171 !!ARI.Y CHILDHOOD SEll.VICES, VOl .. 2, NO.3

Council for Ela:~ Ollld:tcn, DlvlllIon fot IlIdy Olildhood.

Wood, C. (2002), Plm::n_ pm<IChool octMlIos can IIfti!ct rlte development of IiIeracy skills.

.f<>u1'Ml q{R_ In R~, 2', 241-258.

Wood, D. (1980). 'I'cachins the young diild: Some reIlItionshipsb_n JOC.IaI interac­tion, language and tholl3h'.' In D. R. Olson (Ed.), 7'be BOC/(;d ,fUnCllon of language and Ibougbl (pp. 87-99). Ntw York: Norton .