GERMANS IN SHEFFIELD 1817–1918

Crrman IXr and Lcttcrr 4 6 1 January 1993 0016-8777 $2.00

GERMANS IN SHEFFIELD 1817-1918'

GERALD NEWTON

During the course of the nineteenth century, many German immigrants were attracted to England by its great technological advances. Others, particularly after 1848 and 1866, came not for scientific or economic reasons at all, but for reasons of political persecution. Others still, encouraged by the personal union existing between Britain and Hanover, came in an effort to leave behind the dire poverty of their homeland. The pressure on London eventually became so great that many of the immigrants moved out to the cities of the Midlands and the North. These included Hull, Leeds, Bradford, Manchester, Liverpool, and - the subject of this study - Sheffield.

Existing accounts of foreign settlement in Sheffield offer little detail on names. Prompted by this, it seemed to me that an avenue of approach would be to take all names of apparently German origin which appeared in the various street-directories of Sheffield published throughout the nineteenth century, and subject them to computer analysis.

It is not always possible to distinguish Jewish names from German ones, but by taking names such as Aaronberg, Bernstein, Finestone, Hershman and so on as bcing Jewish rather than German, i t became clear that between 1787 and 1914 many German businesses were set up in Sheffield. The list includes the following: steel merchants ( 1 787), scissors rnanufacturcrs (1817), musicians and teachers of German (1849), steel manufacturers (1863), engineers ( 1864), foreign-language clerks, cutlery manufacturers, brush manufacturers (1883), architects, engravers, dentists ( 1893), a professor of German (Karl Wichmann) (1901) and a publisher (Max Eichlcr) ( I907), managers, cabinet-makers, chauffeurs, razor-hardeners, piano-makers, chocolate-makers (1914). But by far and away the largest single group to emerge as identifiable in the Sheffield of this period was that of thc pork butchers.

The first German pork butchers appeared in Sheffield in 1817 (Michael Ebert, Change-Alley), 1825 (Frederick Ebert, Pinstone Street) and 1837 (Christian and Frederick Kramer, Pinstone Street and Burgess Strcct). While these early settlers probably came from Hanover, the names after

Most of thc ncwspaprr rcfcrcnccs in this artirlc arc to S R I (Shefidd and Rolherhaa Independrnr). a Liberal ncwspaprr, publishcd as a weekly fmm 1819 to 1860, and as a daily from 1861 to rcssation of publiration in 1937. I t was in cornprtition with thc Unionist/Tory Shrfild Dai!y Telegraph ( S D n . Othcr rcfcrcnccs arc to DT ( 7 X e Dnbvrhire T inr r ) . a wcrkly, stil l in produrtion and basrd in Chcstcrficld, and thc anti-war She- Id Guardian.

While i t is difficult to bc precise. becausc of changcs in taxation laws, amounts of monry mrntionrd in this arcount must br multiplied by at least 50 in order to obtain modcrn cquivalrnts.

GERMANS IN SHEFFIELD 83

1860 show increasing south German provenance (Eberlin 1863, Metzger 1864, BetzoldlPetzold 1864, Hubner 1914). This bears a remarkable parallel to what was reported in 1913 in Die Deutschr Kolonie in England concerning German settlemcnt in other British cities, such as Edinburgh, Sunderland and Liverpool:

In den sechziger Jahren kam nirht nur ein neuer Z U Z U ~ aus Hannover, sondern es begannen auch aus Wurttemberg immer mehr jungr Leute nach Liverpool zu kommen und sich hier als Schweinemetzger niederzulassen. So ergab eine ungeGhre Zahlung anfangs 1910 noch eine Seelenzahl von rund IOOO. Von denen waren etwa 550 in England, etwa 400 in Deutschland geboren (182 in Wurttemberg, 85 in Hannover).'

The first attempt to gather the Germans in Shemeld together into some sort of organisation took place in 1861, when the Rev. C. Ebert, 'late pastor of the parish of Strumpfelbrunn [Odenwald]' (SheJJirld and Rotherham Independent 21.9.1861), opened the Council Hall for religious services in the German language. This seems, however, to havc been a short-lived venture, and three years later a Mr Charles Ebert appears in Shemeld street- directories as a 'professor of languages, 30 Hartshead, living at Stccl Bank and also Crooksmoor side'. (The present Lutheran Church on Carver Street is of recent date, and was founded by Pastor Hansen, of Bradford, in January 1953).

Apart from isolated incidents (in 1864 Georgc HolTmann, a pork butcher in Clay Cross, Derbyshire, was attacked by five colliers who beat him about the head with a large hammer [Derbyshire Times 20.8.64]), Germans were better received than most foreigners in the Sheffield area, and the introduc- tion of the Prussian military system into the South German States after 1866 and particularly after 1871 increased their numbers coming into the city.

At some as yet undefined stage, around the year 1888, the Germans in Shemeld began to organise themselves into a club. The Deutscher Klub does not, however, seem to have figured very highly in Shemeld life, and it may be that the realists in the Shemeld steel trade were more interested in learning English than keeping up their German. C. R. Hennings remarks that particularly in the short term Germans in England kept out of these clubs, 'um, wo es sich um die rasche Erlernung der englischcn Sprachc handelte, heimatliche Laute zu vermeiden'.'

During the 1870 and 1880s, Sheffield trade with Germany was boosted by the German need for armour plate." However, in the 1890s, the turbu- lence of Anglo-German relationships during the period following the Krugrr

' Anglo-German Publishing Company. 15 Craven St., Strand. lnndon \ V C . 1913. pp. fX. 69, 73; also C. R. Hmnings. Dm/rrht in Engbnd. Stuttgart 1923, p. 124. 'op. tit., p. 127. 'SRI 18.2.1876; Mirhacl Balfour, Thr K o i w and hir 7imcr. Irindon 1964. p. 197.

fi.1 GERMANS 1N SH

Tdegrcim pronipt(d one German living in Shcfficld (‘l’cutonicus’) t o risk killing 1)etwcen calls of ‘sycophancy’ and ‘treachery’ in order t o assure ‘ the city wtiosc ticnclits tic and other Germans cnjoycti’ of their enduring support IbI the British Crown (SKI 13. I .96).

I n this hostile climate, ncvcrthrlcss, onc ( h n i a n pork butcher in Slicflicltl did speak o u t against thr injustices of cvciits i n South Africa. ‘I’hcrc is no record 1 hat this occasioned riots in Shelficld; iridccd M r 1;crdinaticl Gel)- hardt, a pork h t c h c r who had left Wurttcrnbcrg in 1875 arid settled f i \ ~ y c w s 1atc.r in ShcfLcld, was praised h r thc fiirncss of his opinion, dcnoutic- irig thc w a r as a capitalist one which ‘ought nevcr to have t)cwi’. Other ( h n i a n locals thought i t prudent at this time to make inquiries at)out takirig o u t naturalisation (SKI 13.8.14; 17.5.15; 26.7.15).

Bctwwri t l ic Boc-r War pcriod and 1914, there seems to h a w tmm l i t t l c animosity towards Germans living in Shcflicld. I n fact, tiom 1904 to 1905, Shdiicld had an cxtrcmc4y gcrierous a n d popular Gcrnian Lord hlayol- (Josrph Jonas), and Germans figured highly i n the musical lifk of the city.’

LYhcn ( h i i a n y declared war on Kussia on 1 August 1914. most 01‘ tlic (:crmans living in Shcfhcld probably thought, as people did throughout 111(*

couiitry, that Britain would remain neutral, a s in 1870. I t was the duty of‘ rcscnists i n the Gcrnian Army t o attempt to rcturti home imnic.diatcly, hut the rest of the population conccntrated on enjoying Hank Holiday hfonday ( 3 August 1914), awaking only the following day to the news that Britaiii and (;crmany were at war.

On 7 August, it was announced that, undcr a new Order in Council ( : l / ivns Ke.r/ric/ion ill/, 5 August 19 14), aliens would have t o register thcni- sc lws forthwith at thr police station and would tired a permit t o livc i t 1

ccrtain areas or move hcyond a certain radius, the penalty for non-coni- pliancc with thcsc requiremcrits being E l 0 0 finc o r six months’ imprisonment (SKI 7.8.14). O n the same day two waitcrs who had been cniployctl i n a hotcl i n Matlock Bath were arrvstcd o n suspicioii of being <>ermari spies, while at Kctford the Shcrwood Rangers Yeomanry t o o k into custody sixteen Ccrinati reservists cngagrd by a local f irm to sink a new pit at Harworth. I n Shcffield itself, thc city-ccntrc premises of 1;crdinand Get)- hardt, which had survived the R o w War intact, were surrounded h y 21

hostile crowd, but no damagr was done ( S K I 10.8.14). Incidents such as thcsc were to hccoinc commonplacc in Shcfficld during thc First LVorld \Y;ir. I.:vcry German hccamc suspcct, atid liable to internment, though not at this stag(’ of the war subject to open violence. Indccd, in 1914, workers in Attcrcliffe, thrown tcmporarily on hard times because of the loss of’ t l i c Gcrnian markct, were content to collect pitchers of lrcc soup from hlr. Bullirigcr’s Grrrnari pork shop (SRI 3.6.15).

As the war progrcsscci, the campaign of hate propaganda undcrwrnt


stronger and stronger orchestration, particularly in such widely-read publications as Horatio Bottomley’s John Bull and Lord Northcliffe’s Daily Mail. The Germans in Britain were the ‘hidden hand’, the ‘enemy amongst us’ (She&ld Daily TelegrapA 26.9.14), the first step in a plan towards the conquest of Britain by insidious means, which included immigration and the formation of c~ lon ie s .~ One person had even suggested that naturalised Germans loyal to Britain should be immediately issued with ‘a badge, button, or ribbon for them to wear, and so satisfy the man in the street that they are of us’ (SRI 13.8.14). As Julian Symons says ofJohn Bull, when it too came up with the same idea, ‘How those words echo down time’s corridor’.6

Unfounded accusation abounded, and what actually did happen is exem- plified in the following letter (SRI 30.4.15), submitted by Richard Paul Kuehnrich, a German commercial clerk who had risen meteorically, and somewhat mysteriously, in the Sheffield steel trade, and from humble beginnings in an upstairs flat in Peel Terrace, thereafter resided in Holly Court, a large house with extensive gardens, at Millhouses Lane:

Sir, - When the war broke out, apparently some unscrupulous jesters made it their business to spread extraordinary news relating to me in Sheffield . . . I had known already six months before the war broke out the exact date when the war would commence. I had always been a personal friend of the Kaiser, for whom I was some sort of chief spy. I had been rewarded by the Kaiser for some particularly good piece of spy work by being presented with Holly Court. I had a wireless installation. Holly Court was full of ammunition and guns were hidden there. There was enough dynamite at Holly Court to blow up the whole of Sheffield. Soldiers were being drilled by me at Holly Court on every Saturday and Sunday. The bed of the lake at Holly Court was concreted specially to carry the heavy guns. My business was financed by Krupp, and the steel which I sold was made in Germany. . . . It was also given out that at the commencement of hostilities, after I had relinquished my post as Acting Consul for Austria, I was arrested by the military authorities and transported to York, and actually, as a climax, on Friday, 30 September 1914, I was shot as a spy at York. As I had been a few days at Bridlington about this time a great many people were amazed to see me on my return, and I had almost to apologise to them for being alive. . . . While I took little notice of the absurd rumours, considerable mischief has been caused by certain Sheffield travellers spreading these false tales over the country.’

However, far from having the desired effect, even this ‘epistle’ was denounced by ENGLISHMAN for having said nothing to condemn ‘the barbarous methods of his former countrymen’, something which in itself

’ F. von Bernhardi, &many and rh Next War, London 1914, pp. 21-2, a text widely read in Britain. 6Julian Symonr, H o d 0 Bol&wdcy. A BiagrapnJ, London 1955, p. 167. ’ The aourcc of many of t h m ideaa waa to bc found in the Daih Mail andJohn Bulk c.f. Caw Hate , K n p rh Hau Fires Burning. London 1977, p. 116.

86 GERMANS IN SHEFFIELD

seemed to indicate that Kuehnrich was ‘not without a strong leaning to the outlaws’ (SRI 1.5.15).

All this came to a climax on 7 May 1915, when the resentment against Germans living in Britain turned into hot fury and mob violence, sparked OK at the sinking of the Cunard liner Lwifania, ‘the most hideous of the many barbarous acts for which the Germans are responsible since their declaration in February of war upon British shipping’ (SRI 8.5.15).

The sinking, as vilified in the Daily Mail and John Bull, caused emotions in Britain, already outraged by constant reminders of German atrocities in Belgium, to reach fever-pitch. A frenzy of indignation ran through all sections of British society, as well as the allied world. ‘Remember Lucy!’ was the appeal made to many to sign up for the Forces and ‘considerably stimulated recruiting in the Shemeld district’ (SRI 13/14.5.15). As reports emerged of the large number of children amongst the victims laid out for identification at Queenstown (now Cobh), a Retford vicar declared in his Sunday sermon on 9 May 1915: ‘I have no doubt they will be pleased in Berlin to know that they have murdered another 40 babies. We must not think of peace until we have rid the world of this pest’ (SRI 10.5.15).

Beginning in Liverpool and passing quickly to the East End of London, the anti-German riots ‘Deutschenhetze’ soon spread to other British cities.“ In the Sheffield area, events remained generally calm until Monday 10 May 1915, when at Mexborough (north of Sheffield) the shop of George Schon- hut, pork butcher and local councillor, was destroyed by a rioting crowd. On the following day, Schonhut’s shop at Denaby Main (close to Mexborough), the house of his brother-in-law Mr Wedgewood (mineral water manufacturer, Mexborough) and the shop of Frederick Schonhut (born at Goole, 1877, quarter-cousin to George Schonhut [SRI 22.8.151) at Goldthorpe (Barnsley district), came under attack. The crowds who had gathered in front of the Goldthorpe shop did so on the grounds that, in addition to ‘rejoicing over the disaster to the Lwitania’, Schonhut was also ‘ill-using his wife’, as well as ‘sending bundles of hams away, with messages inside’ (SRI 22.5.15).

On Wednesday 12 May 1915, events in Goldthorpe became particularly nasty, when in the evening the London Tea and Drapev Store of John Robert Bakewell, not even a German, but an Englishman from Kilburn, Derbyshire, was beset by a crowd of 7000. Bakewell, after the Schonhut amair of the previous night, was supposed to have passed the remark that he ‘would like to wash his hands in English blood’ (SRI 1.6.15; 23.7.15). Bakewell, his two sons and one of their friends, had used firearms to defend themselves, killing one man and wounding four others. Bakewell (55) was charged at

” For a survcy of thc riots nationwide. cr. Panikos Panayi, 7Xt E m y in our .Muif. Cenonr in Rrifoin during fhr Fimf lVorld Whr. Nrw YorklOxford 1991.

GERMANS IN SHEFFIELD a7

Doncaster on 13 May 1915 with shooting with intent to do grievous bodily harm.g

Clearly, now that even Englishmen were under attack, no former German left in England could any longer be certain of his safety.

At Rotherham, on 13 May 1915, a deputation of Germans ‘of South German birth’ presented the Mayor with a dcclaration of their loyalty ‘to the King and country’ (SRI 14.5.15). At the same time, letters began arriving at the SheJjicld and Rotherham Independtnt from naturalised Germans, abhorring ‘thcse devilish deeds done by thc German Emperor and his misguided advisors and abettors’ (13.5.15).

But such letters did nothing to halt the blind fury, and on Friday 14 May 1915, the riots reached Sheffield. That evening, a crowd, composed mostly of women and girls, though led by men, took the law into their own hands and attacked AtterclifTe pork shops belonging to Hermann Zciher, John Bullinger, Frederick Carley, George Fricdrich, George Hannemann, and Charles Wirth. Thcn, in the same area, J. Barratt’s shop was attacked on the grounds that he had a German wife. Walter Shearstone’s swcct and tobacco shop was attacked for the samc reasons, while the two shops of a Mrs. Redfearn were attacked because ‘she employed a German’. After this, by 8.30p.m., the riots spread to The Moor arca of the city ccntrc. The Independent reported as follows:

Sheffield which has hitherto been free from antiGerman demonstrations except in the very early days of the war, yesterday caught the prevailing fever. The first symptoms were observed on Thursday night, when a flower-pot was thrown through the window of the pork shop kept by Hermann Zeiher, at 85, Broomhall Street, and the windows of two pork shops of Christopher Readle, 173, AtterclilTe Common, and John F. Bullinger, 56, AtterclilTe Common, were broken. . . . Women and men walked away with hams and flitches of bacon in their possession, women and girls wore links of polony and sausage as necklaces, while children munched pork pies and other dainties.

One man coolly attempted to march past a police inspector with a flitch of bacon over his shoulder, and when asked where he was taking it he laconically remarked, ‘Home’. One young man after securing a ham, placed it on the counter and turned his attention to the till. When he had got all he could from there he looked round for the ham, but it had gone. In highly indignant tones he inquired ‘Who the - has stolen my ham?’

The crowd showed themselves ready to attack any shop if the owner was suspected of relationship with Germany. English pork butchers displayed Union Jacks, but even this did not always satisfy the crowd (15.5.15).

In Rotherham, too, on that same night of Friday 14 May 1915, the riots

For a full arrount of the Bakewell inridcnt. sce D. Stevrnson. ‘7Xr Goldfhorp Riots of 1915, Rothcrham 1988.


Illustration 1: To Our Mutual Advantage P.c. J. B. (to alien enemy): Sorry to trouble you, but it is to our mutual advantage. Indcpcndmf, 17 May 1915, p. 5; cartwn by Ernest Noble.

continued, and took on a further dimension when a twelve-year-old boy was accidentally crushed to death (SRI 17.5.15).

On Saturday the disturbances in Rotherham and Sheffield continued, and spread south to Chesterfield. In Rotherham, the police were stoned and a pitched battle broke out a t about 9p.m., near the Red Lion Inn, owned by Tennant Bros. of Sheffield, but kept until shortly before by one of the Schonhut family.

In Sheffield on Saturday crowds gathered in The Moor, on St. Philip’s Road, and in Heeley, but broke up without causing any damage, while in Attercliffe that night the police were able to recover ‘a quantity of stolen goods, and at times the station resembled a well-stocked provision store, with flitches of bacon and choice hams much in evidence’ (SRI 17.5.15). ‘A number of aliens . . . , fearing for their own safety, attended the Central Police Offices and requested to be interned. The request was complied with, and these people were sent to internment camps at once’ (SRI 17.5.15; see Illustration 1).

On Saturday, too, 12 miles to the south, in Chesterfield (Derbyshire), around 9 p.m.:

G EK 51 AXS I N s H I: 1.‘1.‘ I E I. 1) 81)

:In aiiti-(;rrman dernoiistratioii occurred . . . arid s o tlirratrning was the attitude adopted by a scction of the crowd tliat (;rorgr H u g , a Gcrman pork butcher. who has been naturalised for n i m y y(.ars, rrrnovcd his pork rtc. from his stall i n thr hlarket Place and cl(iscd his shop in Gluniaii Gate. (DT 22.5.15)

At Whittingtoii hloor (North Chcstcdicld) feelings ran high against E’rcd- crick Stuntirr, a naturaliscd (;erman and pork tx~tchcr in Shcficld Road, married to a C~hcstcrficld woman, and ‘I)(.twc.cn one and two thousand persons’ gathcrcd outside his sliop around 9 p.rn., ‘a large number of them being woiii(~n, and ttic latter were far morc‘ dcmonstr,itivc than the nialc portion of’ the crowd. . . . h4atters began t o look very ugly . until after midnight that the crowd dispcrscd’ (DT22.5.15). Stunder himself had bccn intcrncd Iiricfly at the crid of 1414, but idlowing the incident was interned oiicc more.

By Monday 17 M a y 1915, h e riots had morr or less bccn curbed i n the Shefield arca, and under a Marnirig issucd on 15 May 1915 by Alderman A. J . Hohsoii and h4r. .4. Balhur, Brlgiari Consul in ShdKcld, t h a t

attacks upon civilians are i i o t in accordaricr with the traditions of our p ~ ~ p l r and will trnd to depreciate ttir high positioir we hold thixiughout thr world and lessrn the prrseiit symp.i thy extriidrd t o us h y Neutral Powcrs. ( S K I 17.5.15)

the magistrates’ courts were left to sort out the 1)usiness of f inrs . Mr. Geb- hardt even sen t a lettcr of thanks t o the police, for having ‘thwarted thr hooligans’ (S’RZ 17.5.15).

Over thc following days many individual cases wet-c heard until on 29 May I915 fifty-thrcc defendants from the AttrrclifTc Riots made thcir appcarancc in court:

The bulk o f t h e accused werc women; n o t a few of them with ii t)al)y in arms. , . , T h e solicitors’ table in front of the niagistratrs’ hrnch had the appearance of a provision mrrchant’s shop, hugr tianis, sides of bacoii, lumps of pork, and tins of lard being pilrd therr. . . . Genrrally thc pleii put forward l)y thr defendants was that they did not steal thr goods, but ‘only picked them up’. . . . When Cot, Hughes askrd one woman w.Iiat she callrd her action if i t was not stealing, she replied ‘Finding’. Colonrl Hiighes, howevrr. considered the whole matter to be ‘a disgrace t o Shrflirld’ and ‘a t y p r of patriotism . . . wedded to thieving’, which he could n u t understand; ‘he could assure them that Shefiield was thoroughly ashamrd of them’. (SRI 29.5.15)

The dcfcndants, women and girls aged 16 upwards, from t h r Colcridgc

On 8 J u n e 1915, the bulk of thc petty theft chargcs arising out of the Road arca of Attcrcliffe, wrre fined L1 t o L3 each.

Goldthorpc Riots werc heard at D o n c a s t r r :

46 defendants, men and women arid srvrral young girls were summunrd on two charges each. . . , The goods includrd one diamond scarf pin, Ritchrs of


bacon, and hams from Schonhut’s, and couches, wallpaper, linoleum, chairs, boots, sideboards, mantel shelves, alarm clocks, wringing machines, tea, spring mattresses, washstands, cheese, stockings, socks, carpets, tin baths, enamelled ware etc. . . . Several of the defendants were soldiers’ wives, and one man was in khaki, having enlisted on Saturday. (SRI 9.6.15)

The ringleaders in the shooting at Bakewell’s London Teu Sfore were however remanded to Leeds Assizes.

The following day most of the Rotherham cases reached the magistrates’ court. On 23 June 1915, another 23 cases were heard at Rotherham, and one woman who was ordered to pay f I for stealing a dish, jug, and lemon squeezer said:

she thought i t was a shame that she had to pay, and added, ‘Look at what the Germans have done to the poor Belgian babies. They have cut their little heads om. I do not think it is right. I wish I had hold of one of the Germans, I would serve him the same way’. (SRI 24.6.15)

She was not alone in these sentiments, and at Chesterfield ‘Sarah Chappell . . . accused the police of being worse than the German in question [Stunder] for “sticking up” for him. “What pity would the Germans have for the likes of us women and children?” she asked’ (DT 29.5.15). Paul Cohen-Portheim, an interned author and artist, described the same attitudes at this time amongst London crowds.’“

The final rioters at Rotherham were fined on 6 July 1915 (SRI 7.7.15). Of the riots as a whole, it had been generally the women who stole pies, paintings and flitches of bacon, while men went for heavier items, such as, at Goldthorpe, a dynamo, later offered for sale for E2 (SRI 28.5.15), sideboards, wringing machines, carpets and washstands (SRI 9.6.15). Beyond this, German pianos had been particular objects of hate, as the following report of events in Conisborough will indicate:

The door was battered down, and the crowd swarmed into the shop. A piano was seen in the dining room and a woman sat at the stool and played the National Anthem. Then she turned to a man and said ‘Now then, it’s thy turn’. The man attacked the instrument with an axe with such force that splinters flew into the roadway. . . . the appearance of the place when the crowd had finished with it could not have been worse if the destroying agent had been a German bomb itself (SRI 12.5.15). (See Illustration 2.)

Besides such acts of righteous indignation, drunkenness and poverty had also undoubtedly played a role, and the ShcJkld Cuurdian ( 2 1.5.15) remarked cynically that the riots in the Shefield area had not begun ‘until Friday, when the shops were well-stocked for the weekend trade’.

The sentences for the Goldthorpe Riots (Frederick Schonhut’s shop) came

Time Stood Still, M v Inlrmnunt in England 1914-1918, London 1931, pp. 29-30.

G E K X I XNb IN S H E FI: I E 1.1) 9 I

11 All-British Pianos!!! -

SMRE, SONS & CO,, I02 & 104, Pinstone St., Sheffield, have sold BQITISE PIANOS exclusively for many years. What lady or gentleinan H o i i l d ask UG\V [,,I d G C I I ) W I .

mnde Piano in preference to one constructcd in GrLat 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 It would bc monstrous!

It would be robbing their o\\n colinlr! 1111 n and IJU(‘;llb bread into the mouths of thew encnilcs.

And really and truly for no conceirablr. cniisc. ~ L I I y bit na good a Piano c a n be mndc In G w o t 1;rit.l.n a s c \ ~ r came ou t of Germmy.

Pianos by Hopkinson, Cramer, Collard, &c., &c.

PIANOSfrom 8, ‘m monthly till paid for. ORGANS from 5,‘- monthly till paid for. PLAYER-PIANOS from 25,’- monthly.

D F L I V E R E D F R C E .

10 Free Lcssons. Old Instruments taken in exchangt.

IISMITH, SONS & CO., 11 102 & 104, Pinstone St., Sheffield.

on 22 Jill), 1915, a n d thosc lilr t h r shootirigs on 2 3 J u l y 1915. Thc judgc in his suniming up coiidrmnrd t h r riots ;IS ‘a scandalous disgracc to thc wholr community’ (SR l 23/2+.7.15). I n t11r c;isc of thv shootings, hc found that :

i t was ii \.cry unwise thing Ji)r Xlr. H;ikrc\r.Il t o have usrd firrarrns, brciiusc. that ci)uld not s t o p ;i riot. / \ t the sanic tiiric. klr. Bakr\vcll had scrii what happrncd to Schonhiit, and Iir wiis cntitlrd to delrnd his prrmisrs. Those who prornotrd t h r riot c.ould not say i t \v<is Rlr. Bakrwcll’s h u l t if anybody

0 2 GERMANS IN SHEFFIELI)

was killed, because no one would hnve been killed if thrre had t)ecn no riot ( S R I 24 7 15)

‘I’hc two rinq-lcadcrs, miners named Milrier and ‘Iahoor, wrrc sentenced 10 liftern months’ hard labour; thirtrrn othrr men reccivcd scntcnccs ol Octwccn two and tcn months’ hard lahour. It tiecdme npparcnt that Bakc- well’s had tiecn attacked Iiccause it was ‘the only sliop in Golclthorpe worth robbing’ ‘ I

I n tlic w i d u contcxt of the nation, repercussions of the riots came quickly. O n 12 May 1915, in direct consequcncc of the Lusilnnia sinking, a petition

signed tly 250,000 women was presented 10 I’arliamcnt, demanding tlic immediate intcrnmcnt of all alicri cncrnies of military age and to rcnio\~c ‘all ;ilicri cncmics - inen and women alike - to a distance of at least 30 nlilcs from the sea coast’.12 ‘The following day i t was dccreed that all non- naturaliscd adult males were ‘for their own safety and that of thc community t o I)c segregated and intrrncd or, ifovcr military age, rcpatriated . . . . Somc 19,000 enemy subjccts were a t that tinic intcrncd, Iwving aljout 40,000 (24,000 m c n and 16,000 wointm) at large’. ”’

I n Sliclfrld and the surrounding arra tlic new measures were h u g l i t \ ~ r y ‘smartly’ to the general attcntion over thc course of the next thrcc months, the period leading up to the compulsory registration of all malw I)ctwc.cn the ; i p of’twclvc and fifty. T h e laxity of lodging house kccpcrs was attacked first hy the police arid magistrates, cases occurring at C:hcstcrfic4d, Kothcrham and Barnslcy, whilc tight reins wcrc also being drawn around even the niost apparently innocent movements of (at this distance in tinic) harmless aliens:

)\I Stic1Ticld Police Court, yesterday, Frederick Burkert, of 13, 13alm Grreri, was chargrcl with bring an rriemy alien and failing t o registrr i i i accordancc with police rrgulatioiis . . . thr man had adinittrd that he was not naturalised; that lie was I)orii at Wurteinberg on 6 October, 1846, arid came to StiefIirld iri 186.5. For 35 years he had a business of his own at South Strrrt, M o o r , anti h r ninr years had I~ecii manager lor a pork butchrr at Barker’s Pool.

.\ccusetl, wtio said lie had overlooked registering, was discharged aftrr giving iiii uiitlrrtakiiig t o do so at once. (SRI 26.5.15)

1,ntcr that month anothcr pork butcher in his sixties was fined, this time UO:

i\ ( k r m a n pork butcher, narncd John Idmhacti, 60, was brought into custody in Rothcrham yesterday on a charge of failing t o notify his change of address t o the p~licc.. . . . ‘I did not want t o bother the police every live rniriutcs’ . . .


Illustration 3: Kriegsgefangen ‘Have you served in the Kaiser’s Army?!’ ‘ Y a Sir, 5. Uhlancn 1873’. ‘This man is to be interned at once ... Very dangerous i d e d ! ’ Manx Museum and National Trust, h u & u Isle of Man, undated. Original spirit-duplicated, condition poor.

He did not think he was doing anything wrong. (SRI 23.6.15; see Illustration 3.)

On 25 July 1915, the irony, which began with Limbach, whose business in College Street, Rotherham, had been wrecked on 18 May 1915, moved on to the hapless Schonhuts. George Schonhut, whose shop at Mexborough had been destroyed on 10May 1915, was summoned a t Doncaster for failing to register as an enemy alien. Despite having served in the 1890s in the Queen’s Own Yorkshire Dragoons, he was fined f 5 (SRI 26.7.15). He later appears to have lost his seat on the Mexborough Urban Council and to have been interned, aged 55, ‘with no prospect offreedom’ (SRI 17.10.16). A similar fate had long since befallen another member of the family (W. Schonhut), who by an even more bizarre turn of fate had found himself interned as a British alien in Germany, at the detention camp in Ruhleben, a converted trotting track near Berlin (SRI 7.3.15).

The question of civilian detention was not of course new, although this phase of it was. Camps had been set up a t various points in the country, mainly for seamen, dockworkers, unemployable and now penniless waiters, in fact any male of conscription age, but after the initial round-up in 1914 many of these had been released on parole, not least of the reasons for


SEfANCEN WME ENTUSSUNC.

Illustration 4: Cefangennahme . . . Entlassung Manx Museum and National Trust, Douglas, Isle of Man, undated. Original drawing in colour.

which being the lack of accommodation and the need to tie up the Army on the guard duties involved.” The prospect of ‘intern them all’ and a return to the camps, where the cost of ‘extras’ would eventually reduce even prosperous men to penury, must have been a bleak one for the Sheffield residents. At least one interned Rotherham alien (Wilhelm Kraft) was determined that this should not happen to him, and was described as having f200 standing in his account, ‘not one penny of which he would allow to provide food for his wife and two children’ ( M I 24.4.17; see Illustration 4.).

Ever since the early days of the war, when there had been a serious riot at Douglas Camp on the Isle of Man and several detainees had been killed,I5 the camps had acquired a notorious reputation. Kumours that such behaviour was normal, and that detainees at Knockaloe, near Peel, also on the Isle of Man, had been cut down by machine-gun fire for having

I‘ Bird, ap. tit., p. 58. I’ a f l n q u j hdd an 20 and 27 N a ~ e m h 1914 in& tht Disturbances at Darglor Camp, 19 November 1914 [Manx Murum) , in which 5 aliens had died, 4 by shooting, and one by trampling on the stairs. The dead were: Richard Fob, of Breslau, a waiter from the Grand Hotel, Brighton; Christian Bachl. of Wiintemberg, a waiter in London; Richard Matthiar, of Rcinbek ‘near Blumenthal, Hanover’ [sic], a sailor shipwrecked and picked up from the North Sea; Bcrnhard Waring, a worker on the dock extension at the Port of London; and Ludwig Bauer, of Wiirttemberg. ‘single. with a young lady in Battcnea’. The riot had been over damp tents, but had been made worse by rumours that officen from Hamburg were planning 10 steal a packet steamer and escape to Germany. A report of this inquiry a h appeared in the Indrprndnt of 28.11.1914.


Illustration 5: Isle of Man Manx Museum and National Trust, undated, original spirit-duplicated, condition p r . Poss- ible repmentation of the Douglas Alien Detention Camp riot of 19 November 1914.

refused to settle in huts that were only half-finished and damp,IG must have added further to the anguish (see Illustration 5 ) .

As regards entry to such camps, it was not good, either, to have written letters of loyal support to British newspapers; if found out, this could lead to beatings up by the more patriotic German fellow- inmate^.'^ But go they had to, persuaded in many instances of the need to do so for their own safety. Even Julius Freund, Professor of German at the University of Sheffield, had to leave for Douglas Camp at the end of July 1915.

After the Lusifuniu incident, anti-Germanism in Shemeld began to enter a new phase, and on 2 August 1915 the following letter appeared in the Indcpcndmf:

Sir - May I beg space in your columns for the following appeal t o anyone

Disseminating disloyal or anti-war propaganda or pro-German publications. who can furnish authentic information regarding cases of:

Is F. L. Dunbar-Kalckrcuth, Die Minutinre/, Leipzig 1940, p. 153, diary entry of October 1915. A well-worn carbon copy of Ernst Lissauer's H&sq on E q / d is amongst the 191418 documents preserved in the Manx Muaeum, and it is worth noting that even on 20 Janaury 1918 the Kaiser's birthday could still bc celebrated at Knockaloe and include as A / / g n r i M Gesang the first verse of Ddsch/and irbn dla. I' Dunbar-Kalckreuth, op. tit., p. 137, diary entry of Alexandra Palace, August 1915.


Spying, unauthorised signalling, furnishing petrol to enemy submarines, trading with the enemy, etc.

Enemy aliens still at large who have escaped the notice of the authorities by passing under British names, or persons of German or Austrian extraction still employed in public offices or on Government contracts.

All communications will be treated as strictly confidential, will be investi- gated . . . and, where necessary, will be brought to the notice of the proper authorities.

The letter was from George Makrill, Honorary Secretary of the Anti- German Union, 346, Strand, London, W.C. It represented another reason for detaining all aliens as potential spies.

The idea that the Germans had developed an elaborate spy-system in England, based on German waiters who reported regularly to the nearest German consul, had been in circulation since Prussia's rise to power in 1870. It had been brought to the public attention by serialisation in the Dairy Mail of The Invasion of 1910, a work by the novelist William Le Queux. These ideas were then put to good use to increase the circulation of Bottomley's John Bull.'8

To the readers of the Indepmdmf, who up till the June of 1915 had been encouraged to take spy stories with a pinch of salt, it now seemed that spies were being found everywhere.

On 15June 1915, the Sheffield Chamber of Commerce made it known that the Germans had launched an ingenious attempt to get high speed steel and high-class tool steels from Sheffield manufacturers 'for the use of alien enemies' (SRI 16.6.15). At Newcastle, on 17 August 1915, William Sagar (20) was charged, as an enemy alien, with having entered a prohibited area (Armstrong, Whitworth's at Elswick) without the permit of the Chief Constable and sentenced to six months' hard labour (SRI 18.8.15). At Darlington on 16 September 1915, Luise S. C. Herbert, wife of a local curate, was found guilty of having attempted to elicit information as to the kind of shells being made in the town, as to the situation of the works and as to whether guns or gun carriages were being manufactured in the town. She was imprisoned for six months (SRI 17.9.15). None of this was helped by the occurrence of a Zeppelin raid on Sheffield's East End, in which houses were demolished and 28 people killed.'g The readers of the lnde~cndml had hitherto been led to believe that the possibility of such an event was very remote indeed (see Illustration 6).

On 12October 1915 Nurse Edith Cave11 was executed at Ghent. Ten days later, in Clay Cross (Chesterfield), a Catholic priest could stand German atrocities no longer and committed suicide (SRI 22.10.15).

In February 1916, under Herbert Samuel, the new head of the Home Office, who was 'acutely conscious of the potential political, if not strategic, problems posed by the presence of 23,000 people officially classed as enemy

'8Symone. op. d., pp. 164-5. " H . Keeble Hawron. Skfild: Th Growth OJa Cip l893-19%5, Shefficld 1968. p. 201.

Illustration f i : Morr Ilariiig Drcds a t 10,000 F w t Zeppelin crews rook their sausagrs on t l ~ c cxllaust pipe ( 1 1 tlw niolur, rcport in ‘(:ologiir Gazette’. Independent, t i , July 1915. p. 5, Ernest Noblr (hr toon.

aliens at liberty in the naturaliscd Germans especially wcre clamped down on for cvcn the slightest infringrment at all of the law. First amongst thew was Richard Kuehnrich, ‘chief spy’ to the Kaiser, who o n 23 March 1916 was fined E3 for having shown a bright powerful light at Holly Court: ‘the house stood on a hill in a very prominent position’ (SKI 24.3.1 6).

By 29 March 1916 (SRI) Shefield krirw ahout its first spy, Albert Bright of Rotherham, not even a German, but a scrap merchant who had mumbled something about ‘us Prussiaris liavc as much right to livr as other men’ and been found in the possession of ‘documents containing infixmation with respect to the manufacture of war material’. Bright, who ‘in 1905 had also been in possession of documents relating t o the Dreadnought programme, though a t that time penniless and unable t o use them for his own cnds’, was sentenced at Leeds Assizes on 5 May 1916 to penal servitude for life

”’ Bird, up. at., pp. 102-3

‘18

(SKI 6..5.15), tliough this was rcduccd b y the Court of (:rimiii:tl Al)I)(,iil on 23 J u n e 1916 to ten years’ penal scrvitudc (SRZ 24.6.15).

On 12 .July 19 16 Horatio Bottomlcy, thc Hun-Finder Gcncral himsrlf; came to St idf ie ld to sprak at t h c Allxrt Hall, Barker’s Pool, on I>chalf of certain ‘Slicfiicld Businessmen’, concerning what Hritisti policy should lw towards undctaincd aliens. Addressing ;I full house, Bottomley used tlic toss of t l ic Htivtpshirf ( 5 J u n o 1916), which had I)ccn taking Kitc1icnc.r to Arcliangcl, to strc.tigthcn the casc tbr intcrnmcnt. Alt hougli i t is now tliouglit t h a t the /~mnpJh i r f p r o h b l y struck a Gcrman mitic h i d down duriiig t l i c I h t t l r oI‘.Jutland, Bottomlcy was convinced that thc ship had gotic down ‘fioni thr cfGct o f tlic well-timed fuse of a n infernal I m n h l i t i d by an a l i w hatid’, a conclusion which a l l o w t d him t o urgr his aucliciicc ‘to h u n t o u t t h r alicii, naturalisctl o r iiot’, dcclaring t h a t ‘Shcllicxld LVi ts scclliitig with them’. ‘I’lic final resolution, which was carried without dissent, was niovcd b y Mr Win. Chatterton, of Castlcthorpc, Brigg, and ondcti I,y hIr \.t‘lI1.

Khodcs Brown, an c~x-l,ord Mayor o f York, atid Mjils t o the c - l i i ~ t t h a t ‘all pcrsoiis o f c.ricmy origin, w h c t h c r na/ural i .vd or no / , should I ) ( . iiitcrricd fi)rthwitli’ (SK/ 13.7 .16) .

‘I‘hc iict closed tighter i n SlirfTiclcl. On I!f*July 1916, on(’ sup110srs I)); way o f preparation, thc Indtpnduur printtd ;in account of‘ l i k i i i t h r Islc 01‘ hdan cletcntioti c a m p s at Knockaloe arid l)oiiglas, wliilc t l i c fi,llowing dab, i t rcyor~c-d t h a t under the “l’rading with tlic Ilncniy Act’ the Board of‘1’r;idc had ordcrcd t l i c alicn I)usiricss of I’oldi Stccl Works, Napicr Strecat, Shc~fiicI(I to t ic wound up and placed in thc h a n d s of the Coritrollcr. l i ve days I;ticr t h e l’rcsidcnt of the Board of ‘I‘radc was asked wltcthc~ attctition h;id t r ( s l i

called to the music firm of Arthur Clrilsoti, I’cck a r i d (hn ipa i ty , o f 1:arg;itc ;itid 1,copdd Street, Shcfficld, which, i t was ;ttlcged, w i t s owned ancl firiaiiwd l)y BcchstcGi and Cornpany, well-known C;crm;in pialto makers, and shou ld I)c. wound up ( S K I 26.7 .16) .

I n Oc to tm 1916 (tic Schonhut k i m i l ~ ~ rcc.civcti aiiotl icr I)low, M.II (W C;c.orgc Schotihut’s 2fi-ycar-old son was rcfirscd rxcrnption Iy the Militat); ‘I~rihutial and had t o join the forces ( S K I 17.10. 16). O n 1 7 J a n u a r . y 191 7, atiothrr pork t,utchcr, John Hatiticman ( 3 7 ) , who had l)wii fi)utitl

attempting t o travcl to Ireland, stood trial a t Kothcrham, accused of attempting t o avoid military service ( S R I I N . I . 17 ) .

I n the meantime, Shcffcld’s famous chorus-master, I l r Henry (:owartl , wrote in t h c Mu.rica1 Slantlard, explaining why pcrfi)rmaliccs of’ all Ccrmaii music writtcn after 1870 sliould bc hanticd in l3rit;tin.“

€ 3 ~ 1 9 1 7 so many clctcntion camps of various kitids hiid I~ccri sct u p all ovcr Britain, not j u s t for civilians b u t also for prisoners of’ war. that t l ic possibility of c~scapecs marauding the co~i~i t rys idc 1)ccamc very red. On(. of’ the main camps fbr Gcrrnan ofliccrs was quite closcx to Shcfiicld, at 1)oning- tor i Hall, Nottingharnsliirc, I t was from her(,, on 4 .July 191.5, that G u n t h c r

99

Pliischow, a Lt. Commandcr i n the Gcrmati naval airforce, had made his escape back to Gcrmany, onc of only four German prisoners in thc First World War to do

O n 30 Scptcmbcr 1917 Liur German naval officers, part of anothrr break-out from Donington, which had includcd Karl von Mullcr, captain of the Emden, were arrcstcd at Chestrrfield (SRI 1.10.17). A Brimington man, M r William Darkin, had mct the four mcn and was suspicious of their accent when they wished him good morning: ‘thcre was not the Derbyshire ring in thc voicc’ (IIT 6.10.17).

Arrests continued on 27 October 1917 ( t w o Germans from Buxton Peak Forest Camp, cunningly trickrd by Police Scrgrant Hogg into spcaking German) ( I IT 3.1 1 . 1 7 ) , and on 21 Januar), I91 8 (two Germans from an internment camp in Flintshirc) (SRI 22.1.18). But Shefficld had its own camp as well, in the south of thc city. at Norton. Regulations there were strict. as onc man fbund out to his cost:

A Shellicld labourer, Thomas 1,eeiiant . . . .idmitted, at Drorifield, yesterday, that he had given a t in ol‘c.ondrnsrd niilk t o a German Prisoner o f War, intrrned ;it Norton. He was charged with ‘tradirig with the enemy’. . . . Lrenane said that the Grrman, an old man, was walking alongside him at the camp, and he said, ’For God’s sakt. givi. rnr a drop of m i l k for my tca’. Hr then gavc him a t i n of milk. .\ccused, who was stated to h a w been working at the camp. was rrnlandrd un t i l th r k;‘:ckington Srssions. (,Sf21 18.9.17)

Lccnane was sentenced to one month’s hard labour. At the trial his supervisor said, ‘One doesn’t know what tins contain, it might he milk or it might be explosives’ ( D T , 19.9.17).

T h e anti-German campaign did not show any signs of abating. Thc depth of resentment still felt in Shcfiield can I)r gauged from t h r following account:

A pitiful story was told in Shtfiirld coiirr, ycstrrday, when Frances Knapp, wife of an enemy alirn, of ‘1, Watkiri Strcct, was srntrncrd t o two months’ imprisonment for neglrcting her nine childrrn, whose ages raugr from 2 t o 1.1 ycars . . . drfendanr had hecii prrsrcritt-d continually by nrighhours because she was thr wife 01’ an alien. Free mrds were given t o t h r children at school, b u t owing t o the rrpcated taunts 01’ ttir neighhours rrsprcting her supposed nationality, she rrfiiscd to let thr childrrn go and have them. (SRZ 3 0 . 1 . I 8 i

.4licns who did have food, however, had to be careful not to fall foul of thc ‘Food Hoarding Order’ o f6 April 191 7. Amongst the first to do so was the closely observed M r Kuchnrich, who o n 13 February 1918 found himself once more in court, this timc for having i n his possession 69 Ihs of bacon,

I00 GERMANS IN SHEFFIEI.1)

for which he was fined E10. A lesser charge of hoarding l a Ihs of Rovril wits dropped ( S K I 14..2.18).

But the tlrania for Shcflicld was nearing its close. T h e last act was not yrt quite over. One of its former mayors arid most prominent citizens, Sir .Joseph Jonas, a German naturaliscd in 1876 and a steel manuhcturcr of many yrars' standing, former Consul in Shcffield to the Kaiser himself; was brought to hook, aged 72, for allegcdly having disclosed rifle manufacture secrets to the Germans. Horatio Bottomlcy's Hun-haters Itad thcir way last; at l rast until i t was disclosed that the secrets in question had been passcd in 1913, and that they were not secrets at all, hut merely trade infi)rmation. None the less, the Old Bailey could not let Jonas go unscathed, and imposed a fine of E2000 for 'misdcmeanour' ( S K I , S I ) 7 25-30.7.18).

A month later Sheffcld's alicn pork h t c h e r s werr still being interned: Christian H. I(. Store ( 3 7 ) , Karl Hcllcnschmidt (48), .Jotin G. Ehrcnfricd (32 ) ( S R I 28.8.10).

The War ended with the Armistice on 1 1 November 1918. 'rhc local prrss makes no mention of when the alien pork butchers r e t u r n d to Sticficltl. 'l'hat they did come back is however evident in thr names which survive them there in 1992. Whether they came back with the rm1)ittcrment which it was foresrwi t1ic.y might harbour towards the government that had impr i sond them":' is scarcely to be known; hut a good example of thc dist)clic.l' which some of the iilicns had concerning what the British Govcrn- metit had done to them can he found in thc internment diary ofttic London- ( k r m a n . Richard Noschke:

Now that I a m liere [ in Germany] safr, away from all the horrors of this trrrihlr W a r 1 havr time for reflection, I oftrn wonder how was i t possihk that thr English people after me being Resident in that Country h r 25 yrars with an English Wife, a grown Family, thr best ofCharacter, 20 years in one situation, could turn o n one s o t i t ter , but thr answer I have never foutid. I had made many friends, as I had spent th r best part of niy l i k over there, but I m i sorry to say, that nearly all, with w r y f+w rxeptions [sic] have turned against me, rvcti m y own direct family rt4ations tirver even sent nie as much as a postcard all the time I was

While Noschkc's account lay generally forgotten, as part of their propaganda campaign the Nazis in I940 published D i e Manner-Znsel, the diaries of F. I , . Kalckreuth-I)unbar, which maintained an abiding hatred of Britain. Yet against these and Noschkc's account, one must balance the much less vindictive report hy Paul Cohen-Portheim, Tim? Stood &Still, My Internment in England 191&191R, London 1931. Indeed, therc were even some internees


who actually enjoyed being among the ‘Drahtstadtburger’ on the Isle of Man (if the following popular song from Knockaloe is to be believed):

Wenn die Night sich hat gelagert auf das Knockaloer Camp. Wenn die “Stars” begin to scheinen und die Air ist cold und damp. Wenn die Tippelbank geclosed ist und man geht erleichert home, wenn die Pritschen down geputtet, Nur der Sentry watched alone. Dann denk ich: ach wie wunderbar hats 90 ein Prisoner of War. Refrain: Ja, die schiinste Time in meinem Life, fern von der Arbeit und vom Wife, wo ich so recht vom Henen froh, das war die Time in K n o c k a l ~ * ~

Of the pork butchers mentioned in this account, the family names Schonhut, Hannemann, Kramer, Gebhardt, Wirth, Store, Carley, Curley, Eberlin, Metzger and Haag still appear in the local telephone directories. Of these, Friedrichs still run a butchery business in Sheffield and Hannemanns one in Rotherham. The other names, Limbach, Bullinger, Zeiher, Readle, Burkert, Hubner, Betzold/Petzold, do not appear, while Stunder gave up his shop at Whittington Moor and worked for George and Willy Haag, who had come to the area in the 1870s, originally on the way to North America, from Kunzelsau. David Griffiths, one of the rioters accused of removing Schonhut’s dynamo from Goldthorpe, became Labour M.P. for Rother Valley in 1945.% As for the Attercliffe of 1915, much of this was demolished to make way for the Don Valley Sports Stadium.

z’ ‘Knockdoc-Lkuuch’, Text von W. Flcmig, Musik von H. Riedl, Manx Muscum. There arc two further v c m .

Stevenson, op. r i ~ . , p. 49.

The author gratefully acknowledgca the kind permission of the Library of the University of Shefficld to reproduce illustrations I. 2.6 from the Sh@d a d Rotherham and to the Manx Museum and National Trust, Douglas, Isle of Man, to reproduce illustrations 3. 4, 5 as well as to quote from the song ‘Knockaloe-Deutsch’.

Documents

GERMANS IN SHEFFIELD 1817–1918