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George Rickey’s Life in Motion

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George Rickey’s Life in Motion

George Rickey’s Life in Motion

I was snatched from South Bend at the age of six in 1913, and it was Notre Dame that brought me back.

—GeorgeRickey,July4,1996

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ThisspreadandthefollowingtwospreadsshowsculpturesinaforestedmeadowattheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop,EastChatham,NewYork,1999

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I tried to keep my mind on movement itself,

pushing gently on to try to find what was possible and discovering,

with each new idea, how near the beginning I still was.

—GeorgeRickey

Acknowledgments

BeginningtheJourney

EarlyExplorationandDiscovery

ExpandingthePossibilitiesofSculpturalMotion

Kineticismandthe1960s

CultivatingtheArtisticProcess

ExperiencingRickey’sSculptures

Illustrations,includingtheGeorgeRickeySculptureArchiveatNotreDame

EndnotesandBibliography

PhotoCreditsandColophon

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Contents

TheSniteMuseumofArttakesgreatpleasureinpublishingitsGeorge Rickey Sculpture Archiveontheoccasionoftwo2009events:theopeningofthe Innovations: George Rickey Kinetic Sculpture exhibitionsinnearbySouthBendandtheconcurrentAbstraction in the Public Sphere: New Approaches symposiumattheUniversityofNotreDame,organizedtocelebrateRickey’sartisticlegacy.

Innovations featuresfiveoutdoorRickeysculpturesinstalledondowntownSouthBendsidewalksandplazas,andindoorandoutdoorexhibitionsattheSouthBendMuseumofArt.TheexhibitionsaretheresultofmodelcollaborationbetweenPhilipRickey,president,GeorgeRickeyFoundation;RoseMeissner,president,CommunityFoundationofSt.JosephCounty;SusanVisser,director,SouthBendMuseumofArt;theSniteMuseumofArt,and1stSourceBank.PhilipRickeygenerouslydevotedhistimeandtheresourcesoftheGeorgeRickeyWorkshoptomaketheseexhibitionsinGeorgeRickey’sbirthplacepossible.Asistypicalofhim,Philipwasenthusiastic,gracious,andinvolvedinmanyaspects,largeandsmall,oftheexhibitionsandsymposium.Similarly,MeissnerandVisserlaboredtirelesslyandingoodhumortomaketheSouthBendexhibitionspossible.Thisprojectisjustthemostrecentexampleoftheirprofounddedicationtotheartsinourcommunity—whichwouldbesorelyimpoverishedwithoutthem.

Similarly,NotreDamefacultymembersErikaDoss,chair,AmericanStudies,andElyseSpeaks,arthistory,cheerfullysharedexpertiseandenergyinorganizingtheRickeysymposium,asdidtheindefatigableHarrietBaldwin,associateprofessionalspecialist,CollegeofArtsandLetters.

TheSouthBendexhibitionscomplementtheSniteMuseum’spermanentexhibitionofitsGeorge Rickey Sculpture Archive,whichincludesoneoutdoorsculptureandnineteenindoorsculpturesthatarepromisedgiftsoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation.TheFoundationwillalsoonedayplaceRickey’sprofessionalandscholarlypapersattheUniversityofNotreDameArchives.Rickeyarchivematerialincludesbusinesscorrespondencewithclients,museumsandgalleries;engineeringdrawingsandspecifications;photographs,videosandfilmsofRickey’ssculptures;aswellasacomputerdatabaseofsculpturescreatedbyRickey.PublishedworksincludeessayswrittenbyGeorgeRickeyonvarioustopics,includingthemanuscriptforhis,Constructivism: Origins and Evolution,andessayswrittenonGeorgeRickeybyotherauthors.

ThiscatalogfeaturesafineessaybyShannonKephart,researchedandwrittenwhenshewasaNotreDamegraduateintern.Kephartwasanidealcuratorialassistant;shewasself-directed,energetic,opentosuggestions,andheressayaddsnewinsightsintoRickey.SarahTremblayGauleymasterfullyeditedtheessays;MuseumphotographeranddigitalarchivistEricNislypreparedmanyoftheimages;andMichaelSwobodaimaginativelydesignedthecatalog,aswellasprovidedhandsomephotographs.TheHumanaFoundationEndowmentforAmericanArtfundedprintingcosts.

Inclosing,Ireflectononeofthegreatestrewardsofmywork:theopportunitytomeetsomeofournation’sfinestartists.IhadthepleasureofworkingwithGeorgeRickeyonseveralprojectsduringthelastdecadeofhislife,whenhewasalwaysagracioushost,andanaturalteacher,attheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop.IwillneverforgetthevisualdelightofapproachingtheWorkshopbyroad.Visitorsweretreatedtorolling,forestedhillspopulatedbyGeorge’skineticsculpturesthatmovedslowlyandsilently,occasionallyflashingreflectedsunlight.WhiletheseworksonceseeninupstateNewYorkarenolongerthere,Rickey’suniqueartisticlegacyishiskineticsculpturesthatremainconstantlyinmotionaroundtheworld,activatedbyindooraircurrentsoroutdoorsbythewhimsofthewind.Intheirgracefultrajectories,thesehypnoticsculpturesrevealtheplayofnaturalforcesandlightuponartworksthatutilizephysicstocontrolthetimeandlimitsoftheirmotion.

Theyare,indeed,poetryinmotion:onceelegiactotemstothepassageoftime;nowalsomarkersofthetimetheirmakerpassedinourmidst.

— CharlesR.Loving

Director and Curator, George Rickey Sculpture Archive

ACknowledgments

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Onacalmdayorinsideagallery,aviewerunfamiliarwiththeworkofGeorgeRickeymayatfirstpassoneofhissculptureswithoutdetectingitskineticpotential.However,attheslightestshiftofwindoraircurrent,witnessingitssubtlemovementisascaptivatingforthenoviceasitremainsfortheveteran.ThismotiondisplaysRickey’srefinedsleightofhandandintricateconstructiontechniques,andholdsthekeytothemagnificenceofhisworks.

Throughouthislife,RickeytraveledextensivelybetweenEuropeandAmerica.Hisitinerantlifestyleexemplifiedacareerthatcontinuouslyinvestigatedanddiscovereddifferentwaystoexhibitmotion.Rickeyventuredfromplacetoplacejustasheworkedtoperfecthisaestheticlanguageofmotion.Theseexploratoryjourneys—bothhisphysicaltravelsandhisartisticinvestigationsofmovement—paralleledthemanyrolesthatRickeywouldplaythroughouthislifetime,asanartist,teacher,father,critic,historian,mentor,andinnovator.

In“TheMorphologyofMovement:AStudyofKineticArt,”anarticlethatRickeywrotein1963forArt Journal,heoutlinesthesources,principles,trends,anddifficultiesofkineticart—thatis,artwithmechanicalpartsthatcanbesetinmotion.Alongsidethisgenealogy,hehintsathisownpursuitsandinspirationswithinthenascentfieldofkineticart.1Thearticleincludesalinedrawingofasailboatdemonstratingseveralclassicshipmovements:pitch,roll,fall,rise,yaw,andsheer(illustration at right).Summarilyoutliningthesails,mast,andhullinaviewofeachmovement,Rickeyreducestheshiptoitsfundamentalparts.Acarefullyplacedhorizonlinemarksthesailboat’spitchandrollinthewindanditsriseandfallonthewaves.Twomovements,“yaw”and“sheer,”areshownfromabove,withadottedoutlinesuggestingthediagonalshiftofthehull.Thisstudyofasailboat’sactionsonwaterproposesnatureasasourceformovementandtracestheartist’squesttoformalizealanguageofmotionbacktohischildhood,whenheoftensetsailonthefamily’scutteralongtheriverClydeandupthewestcoastofScotland.2

Rickey’sdrawingrecallstheexperienceofviewingasailboatfromadistance,watchingitsforcefulmovementslulledtoacalmasthecrashingwavesarehushed.Theartistfreezesthefluid,continualrockingoftheboatintodistinctmomentsandsimplifiesitsdramaticswayintoafewleanwords.Turbulentmovementsbecomesubtleandcontrolled.Designedwithapparatussuchaskeels,rudders,andrigging,sailboatsutilizetheforcesofnatureformovementbutresistbeingovercomebythem.Similarly,Rickeyengineersartworksthatemploythesesameforcesformovementbutareequippedwithcontrolstocountertheirpotentialviolence.Thisconciliation

betweentheunpredictablepowerofnatureandcontroloverthemovementitgeneratesdefinesRickey’ssculptures.Inhis1963article,hediscussesthisrelationshipwithnature,whichbecamethedrivingforceofhisartworks:“Forthekineticartist...natureisomnipresentandisalwaysnudginghiselbow.Forhim,itissourcebook,example,competitor,analogy,tyrant,seducer,andalsoinexorableadversary.” 3

ThetypologyofmotionbasedonthemodelofasailboathelpedRickeybuildanunderstandingofmovementandprovidedasmallreservethatofferedunendingopportunityforre-creationinhiswork.Hedescribesthepossibilitiesthatjustafewmovementsprovideinhisstatement,“Fewthoughthey[basicmovements]be,theyofferthemselves,justasvisiblecolorsdo,foranalmostinfiniterangeofvariation,permutation,andcombination.”4ThedesiretodiscoveranddisplaymovementmappedGeorgeRickey’slife,boththroughhistravelsandinhisartisticpursuits,captivatinghismindandilluminatinghissculptures.

Rickey’sartisticmethodofcapturingmotioninterlacedengineeringwithnature,combininginfluencesthatcanbetracedbacktohisearlyyearsasthesonofanMIT-educatedengineerandthegrandsonofaclockmaker,livinginScotlandincloseproximitytotheconstantwaves,currents,andtidesoftheocean.AllofGeorge’sgrandparentsgrewupinNewEnglandanddescendedfromalineofYankeeswhocamefromEnglandintheseventeenthcentury.HismaternalgrandfatherwasalawyerandthenajudgefortheNewYorkStateSupremeCourt.Hismaternalgrandmothertaughtdrawingatagirls’schoolinSchenectady,NewYork,formanyyears.Hismother,GraceRickey,graduatedfromSmithCollegeandinstilledinGeorgeandhissiblingsapassionforreading,writing,andthearts.WalterRickey,George’sfather,workedasamechanicalengineerforSingerSewingCorporationinSchenectadyand,in1904,wastransferredtoSouthBend,Indiana.5There,GeorgewasbornonJune6,1907,thethirdofsixchildrenandtheonlyson.Whenhewasfiveyearsold,hisfatheracceptedanothertransferwithinthecompanythattookthefamilyfromtheMidwesttoHelensburgh,Scotland,acoastaltownwheremanyindustrialworkersfromGlasgowlivedandwhereGeorgeRickeywouldspendhisformativeyears.OnthewaytoScotland,GeorgespentafewmonthsinAthol,Massachusetts,withhispaternalgrandfather,aclockmakerwholaterlivedwiththefamilyattheirhomeinScotland.Fascinatedbythemechanicalpartsoftheseintricateclocks,youngGeorgewouldspendhourstakingthemapartandtryingtoputthembacktogether.6

Beginning the Journey

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pitch

ship movements

roll fall

rise

yaw sheer

Thisinitialtransatlantictrip,fromIndianatoScotland,presagedajourneythatGeorgeRickeywouldtakemanytimes.BothshortlybeforeandduringcollegehesailedacrosstheAtlantic,andthroughouthiscareerhefrequentlytraveledbetweentheUnitedStatesandEurope,withconsiderablestaysinParisandmanysummersinBerlin.Witheachnewvoyage,thememoryofhisencounterwiththewindontheriverClyderesonated.Heoncedescribedhowcaptivatingaforcethewindcanbetoanartist:“Theartistfindswaitingforhim,assubject,notthetrees,nottheflowers,notthelandscape,butthewavingofbranchesandthetremblingofstems,thepilinguporscuddingofclouds,therisingandsettingandwaxingandwaningofheavenlybodies.” 7Hisowndesiretodisplaymotionand“makethewindvisible”encouragedRickeytodiscoveradifferentformofmovementwitheachtripandtouncoverafreshaspectofnaturewitheachnewplace.Absorbedinthenaturalswayofashipinthewind,butfascinatedbyanengineer’sdesiretounderstandhowthingswork,hecultivatedarelationshipbetweennatureandengineeringthatwouldbecomethesourcematerialforhisart.

Rickey’spreoccupationwithshipsisseeninhisearlyexperimentationwithsculpture.Inthemid-fiftiesheconstructedaseriesofelevenincreasinglycomplexships.Eachsitsonabase,withthesails,mast,andhullisolatedabove,andvariesinheightfromeightinchestofourfeet.8Theseworksrepresenttheartist’sfirstuseofagimbal,adeviceusedaboardshipstoallownavigationtoolsandkitchenequipmenttoremainuprightastheshippitchesandrolls.InRickey’ssculptures,thistechnologyisreversed:astablebaseallowstheshiptorockfreelybackandforth.9Flatplanesofimperfectlyfinishedbrassorstainlesssteelcutintogeometricshapes—sometimeslightlyandcrisplyscored—formsegmentedsails,whosefluttersuggestswind-drivenmovement.Intheseandotherearlysculpturalworks,Rickeyexperimentedwithbrassforitssoftmalleabilityandrichcolor.Thisallowedhimtoachieveexacteffectsinasoftmetalbeforemovingtotheharderandlesspliablematerialofstainlesssteel.

Inthefirstsculptureofthisseries,Ship I(fig.1),from1954,thecentralsailisdividedverticallyintothreesegments.Athinsteelframeoutlineseachoneandcontinuesintothehull,wherethecounterweightandgimbalarelocated.Aforcefulbreezecanactivatethepitchandrolloftheship,andwiththisshiftofthehullthesailsalsoturn.InRickey’slaterships,theweightandgimbalareseparated;thegimbalstillformspartofthehullbutthecounterweightsitsbeloworbesidethehull.Theseworksareamongtheearliestexamplesoftheartist’spracticeofcombiningengineeringtechniqueswithnaturalforcestoachievehissignaturedelicatemovement.

Figure2, Three Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (Pivoting), 1966

Figure1,The Ship,1954

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Followinginhisfatherandgrandfather’sfootsteps,Rickeyhadinitiallyreceivedtraininginmathandsciencetobecomeanengineer.Hewasthereforefamiliarwithmechanicalapparatusandunderstoodtherelationshipbetweenform,movement,andfunction:amachine’sformisbuilttoexecuteaspecificmotion,andthismotionconductsitsfunction.In1964hedescribed,“Mytechniqueisborrowedfromcraftsandindustry.Ithasmoreincommonwithclocksthansculpture.”10Hisdescriptionofshipmovementsin“TheMorphologyofMovement”precedesalistingofmechanicalpartssuchasthewheel,pendulum,andpistonandtheiruseinvariousmachines.However,thearticlegoesontocriticizethepredictable,stagnantmotionoftheseapparatus.ForRickey,therepetitivemovementthatresultsfromtheexecutionofamechanicalfunctiondistinguishespracticalmachinesfromhiskineticartworks.Activatedbynaturalforces,Rickey’sworksremainsubjecttochance—anelementthatisvitaltohisart.Althoughherecognizedtheessentialrelationshipthatallowsaformtoproduceadesiredtypeofmotion,heleftfunctionoutoftheformula.Thushissculpturesremovethefunctionfrom,forexample,hisfather’ssewingneedleorhisgrandfather’sclockpendulumandallowthesesameslenderformstoworktowardothermeans.Experimentingwithweightsandbearings,Rickeycreatedobjectsthatmoveassubtlyasthetickofaclockbutwiththegraceofswayingbranchesandfallingleaves—anorganictypeofmovementthathesoughtfromthebeginningoftheirdesign.

InThree Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (Pivoting) (fig.2),from1966,fivethinlinesmadeofstainlesssteel,slightlythickeratoneendthantheother,resemblesewingneedles.Attachedtothebaseateachneedle’seye,theyrotatearoundacentraljoint.Limitationsplacedontheirmovementensurethat,atanymoment,threebladesremainpointingverticallyandtworoughlyhorizontally.Thethinstructureofthebaseechoesthecirclingpartsandliftstheneedlesintotheair,wheretheyremainfreetodriftandfollowtheslightestbreeze.Inalaterwork,Two Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (fig.3),from1974,Rickeycontinuedtoplaywithlimitedmovementwithintheverticalandhorizontaldirections.Fourbladesarepostedatthecornersofaflat,squareplanethatistiltedtohangasadiamond.Eachofthesependulumspointstowardoppositecornersofthebase,tracingitsformwiththeirpathsofgentlemotionastheaircurrentsshift.Thelinespassoverthecenteratanintricatecrossingthatchangesuniquelywitheveryslightmovement;intervalsofchanceturnthisclock’shands.Inbothworks,linesweaveinandoutofoneanotherandjointssewasecurelinkthatenablesthedelicatemotionofthesculptures’parts—motioninwhichnosequencerepeatsoverthelifeofthesculpture.

Figure3,Two Vertical Two Horizontal Lines,1974

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In1926RickeyleftHelensburghforBalliolCollegeinOxford,England.HedecidedonahistorymajorandattendedclassesatthenearbyRuskinSchoolofDrawingintheAshmoleanMuseumofArtandArchaeology.Hisliberalartseducationlatercomplementedhisartisticcareerwhenhebecameanactiveartcriticandhistorian,composingahistoryofConstructivismandcontributingculturalessaysandartcriticismtonumerouspublications.Rickeywouldalsogoontoteacharthistorycoursesatseveralcolleges,andhisowneducationinfluencedhisteachingstyle,leadinghimtorecognizethecriticalroleofarthistoryinpreparingstudioartanddesigncourses.11

AftergraduatingfromBalliolin1929,RickeyspentayearinParispursuingacareerasanartist,whilesupportinghimselfbyteachingEnglishattheGardinerSchool.Withinthisshorttime,anencounterwithStanleyWilliamHayter,studiesunderAndréLhoteattheAcadémieLhote,andpaintingcourseswithFernandLégerandAmédéeOzenfantattheAcadémieModernelaidafoundationforbothhislaterkineticsculptureandtheimportanceofwritingtohiscareer.First,hisconceptionsofspatialconventioninpaintingwerebrokenopenwhen,uponarriving,hewasintroducedtotheBritishpainterandprintmakerStanleyWilliamHayter.InHayter’sSurrealistartwork,Rickeysaw“arevelation...apaintingdidnothavetobeverticalandhaveatopandabottomandaleftandaright.” 12Thisnewwayofthinkingintroducedthenecessityofgoingoutsidetheflatcanvastoexpresssomesubjects.ForRickey,conveyingmovementwouldrequirefourdimensions,orworkinginkineticsculpture.

AttheAcadémieLhote,RickeymettheprominentFrenchpainterandsculptorAndréLhote,whowasalsoanartcriticinearlytwentieth-centuryParis.Lhotereveredtheso-calledtraditionalsubjectsofnature,landscape,andthenude,buttothemheappliedthenewgeometricaestheticofCubismtoachievecompositionsthatsuggestedmotion.StudyingpaintingunderLhote,Rickeylearnedthis“grammarofcubism”thatwas,atthetime,prevalentinartisticcirclesalloverWesternEurope.13Itprovidedhimwithanavenuetocombinehisinterestsindrawingandthesubtletiesofnaturewithamachineaestheticthatrecalledhisadolescentexposuretoengineering.Further,Lhote’semphasisontheoryencouragedRickey’sinterestinhistory.AftertheAcadémieLhote,RickeybrieflyenrolledinpaintingcoursesattheAcadémieModerne,whereFernandLégerimploredhimtobeginbydrawingfromnatureandnottopracticeonlytheprevailingcontemporaryaesthetic.Thus,inParis,achallengetoartisticboundarieswascomplementedbyexposuretoamethodrichinwritingandhistory.Rickeydevelopedthebeginningsofanaestheticandcriticaltheorythattwentyyearslaterwoulddominatehisartisticcareerandteachingphilosophy.

In1930RickeyleftParisandreturnedtotheUnitedStatestoacceptapositionteachingEnglishandEuropeanhistoryattheGrotonSchool,aboardingschoolwestofBoston,wherehecontinuedtopaint,oftenportraits.HetraveledbrieflytoHeidelberg,Germany,andthentoEngland,wherehemethisfirstwife,SusanLuhrs.In1933RickeylefttheGrotonSchoolandmovedtoNewYorkCity,whereheandLuhrsweremarried.HethenreturnedshortlytoParisandtraveledthroughFranceandSpain.OnthisstayinFrance,heinvestigatedthesoftfragmentationofCézanne’sfloatinglandscapes.Cézanne’slighteningoftheCubists’hardlinesandheavygeometrywouldlaterbereflectedinthesubtlemotionofRickey’skineticsculptures.

In1934theartistreturnedtoNewYorkCity,wherehemaintainedastudioforseveralyearsandworkedbrieflyasacopyeditorforNewsweek.Hecontinuedpainting,completingportraits,stilllifes,andlandscapesinthemannerofCézanne.In1937heacceptedthefirstofseveralartist-in-residencepositionsthatwouldtakehimthroughouttheMidwest.HetraveledfromOlivetCollegeinOlivet,Michigan,totheKalamazooInstituteofArtinKalamazoo,Michigan,andthentoKnoxCollegeinGalesburg,Illinois.Duringthistime,hecompletedseveralmuralpaintingsatthesecollegesandotherlocations,includinghisSusquehannaCountryside,from1938,inthepostofficeinSelinsgrove,Pennsylvania.14RenderedinthestyleofSocialRealism,thesemuralssoughttoportraytheharshrealitiesofworking-classlivingandworkingconditions,aswellastheimpactoffactoryworkandindustryontheurbanenvironment.TheywereinspiredinpartbythefarmsubjectsofGrantWoodandJohnSteuartCurryandthepaintingsoftheMexicanmuralists.SeveraltripstoMexico,wheremuralpaintinghadbecomeaninstigatorofpoliticalchange,fosteredRickey’sinterestinthisartform.15AfteradivorcefromSusanLuhrsin1939,RickeyspentthewinterabsorbedinthewritingsofFrankLloydWrightontheshoresofLakeMichigan.DuringthesefewyearsintheMidwest,hisexperienceinmuralpaintingencouragedhimtoexperimentwithlargecompositions,whilethevernacularcharacterofSocialRealism,thefarmsubjectsofWoodandCurry,andthewritingsofWrightfurtheredhisinterestinnature.

In1941RickeyreceivedhisMasterofArtsdegreeinmodernhistoryfromBalliolCollege.Thatsameyear,heacceptedapositiontosetupanartandarthistorydepartmentatMuhlenbergCollegeinAllentown,Pennsylvania.AtMuhlenberg,aninterestinBauhausteachingmethodspromptedhimtoorganizeanexhibitionontheartofJosefAlbers,whowasthenteachingatBlackMountainCollegeinNorthCarolina.16TheBauhausschool,foundedin1919bythearchitectWalterGropiusinWeimar,Germany,soughtthemergingofartanddesignand,likewise,theconvergenceof“high”artandthefunctionalcraftof“applied”arts.Itsmethodologypromotedanewformofart—industrialdesign—thatwouldusetechnologyasanexpressionofmoderntimes.Delicateuseofmechanisticmaterialsinartembracedthepervasiverealitiesofindustryandmassproduction,andachievedtheBauhausgoalsoftruthtomaterialsandhigh-qualityproducts.ThesetheoriesandtheirresultantattentiontodesignandbuildingtechniquewouldlaterinformRickey’sownsculptures.

eArly explorAtion And disCovery

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JosefAlbersinvestigatedcolorrelationshipsthroughpaintingsthatplaceddifferentcoloredsquaresnexttoandwithinoneanother.Thesearrangementsdemonstratedtherelativityofcolorsandtheabilityofacolor’ssurroundingstoalteritsappearance,buildingcomplexrelationshipsthroughstraightforwardjuxtapositions.ThehardlinesandexactformsthatAlbersusedbespokeastrictdisciplineofconstruction,andhiscolorstrategyintroducedRickeytoamethodthatresonatedwithhisdevelopingtheoryonmovement.Inalaterinterview,Rickeydescribedthecorrespondencehesawbetweencolorandmovement:

Motion,whichweareallsensitiveto,whichweareallcapableofobservingwithout havingtobetaught,isasensationthatappealstothesensesjustascolordoes.Ithasan equivalentofthespectrum,differentkindsoftypesofmotion.Ithinkthatonecan,toa veryconsiderableextent,isolatemotionasavisualcomponentanddesignwiththat.17

Albers’sinfluencecanbeseeninRickey’sworksfromthelate1950s.In1956thesculptorcomp-letedDiptych: The Seasons (fig.4),oneofseveralworksmadeupofanaccumulationofrectangularshapeswhosesurfacesweredelineatedwithflatfieldsofcolor.Thecolorschemesrepresenttheseasons,withyellows,forexample,asspringandbluesaswinter.Thestructurehangsfromtheceilinginaneleganthorizontalpoiseandismeanttobeviewedfromtwovantagepoints—oneshowingspringandsummer,andtheother,fallandwinter.Thiscontrastheightensthedynamicexperienceofviewingthework.

InlatersculpturesAlbers’sinfluencebecamemoreprominent,asRickeyfocusedontheabstractqualityoftheshapesandcolorrelationshipswithinhisthree-dimensionalcompositions,ratherthantyingthemtosubjectmattersuchastheseasons.Abstraction in 4D (fig.5),from1959,consistsofanasymmetricallybalancedaccumulationofrectilinearshapespartiallypaintedwithfieldsofcolor.Smallcutoutswithineachshapebreakupthesurfacearea;foldedinthereverse

direction,theyopentheplaneandpresentfurthergeometricabstraction.Therelationshipsoftheplanesofcolorswithintheshapesarerevealedastheviewerwalksaroundthesculpture.DuringthisperiodcolorremainedanimportantelementinRickey’swork,butinAbstractionheleftmanyplanesunpainted,featuringthesilverofthemetal.Thischoiceforeshadowshislaterworksthatsolelyuseapolished,stainlesssteelfinish.

In1942RickeywasdraftedintotheWorldWarIIarmy,wherehisserviceasateacherandaircraftmechanicrecalledhisearlytraininginengineering.TheseappointmentstookhimtoMiami,Denver,Brooklyn,andfinallytoLaredo,Texas,in1945.InLaredohesetupastudioandbeganconstructingsculptureswiththesupplyofscrapmetalavailableatthebase,whilealsocontinuingtopaintportraits.HewasreleasedfromservicethesameyearandbrieflyattendedgraduatecoursesinthearthistorydepartmentatNewYorkUniversityundertheGIBill.WhileinNewYorkthistime,hemettheFrenchphilosopherJean-PaulSartre,whowasputtingtogetheranissueofhismagazineLes Temps ModernesfocusingontheUnitedStates.Rickeycontributedanessayentitled“TheMobilityofAmericans”thatdiscussedtheculturalmanifestationsofAmericans’fascinationwithmovement,especiallycarsandtravel.18

RickeythenreturnedtoMuhlenbergCollegeasthechairmanofitsartdepartment.In1947hemarriedEdithLeighton(Edie)atChrist’sChurchinNewYorkCity.Thenextyear,heleftMuhlenbergCollegeandtaughtbrieflyattheUniversityofWashingtonatSeattle.In1948hiscontinuedinterestinthepedagogyoftheBauhausledhimtotheInstituteofDesigninChicago,aschoolestablishedin1937byLászlóMoholy-NagyastheNewBauhaustopromoteBauhausprinciplesintheUnitedStates.RickeytookdesigncoursesattheInstituteforoneyear,becomingfamiliarwiththeworkofNaumGabo,aleadingartistofConstructivismwhoheheardlectureattheInstitute.19

Figure4,Diptych: The Seasons,1956 Figure5,Abstraction in 4D,1959

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In1949,afteralongsummerinEurope,RickeybeganaprofessorshipatIndianaUniversityatBloomington,wherehewouldremainforseveralyears.Afterexperimentingwithmetalinthearmy,itwashere,attheageofforty-two,thathebegantodedicatehiseffortstosculpture.Throughoutthisearlyexperimentation,manyofhisworksexploredsubjectsofnature,includingFish, Waves, Trees, Sedge Themes, Seasons, Water Plants, Nuages (Clouds),Tidals, and Landscapes.20Ineachcase,theartistabstractedhissubjectsbyreducingthemtotheircomponentparts.Hefirstinvestigatedmotionbyconstructinghangingmobiles,andthencreatedintricatestandingstructuresthatconnectedcoloredshapeswithwiresandpivotsthatallowedthemtomove.Rickey’searlierengagementwiththegeometriclanguageoftheCubists,whoseflatcompositionsofbrokenshapeswerefilledwithimpliedmovement,developednaturallyintoastudyofthree-dimensionalmotioninhissculpturalworks.

ItwasintheworkofAlexanderCalder,theinventorofthemobile,thatRickeyfoundamoredelicateapproachtodisplayingsubtlemovement.Calder’sbrandofmotion,whichrecalledtherockingactionofthesea,wasbefittingtoRickey’snaturesubjectsoftheearly1950s,especiallyinseriessuchasFish and Waves.Rickeybegancreatingmobilesfirstinglassandtheninmetal,whichheoftenpainted.Hemasteredcatenarysystemstoachieveformbybalancingweightsonhangingwires.Thismethodrequiredapreciseequilibriumofelementswithinthesculpturetoachieveandmaintaintheshapeofthesubject.Oftenintheseworks,heradiatedwirelinesfromacorewireandcappedthelineswithflatplanesofcolorthatalludedtothefullshape.Alongwirewouldoutlineandcompletetheform.Severalofthesemobilesconsistedofapairoffishthatwerecounterbalancedstructurallyandformally,asinFish (fig.6),from1951.Inthispair,alengthofwireoutlinestheshapeofonefish,whiletheotherconsistsofanaccumulationofflatplaneshangingfromamainwire.

SomeofRickey’smobileshangfromtheceiling;othersaregroundedbythree-legged,indeter-minateforms.Inmanyofthem,thinintertwinedwiresbranchoutfromacentralspine,terminatinginassortedshapesthatserveascounterweights.TheseconstructionsclearlyevidencetheinfluenceofCalder.InFour Last Leaves (fig.7),completedin1952,aslightlycurvedinneraxisformsathinlinethatisinterruptedatvariousintervalsbythetwistofajointwhereotherwiresattach.Minuteflatcirclesattachedtofouroftheelongatedlegsserveasdelicatelyengineeredbalancepoints,lightlyanchoringthestructureandallowingtheslightestaircurrenttosendtheworkcrawlingthroughtheair.

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Figure6, Fish, 1951

Figure7, Four Last Leaves, 1952

In1951Rickeycompletedhismostdramaticsculpturetodate,Silver Plume I (fig.8),aworkthathewouldalterin1961(fig.9).Thispieceisoftencitedasaturningpointinhiscareer,becauseofitsscaleandmasteryofbalance.21Tenfeetabovethesculpture’stripodsupport,onetwelve-foot-longarmreachesouthorizontally.Inthefirstversion,aseriesofshorterandshorterwireshangfromthisarm.Attachedtotheendofeachwireisasmalltriangularplane.Inthelatermodification,ahorizontalsteelbarhangsfromthemainarm;underneaththisfirstbar,twomorehorizontalbarsaresuspendedbyshortwiresindescendingsteps.Inbothversions,theasymmetricalbalanceindicatesRickey’sstructuralmasteryofweightseveninlarge-scaleworks.Thisexperimentationindicatedthathewasmovinginhisownsculpturaldirection,purposelydepartingfromearlierinfluences.Inregardtomotion,hehadbeguntowonder“whetherAlexanderCalderhadsaiditall;whenIfoundhehadnot,IhadtochoosefromthemanydoorsIthenfoundopen.”22AlthoughSilver Plume IIwasmadeofstainlesssteel,Rickeydidnotuseweldingtodevelopitsframework.Hewouldsoon,however,adoptthistechnique,whichbecameessentialtoinvestigatingtheseopendoorsinotherstainlesssteelworks.23

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Figure9, Silver Plume II (altered), 1961Figure8, Silver Plume I, 1951

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MaxwellDavidson,inhismonographofRickey’searlyworks,describestheyear1954as“apivotalyearforGeorgeRickey.Forthefirsttimeheisconfidentlyforgingaheadwithsculpturesanddevicesthatcarryhisuniqueimprimatur.”24Itwasin1954thatDavidSmithcametoIndianaUniversitytoteachforayearasavisitingartist,attherequestofRickey.25DuringtheirtimetogetheratBloomington,SmithbecamethekeystonethatbroughttogethermanyearlierinfluencesandhelpedRickeydevelophisownsignaturestyle.ThetwoartistshadfirstmetatapartyinWoodstock,NewYork,in1937,butitwasinthe1950s—whenSmithlivedinBoltonLanding,NewYork,andRickeyspentasummerteachingatacampinLakePlacid—thattheirfriendshipdeveloped.AtBloomington,SmithgaveRickeyaweldinglessonthataddedanewvarianttohisfabricationtechniques.26HealsoencouragedRickeytobecomemoregenerousinscaleandtoexperimentwithdifferentmaterials,andhereinforcedtheConstructivistprinciplesofsculpturetowhichRickeyhadalreadybeenexposed.27

BothSmith’sandRickey’sworkingtechniquesfollowedthoseoftheRussianConstructivists,whosefocusoncontinualformbuiltupinspacebecamehighlyimportanttotwentieth-centurysculpture.EarlyConstructivists,workingwithintherevolutionaryclimateofCommunistRussiaintheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcentury,brokeawayfromthethen-traditionalmethodsofcastingorcarvingawaymaterialtomakesculpturesandinsteadinvestigatedspacebybuildingupseparateelements.Theseelementsdidnothavetobephysicallyconnected;visualrelationshipscouldbecreatedbetweentwocomponentsofasculpturebyutilizingthenegativespacebetweenthemtoimplyvolume.SomeConstructivistsculpturesincorporatedkinetics,usingmovement—bothliteralandsymbolic—asacallforpoliticalchange.

ForSmith,theinfluenceoftheConstructivistscanbeseeninhisconstructiontechniquesandinhisuseofnegativespacetocompleteforms.SmithfirstcreatedSurrealist-likesculpturesthatusedwireto“draw”inspace.Hethenbeganweldinglargecubesandothergeometricshapesintotowersofstainlesssteel,grindingtheirsurfacestoachieveanindividualfinishthatreflecteditssurroundings.TheanthropomorphicqualityofSmith’slarge,abstractsteelformscoupledwiththeiruniquelypolishedsurfacestorevealtheimportancethatSmithplacedontheindividualartist’sgesture.

RickeyhadfirstbeenexposedtoConstructivismthroughalongtimefriendshipwithNaumGaboandanacquaintancewithAntoinePevsner,twobrotherswhowerepioneersofthestyle.28BothworkedasConstructivistsatthebeginningofthemovement,andGaboincorporatedkineticsinto

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expAnding the possiBil it ies of sCulpturAl motion

Figure10, Planes and Circles, 1957

Figure11, Triads, 1958

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hissculpture.TogetherthebrotherswrotetheRealistic Manifesto,whichoutlinedtheiraims.Inthisseminaltext,theyaffirmedtheconstructionprinciplesofthemovement:“Spaceandtimearetheonlyformsonwhichlifeisbuiltandhenceartmustbeconstructed.”29Further,theyclaimedthattheirartwasanessentialembodimentofmoderntimes:“Weaffirmintheseartsanewelementthekineticrhythmsasthebasicformsofourperceptionofrealtime.” 30In1967RickeywouldpublishahistoryofConstructivism,Constructivism: Origins and Evolutions,which,likemuchofhisotherwriting,providedanastutehistoricalanalysiswhileofferinginsightintohisartisticinspirations. 31Asthe1950sprogressed,hismannerofbuildingupforminhissculptures,aswellashisintegrationofreflectivelightandmovement,showedanaffinitywiththeengineeringprinciplesandaestheticconcernsoftheConstructivists.

MovingawayfromhisearlierCalderesquemobiles,Planes and Circles(fig.10),from1957,demonstratestheadditivemannerinwhichConstructivistsculpturesbuiltform.Wirecirclescappedwithflat,rectangular,polychromestainlesssteelplanessitonseveralparallelwiresthatfittightlytogetherandcompletethetopedgeofasquareframe.Thecirclesaresecuredtothesquarebyapendulumthatswingsonapairofbearings.Theplanes,attachedtangentiallytothewirecircles,leavethecirclesunbalancedandprompttheirpivotingmotion.Asthecirclesrotate,theplanesemphasizetheirmovement.Rickeyconstructedforminthespacewithintheoutlineofthecoresquareandthewirecirclesand,further,throughthecoloredrectangularplanesthatcreateacircularvolumeastheytraceapathofmotion.32

Triads(fig.11),completedin1958,isawall-mountedsculpturethatrockstoandfrointhewind.Itsform,punctuatedbythreesetsofcircularframeslocatedintheupper,middle,andlowerregions,recallsaspiralcrankingmotion.Agimbalsituatedinthemiddleneartheperpendicularwallmountallowsthesculpturetoswingwiththeaircurrent,whilethesoliddisksattopandthehollowcirclesatbottomalsorotatewhentheverticalbalanceisdisrupted.Theimpliedvolumeofthesecirclingparts,andtherepetitionoftheirroundshapeatthetop,center,andbottomofthesculpture,suggestacylinder—ashapethatisoutlinedbythewiresstretchingbetweentheendsofthesculpture.Rickey’seconomicaluseofstainlesssteelishighlightedbythethinnessofthemetalcirclesanddelicacyofthewires.

Rickeyspentmuchofthe1950sdevelopinghissculpturalform,experimentingwithnewmechanicaldevices,andcultivatingtheintersectionofmovementwithform.Hewasstillusingcolor,butthiselementquicklysubsidedashefocusedmoreheavilyonconstructingshapesanddifferenttypesofmovement.Duringthisdecade,healsodevelopedhisacademicandwritingcareerbycomposingmanypublicationsthatexaminedmovementwithincontemporaryculture

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andart,specificallysculpture.Histextsdiscussedabroadrangeofart-relatedtopics,includingtheroleofartandhowitfunctioned,howitshouldbepresentedinapublicarena,andarteducation.Rickey’sfirstsoloexhibitionofsculpturewasattheJohnHerronArtInstituteinIndianapolis,in1953.33Thatsameyear,GeorgeandEdie’sfirstson,Stuart,wasborn.

SincecompletingSilver Plume IIin1952,hehadbeenexpandingthescaleofhisworks,exploringthepossibilitiesopenedupbytheweldingskillshelearnedfromSmith.Asearlyas1953,thesizeandweightlimitationsofthepivotthatRickeyhadutilizedforseveralseries,includingBridges, Acrobats, Carrousels,andVines,becamemarkedlyapparent.Hebegantoreplacethisdevicewitharotor,whichconsistedofabeamwithgentlyroundedendsthatfitintotwosockets,allowingtherotortoturnsmoothlyandstably.34Thisconstructionfacilitatedthemovementofpiecesconnectedtotherotor,suchasrotatingflatpanels.Rickeyfirstusedonlyverticallyalignedrotors,asinhisseriesLittle Machines of Unconceived Use,andthenexpandedthepotentialofthisdevicebytiltingrotorsinmanydirections,asinhisU.N.works.In1954healsobeganworkingmorewithpendulums,whichvariedthetotalweightanddistanceoneithersideofafulcrumtoinducemovement.Thependulumbecameanessentialelementinmanylaterworks,particularlythoseshapedlikelinesorblades.Rickeysoondevelopedpendulumsthatrestedontwopairsofbearingsperpendiculartooneanotherandthatcouldmoveinaconicalpath,whichheclassifiedasavariationofthegimbal.35

By1955hehadbeguntocombinedifferentmovementtechnologiesintoonesculpture.Forexample,inhisseriesSeesaw and Carousels,createdfrom1955to1956,heusedbothgimbalsanddeviceshecalled“spacechurns.”Duringtheseyearshealsomovedawayfromthelinearwireformofhisearlysculpturalwork,focusingongeometricformsweldedfromstainlesssteel.

In1955thefamilymovedtoNewOrleans,whereRickeybecamechairmanoftheartdepartmentandaprofessorofartatTulaneUniversity.HespentmostofhissecondyearatTulaneonaprearrangedsabbaticalinRome.36Thisisthesameyearthathebegancallinghisworks“kineticsculptures”ratherthan“mobiles.” 37InRomehemademoreinnovationstohismovementdevices,andbeganseveralotherseriesofworksthatusedmultiplemechanismsinasinglesculpture,suchasRotors, Water Plants,andFlowers.Theseworksutilizedagimbaltobalancealongverticalpiecethathousedmanysmall,flutteringrotorsontheupperend.Belowthepivotpoint,theseelementswereweightedbyapieceofrockorquartz.Thissamecombinationoftechnologiesispresentinalaterwork,Column of Nine Rotors with Two Triangles (fig.12),from1973,whichusesagimbaltobalanceaverticalcolumnbracketedbytwotriangles.Ninespinningrotorscompletetheformofthecolumn.

Figure12, Column of Nine Rotors with Two Triangles, 1973

In1959PhilipRickey,GeorgeandEdie’ssecondson,wasborninNewOrleans,andthefamilyspenttheirfirstsummeratHandHollowinEastChatham,NewYork,theplacewheretheywouldsettleintoahousethenextyear.In1960RickeyspentpartofthesummerteachingattheUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbara.Later,from1985to2001,hewouldmaintainastudioinSantaBarbara.

Attheendofthe1950s,RickeycreatedAcrobats (fig.13).Inthissmalltabletopsculpture,athinstainlesssteelbaseextendsupandsplitsintwo.Oneitherside,multiplesmallplanes,brightlyenameledonbothsurfaces,turnonpivots.ThisisoneofRickey’slastworkstoutilizethedeviceofapivot,whichallowedonlyafewoptionsformovementandgreatlyrestrictedsize.Bytheendofthedecade,hehadformulatedmorestableassembliesallowingfordelicateworksthatshifteddynamicallyandfluidly,oftenwithsimultaneousmotionthroughmultipleplanes.TheyearsspentpracticingthelightnessofCalder’smobilesandexperimentingwiththeconstructivemethodandmetal-workingskillsofSmithhadculminatedinthecreationofhisownoeuvreofmechanismsandformstodescribemotion—pendulums,gimbals,rotors,lines,blades,andplanes—thatwouldbeeagerlyreceivedbybothAmericanandEuropeanaudiencesinthenextdecade.

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Figure13, Acrobats (detail), 1960

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