GEOLOGY OF THE BUKIT BATU PUTEH-SATUN

TRANSECT AREA ALONG THE MALAYSIA–THAILAND BORDER

ByThe Malaysian and Thai

Working Groups

A joint project carried out by

Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia

and

Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand

The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee

(MT-JGSC)

2009

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION: Science

Geoscience Geology

Mapping Geology

Published by and obtainable from: MINERALS AND GEOSCIENCE DEPARTMENT MALAYSIA

(Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia) 20th Floor, Tabung Haji Building

Tun Razak Road 50658 Kuala Lumpur

Malaysia

Also obtainable from:

TECHNICAL SERVICES DIVISION (Bahagian Perkhidmatan Teknikal)

Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia (Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia)

Scrivenor Road off Sultan Azlan Shah Road 31400 Ipoh

Perak Malaysia

Price: RM60.00

Printed by:

PERCETAKAN ZAINON KASSIM SDN. BHD. No. 1 & 3, Tingkat Kilang

Kawasan Perindustrian Ringan Jelapang 30100 Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan

2010

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PREFACE

This report together with the accompanying geological map on a scale 1:250,000 is the result of close co-operation between the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, and the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand in resolving problems related to cross border geological correlation between Malaysia and Thailand. Fieldwork was carried out independently by geoscientists of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, and of the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand covering the individual territories in the year 2004 and 2005. The Transect covers an area of 829 square kilometres in Malaysia and approximately 1,400 square kilometres in Thailand. In Malaysia, field works had been carried out during the month of February, March, April, June and July 2004, and in February-March 2005. Quaternary geology study was carried out separately in March-April 2004. In Thailand, geological mapping of the Transect area was carried out during March-April 2004, and has been slightly revised in 2005. Problems on the discontinuity of time rock unit boundaries between the various rocks found in both sides of the common border areas have been satisfactorily resolved. Stratigraphic succession of rock units is well exposed for detailed studies in terms of stratigraphic correlation, palaeontology, and tectonics. Many geological sites can be studied in detail to be geoparks in the future. Although potential mineral deposits occur in small amount, limestone is extensively exploited in the Transect area particularly for the construction materials. Mr. Yunus bin Abdul Razak Director-General, Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia. June 2009

Mr. Adisak Thongkaimook Director-General, Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand. June 2009

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups would like to thank the Director General of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia (JMG) and the Director General of the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand (DMR) for their encouragement, support and funding of this project.

Thanks are extended to Dr. Chow Weng Sum, the then Director of Technical Services Division, Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia and Mrs. Benjawan Charukalas, the then Director of Bureau of Geological Survey, Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand, for their encouragements during the study.

Thanks also to all officers and staffs of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia and Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand for their involvement in this project either directly or indirectly. The Malaysian and Thai military, provincials and border police officials are duly thanked for their assistance in the security matters especially during the field trips along the Malaysia-Thailand border security road.

They also would like to express their gratitude to Professor Mohd Shafeea Leman of the Unversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for his free consultation especially in identifying the brachiopod samples on the Malaysian side. To Professor Katsuo Sashida of Tsukuba University, Japan for his willingness to wash the chert and limestone samples collected from the Transect area, and then identified the radiolaria and conodonts

Last but not least to all local residences for their support and assistance during the fieldwork.

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Geology of Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area along the Malaysia-Thailand border

by

The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Geological mapping on the scale of 1:50,000 in the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area in Malaysia and Thailand had been carried out independently by the respective Working Groups covering the individual territories in the year 2004 and 2005. It covers an area of 829 square kilometres in Malaysia and approximately 1,400 square kilometres in Thailand. In Malaysia, field trips had been carried out during the month of February, March, April, June and July 2004, and in February-March 2005. Quaternary geology study was carried out separately in March-April 2004 to delineate the approximate boundary between the continental Quaternary deposits and the marine Quaternary deposits in this area. The working group had spent two to three weeks in the field for each trip. The Lower Palaeozoic to Quaternary rock units have been identified and their boundaries have been satisfactorily delineated based on data provided by previous workers incorporated with the new data gathered during the present study. In Thailand, geological mapping of the Transect area was carried out during March-April 2004. In 2005, geology of the Transect area had been slightly revised due to the new discoveries of index fossils and exposures in some formations.

Fifteen lithological units have been identified in the Transect area, namely in ascending order; Tarutao Group (Єtt), Lae Tong Formation (Olt), Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts), Pa Samed Formation (SDps), Jentik Formation (Djt), Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk), Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr), Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb), Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lp), Arang/Sadao formation (Tar/sd), Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy), Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg), Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) and Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb).

The oldest rock, the Tarutao Group (Єtt) exposed only in Thailand. It comprises quartzitic and micaceous sandstones in the lower part, and light brown to brown, thin- to medium-bedded, laminated, medium-grained, moderately sorted micaceous sandstones intercalated with light grey, thin- to medium-bedded argillaceous limestone in the upper part. Probably Upper Cambrian in age, it is well correlatable with the Machinchang Formation of Malaysia that does not extend to the Transect area.

The Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) mainly consists of stylolitic limestone succession is exposed extensively on the middle part of the Transect area. The thickness of the succession is not less than 1,500 metres. Many fossil assemblages discovered in this rock unit as reported by previous workers indicate the age of this rock unit is Ordovician. However, in Malaysia, fossils of Silurian age are also present. This implies that the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) in Malaysia extends to the Silurian age. In Thailand, the Thung Song Group consists of Lae Tong Formation (Olt) and Rung Nok Formation (Orn) in ascending order; however the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) is

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exposed only in Thailand. It consists mainly of grey to greyish black, recrystalline, thin-bedded limestone with argillaceous limestone interbedded with shale and nodular limestone. The Lae Tong Formation (Olt) is believed to be older than Middle Ordovician in age, and is overlain by the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts).

The Pa Samed Formation (SDps) is exposed only in Thailand. It comprises grey to light grey, massive to thin-bedded mudstone, chert and siliceous mudstone. Fossils of Tentaculites, brachiopods, trilobites, and graptolites are abundant within this rock unit. The upper part of the Pa Samed Formation (SDps) is correlatable with the Devonian Jentik Formation (Djt) of Malaysia.

The Jentik Formation (Djt) which is exposed only in Malaysia forms a condensed sequence representing a transitional sequence between the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) and underlies the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). It comprises sequence of carbonaceous argillite, light coloured areno-argilite and red mudstone, and shale in ascending order. Fossil assemblages discovered in this rock unit imply the Devonian age. It is well correlatable with the upper part of the Silurian-Devonian Pa Samed Formation (SDps) of Thailand.

The Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) comprises light grey, brown to reddish brown, thick-bedded, laminated, fine- to very coarse-grained, poorly sorted, subrounded, poorly cemented mudstone intercalated with sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and pebbly mudstone. Pebbles consist of quartz, sandstone and shale. This rock unit exposed only in Thailand, and it is assigned as Carboniferous in age by the presence of abundant bivalves, trilobites, brachiopod, gastropod, and crinoid fossils. It is contemporaneous with the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh).

The Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) consists predominantly of medium- to thickly-bedded areno-argilite sequence, consisting of light grey medium- to coarse-grained lithic sandstone and lesser amounts of shale. The sandstone is well sorted, well cemented, medium- to very thick- bedded, and interbedded with light grey to yellowish brown shale, mudstone and chert. Minor amount of light grey to yellowish brown conglomerate is also observed. Posidonomya (bivalve) commonly occur, followed by trilobites and radiolarians. In Malaysia, thin-bedded chert with well-preserved radiolarian that indicates Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian) age is embedded in the lower part of the succession. The upper part of the succession comprises medium- to thick-bedded areno-argilite sequence with rare Posidonomya (bivalve). Fossil records imply that the age of the whole sequence of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is Carboniferous.

The Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) consists of thick- to very thick-bedded, obviously laminated, sequence of dark grey, mudstone, shale, siltstone and pebbly mudstone; exposed in the central to northern part of the Transect area. It is grading upward into interbedded of thin- to medium-bedded sandstone and black shale, and mudstone. The sandstone usually coarse-grained, poorly sorted, moderately rounded with poorly cemented pebbles of quarts, sandstone and shale. The rock unit consists of abundant bivalves, trilobites, brachiopod, gastropod and crinoid. Dropstone of glacial-marine origin are present in parts. The presence of brachiopods i.e. Spinomartinia and Brandoproductus imply the Sakmarian (Early Permian) age to this rock unit.

The Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) consists of massive dolomitic limestone and limestone (at the lower part), significant amount of sandstone and shale (middle part), and crystalline limestone (upper part). The grey to dark grey, well-bedded, medium- to thick-bedded dolomitic limestone and limestone; rich in

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Permian brachiopods and crinoids; exposed in the lower part of the succession is designated as Chuping/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc). Clastic member representing middle part of the succession consisting thin- to medium-bedded sandstone and shale sequence exposed only in the Malaysian side (Trch1). Up to now, no fossil has been found in this sequence. The Upper limestone member is light grey, well-bedded to massive, crystalline limestone with Triassic conodonts and foraminifera (Trch2). The Middle to Upper Triassic clastic member (Trch1) and the Upper limestone member (Trch2) of the Chuping Formation in Malaysia is considered correlatable with the Chaiburi Formation of Thailand (Trcb). The two Formations can be correlated as the Chuping Formation/Chaiburi Formation (Trch/cb). The age of Chuping Formation is designated as Permian-Triassic and there was no further detailed subdivision made on the formation during the project due to time constrain. Thus a general correlation of Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) is tentatively used in this report. Generally, the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) shows a karst topography in which abundant solution phenomena such as caves, caverns, swallow-hollows, underground river courses, dry valleys, and undercut cliffs are present. Dripstone such as stalactites, stalagmites, columns, and pillars are found all over the rock unit.

Historically, marine sedimentation in the Transect area took place continously from the Ordovician up to the Triassic without break.

The Cretaceous red beds are represented by the continental deposits of Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt). It comprises reddish brown, thickly bedded, cross-bedded, well sorted, sub rounded, well cemented arkosic and lithic sandstones, siltstone, mudstone and conglomerate beds. The sandstone is moderately cemented, with ripple marks whilst the conglomerate is poorly sorted, sub rounded, with pebbles of sandstone and quartzite. There is no fossil found in this rock unit.

The Tertiary Arang/Sadao formation (Tar/sd) consists of mudstone, siltstone and sandstone with minor conglomerate and occasional thin coal seams having no economic significance. The rocks are greyish brown to brown, thin- to medium-bedded, with plant fossils and gastropods. Thin coal seams occur occasionally.

The Quaternary deposits are composed of the Pliestocene terrestrial deposits, and Holocene terrestrial and marine deposits. The Pleistocene Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) was a former flood plain/colluvium deposits covering low lying areas of the transect area. It consists of clay, silt and sand with some granules, and pebbles with the presence of iron concretions; red to reddish brown in colour. The Pleistocene Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) occupies high undulating terrains. It is made up of semi-consolidated deposits of sand, gravel and boulder; light brown to reddish brown in colour.

The Holocene Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) comprises unconsolidated gravelly, sandy, silty and clayey continental deposits occupying major river valleys. The floodplain clay member is very firm, grey to brown, thick-bedded, interbedded with loose sand beds. Whilst the alluvial sand and clay member are generally consisting of coarse sands, gravelly, poorly sorted, sub-angular, light grey, mottled, very stiff, thin bed, including valley plain deposits.

The Holocene Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb) consists of unconsolidated sandy and clayey marine deposits in the vicinity of the present mangrove covered shoreline areas. Clay usually is soft, grey to greenish grey colour, with plant remains and shell fragments; interbedded with loose sand or gravelly sand beds.

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The only granite body exposed in the Transect area is the Triassic Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn). It is exposed in the middle to northern part of the Transect area. The granite is mainly fine- to coarse-grained biotite-muscovite granite, megacrystic, with K-feldspar phenocrysts. Aplite and pegmatite dykes are normally found in this pluton. Cognate or syngenetic xenoliths comprising mafic minerals accumulation are widespread throughout the pluton in various shapes and sizes.

Structurally, the Transect area had experienced series of deformations as shown by series of faults and folds throughout the area. Most of the major faults interpreted from air-photographs and satellite imageries are generally NW-SE and NNE-SSW trending. Beddings are generally N-S striking with dominant eastwardly dipping. Folds can be observed locally.

Limestone is extensively exploited in the Transect area particularly for the construction materials. Dolomite is also currently being exploited. Numbers of metaliferous minerals occur in the Transect area but of no economic interest.

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CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE.......................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................v

CONTENTS........................................................................................................................ix

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................xi

LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................xv

1. Introduction......................................................................................................................1

2. PREVIOUS WORKS AND GEOLOGIC SETTINGS....................................................6

2.1 Previous works ..........................................................................................................6

2.2 Geologic Setting ........................................................................................................7

3. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY .............................................................................................10

3.1 Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks ....................................................................10 3.1.1 Tarutao Group (Єtt).........................................................................................10 3.1.2 Lae Tong Formation (Olt) ...............................................................................15 3.1.3 Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) ...................................................17 3.1.4 Pa Samed Formation (SDps) ..........................................................................20 3.1.5 Jentik Formation (Djt).....................................................................................22 3.1.6 Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) ........................................................................26 3.1.7 Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) ...........................................................30 3.1.8 Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr).....................................34 3.1.9 Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) ..........................44 3.1.10 The Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt)............................48

3.2 Quaternary Geology ................................................................................................53 3.2.1 Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy)................................................................54 3.2.2 Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg).............................................................56 3.2.3 Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) ......................................................57 3.2.4 Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb) ...................................................................59

3.3 Igneous and related rocks ........................................................................................60

4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING.........................................64

4.1 Folding.....................................................................................................................64 4.2 Faulting ...................................................................................................................64

5. MINERALS AND OTHER ...........................................................................................65

5.1 Metallic Minerals ....................................................................................................66 5.1.1 Tin and Tungsten............................................................................................66 5.1.2 Antimony........................................................................................................68 5.1.4 Silver ..............................................................................................................69

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5.1.5 Iron .................................................................................................................69 5.1.6 Arsenic............................................................................................................69 5.1.7 Heavy Minerals and Rare-Earth Minerals......................................................69

5.2 Non-metallic Minerals.............................................................................................70 5.2.1 Limestone .......................................................................................................70 5.2.2 Dolomite .........................................................................................................70 5.2.3 Barite ..............................................................................................................71 5.2.4 Guano .............................................................................................................71 5.2.5 Clay ................................................................................................................72 5.2.6 Sand ................................................................................................................72

5.3 Other Natural Resources .........................................................................................73 5.3.1 Coal.................................................................................................................73 5.3.2 Hot spring .......................................................................................................73

6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................74

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................76

APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................80

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LIST OF FIGURES Page

Figure 1: Location map of the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area. ...............................1 Figure 2: Topographic map sheets 1:50,000 scale, covering the Transect area in Malaysia.

............................................................................................................................2 Figure 3: Map showing the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area in Thailand. ................3 Figure 4: Magnificent view of Timah Tasoh Lake and the unique twin peaks of Bukit

Chabang. ............................................................................................................4 Figure 5: Correlation of rock units on the Malaysian side of the Transect area with rock

units of part of the Kedah-Perlis areas...............................................................8 Figure 6: Schematic lithostratigraphic correlation for the Transect area...........................11 Figure 7: Schematic lithostratigraphic column of the Malaysian side’s Transect area. ....12 Figure 8: Stratigraphic correlation of Paleozoic-Mesozoic rocks of the northern part of the

Transect area. ...................................................................................................13 Figure 9: Lithologic column of the Tarutao Group (Єtt) at Khlong Ka Ming and Ban Nam

Ra. ....................................................................................................................14 Figure 10: Photographs of rocks and fossils of the Tarutao Group (Єtt): ..........................15 Figure 11: Schematic lithologic column of the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) (not to scale)..16 Figure 12(A-D): Photographs of the Lae Tong Formation, thin-bedded argillaceous

limestone interbedded with shale.....................................................................17 Figure 13: Stylolitic limestone of the Setul Formation/ Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) at Bukit

Ayer Recreational Park, Perlis, Malaysia (6o 32.763΄ N, 100o 10.131΄ E). .....20 Figure 14: Scyphocrinites loboliths at Kampung Guar Jentik , Perlis, Malaysia (6o

33.103΄ N, 100o 12.460΄ E). .............................................................................20 Figure 15: Photographs of the Pa Samed Formation (SDps) and its associated fossils at

Khuan Klang, Muang District, Satun Province. ..............................................21 Figure 16: Location of Hill A, Hill B and Hill C at Guar Sanai, Kampung Guar Jentik

where the Jentik Formation is exposed. (after Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee, 2002). ...............................................................................................................22

Figure 17: Posidonomya, Guar Jentik (6o 33.278΄ N, 100o 12.428΄ E) .............................25 Figure 18: Diacoryphe pygidium at Guar Jentik (6o 33.657΄ N, 100o 12.182΄ E). ............25 Figure 19: Dacryoconarid, Guar Jentik (6o 34.968 ΄N, 100o 11.998΄ E) ...........................25 Figure 20: Graptolite, Guar Jentik (6o 34.968΄ N, 100o 11.998΄ E). ..................................25 Figure 21: Small tabulate coral “Cladochonus” discovered in red mudstone at the east of

Hill B (6o 33.278 N ΄, 100o 12.428΄ E). ...........................................................25 Figure 22: Straight cone nautiloid indicative of Devonian age, Hill C, Guar Jentik,

Malaysia (6o 40.156΄ N, 100o 11.850΄ E).........................................................25 Figure 23: Megaclast in poorly sorted sandstone bed at Hill B, Guar Jentik (6o 33.278΄N ,

100o 12.428΄ E). ...............................................................................................26 Figure 24 (A-D): Photographs of various exposures of the Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk)

in the Transect area. .........................................................................................27

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Figure 25 (A-J): Photographs of various types of Posidonomya sp. of the Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) from numbers of exposure in the Transect area. ...................29

Figure 26: Thin-bedded chert at boundary stone TS26/45 (6o 30.736΄ N, 100o 29.626΄ E), Malaysia...........................................................................................................31

Figure 27: Thick- to very thick-bedded sandstone intercalated with mudstone and shale at Ulu Pauh area (6o 28.221΄ N, 100o 20.694΄ E), Malaysia. ...............................31

Figure 28: Photographs of the exposure of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in Thailand. ..........................................................................................................31

Figure 29: Ammonoids genus Agathiceras discovered near the front gate of the Northern University of Malaysia campus, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia (6o 26.871 N ΄, 100o 30.633 E ΄). ......................................................................................................32

Figure 30: Dark grey mudstone exposed at Km 5 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.353΄ N, 100o 12.099΄ E) that contain Early Permian brachiopods. .....................................................................................................34

Figure 31: Dark grey, indurated siltstone that contains megaclasts with dropstone character near CH20000 along the border security road from Padang Besar to Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 41.334΄ N, 100o 17.461΄ E). ...........................................34

Figure 32: Megaclast showing distinct dropstone character observed at the outcrop shown in Figure 31. .....................................................................................................34

Figure 33: Outcrops of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) at Khuan Pho, Thailand. ..................................................................................................35

Figure 34: Ripple mark on sandstone bed of the lower part of Lubok Sireh formation exposed at CH3800 along the border security road (6o 42.239΄ N, 100o 15.249΄ E)......................................................................................................................36

Figure 35: Cross lamination in sandstone bed of the lower part of Lubok Sireh formation exposed at Guar Keh (6o 39.202΄ N, 100o 15.271΄ E)......................................36

Figure 36: Diagrammatic sketch showing the relationship between the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) exposed at Bukit Mata Ayer, north Perlis (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E).....................................................37

Figure 37: Diagrammatic sketch showing relationship between the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) exposed at Bukit Chondong, central Perlis (6o 33.346΄ N, 100o 14.293΄ E). .................................................37

Figure 38: Diagrammatic sketch showing the relationship between the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) exposed at Bukit Temiang, central Perlis (6o 31.600΄ N, 100o 14.282΄ E). .................................................38

Figure 39: Measured lithostratigraphic column of the upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation exposed at Bukit Mata Ayer, north Perlis (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E). .......................................................................................................39

Figure 40 (A-D): Photographs of various lithologies of the Khao Phra Formation in the Transect area. ...................................................................................................40

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Figure 41: Dark grey mudstone bed containing Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp. at Km 5 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.353΄ N, 100o 12.099΄ E). .......................................................................................................40

Figure 42: Taeniothaerus sp. (brachiopod) found in calcareous shale exposed at at Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E) ......................................................41

Figure 43: Arctitreta sp. (brachiopod) found in calcareous shale exposed at at Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E) ......................................................41

Figure 44 (A-B): Outcrop of the Khao Phra Formation at Ban Khao Rub Chang, Sadao District of Sonkhla Province............................................................................41

Figure 45: Photographs of Spinomartinia sp. discovered from the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) at Ban Khao Rub Chang (from figure 44): ...................................................................................................................41

Figure 46: Brachiopod (A) and fusulind (B) discovered from the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) at Ban Khao Rub Chang at Ban Khao Rub Chang .......................................................................................................42

Figure 47: Photographs of various exposures and fossils of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) exposed at Ban Khuan Pho, Muang District of Satun Province in the Transect area. ..............................................42

Figure 48: Panoramic view of limestone hills of the Chuping Formation, showing Bukit Keteri (center) with Bukit Jerneh (left) and Bukit Tungku Lembu (right). Photograph looking north from Bukit Chuping. ..............................................45

Figure 49: Brecciated limestone in the Lower limestone member of the Chuping Formation at Bukit Chondong, (6o 33.346΄ N, 100o 14.293΄ E). .....................45

Figure 50: The Clastic member of the Chuping Formation exposed at Cowder Estate, Chuping (6o 28.800΄ N, 100o 15.861΄ E)..........................................................46

Figure 51: The Upper limestone unit of the Chuping Formation exposed at CIMACO quarry, Bukit Chuping (6o 30.443΄ N, 100o 15.925΄ E). ..................................46

Figure 52: Photographs of the Permian limestones and dolomitic limestones of the Khao Rub Chang Formation (Trch2/cb). ......................................................................46

Figure 53: Thick-bedded sandstone and conglomerate the Kayu Hitam formation exposed at Bt. Telaga Batu (N6o 28.981΄ E100o 24.740΄). ............................................49

Figure 54: Thick-bedded mudstone of the Kayu Hitam formation exposed at Bukit Tangga (N6o 31.536΄, E100o 27.910΄). ............................................................49

Figure 55 A-F: Photographs of red beds of the Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) in Thailand showing cycles of meandering river deposits with primary sedimentary structures................................................................50

Figure 56: The Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) is exposed at Bukit Arang. (6o 33.645΄ N, 100o 21.417΄ E). ...............................................................................................52

Figure 57: The Arang/Sa Dao formation at Khao Wang Ching, Thailand. .......................53 Figure 58: Location of boreholes for Quaternary study in Malaysia.................................54 Figure 59: Photograph of the Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) exposed at Bukit

Tangga, Malaysia (6o 31.536′ N, 100o 27.910′ E). ..........................................56 Figure 60: Photograph of the Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) near Hat Yai District,

Thailand. ..........................................................................................................56

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Figure 61: Photograph of the area occupied by the Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) on the east of Bukit Kayu Hitam Industrial Estate, Malaysia. The high ground at the background is formed by predominant sandstone of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation.......................................................................................57

Figure 62: Photograph of the Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) in Thailand..............57 Figure 63 A-B: Photographs of the Alluvial sand and clay member of the Beruas/Sungai

Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk). ...............................................................................58 Figure 64 A-B: Photographs of the Floodplain clay Member of the Beruas/Sungai Kolok

Formation (Qhbr/sk). ..........................................................................................59 Figure 65 A-B: Photographs of the Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb). .............................60 Figure 66: Megacrystic granite exposed at Perlis State Park, Malaysia (6o 42.368΄ N, 100o

11.976΄ E). .......................................................................................................61 Figure 67: Equigranular granite exposed at Sungai Wang Burma, Malaysia (6o 42.100 ΄N,

100o 12.100΄ E). ...............................................................................................61 Figure 68: Photographs of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Khlong Ka

Ming, Thailand.................................................................................................62 Figure 69: Photographs of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Ban Si Yeak

Patthana, Thailand............................................................................................62 Figure 70: Photographs of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Ban Ta Loh,

Thailand. ..........................................................................................................63 Figure 71: Photographs of the megacrystic muscovite-biotite granite of the Bukit

China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Yaroi Falls, Thailand..........................63 Figure 72: Minerals distribution map in the Transect area and the adjacent areas............65 Figure 73: Photograph of Meranti lake which is an abandoned mine in Wang Tangga,

Perlis. ...............................................................................................................66 Figure 74: Photograph of tin-bearing quartz veins at Wachirachai Mine, Ban Si Yaek

Pattana, Sadao District. ....................................................................................67 Figure 75: Photograph of an open pit at Wachirachai Mine, Ban Si Yaek Patthana, Sadao

District..............................................................................................................67 Figure 76: Photograph of an adit excavated during tin mining operation at Ban Ta Loh,

Sadao District...................................................................................................67 Figure 77: Photograph of an open pit at Ban Nam Phut, La Ngu District.........................68 Figure 78: Photograph of a heavy mineral deposit along the beach at Ban Pak Bang, in

theThai side......................................................................................................69 Figure 79: Photograph of a limestone quarry at Bukit Chuping, Malaysia. ......................70 Figure 80: Photograph of a limestone quarry at Ban Nam Put, Thailand..........................70 Figure 81: Photograph of a dolomite open pit at Felda Rimba Mas Quarry, Perlis. .........71 Figure 82: Photograph of a dolomite open pit at Khao Rub Chang Quarry, Sadao District.

..........................................................................................................................71 Figure 83: Guano at Bukit Mata Ayer, Perlis. ...................................................................72 Figure 84: Photograph of sand mound at Khlong Du Son, Khuan Don District. .............73 Figure 85: Photograph of a hot spring at Ban Bor Nam Ron, Khaun Kalong District of

Satun Province. ................................................................................................74

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LIST OF TABLES Page

Table 1: Results of the radiolarian chert samples studied by Professor Katsuo Sashida. 33 Table 2: Correlation of the Permo-Triassic rock units in the Transect area. ................... 44

- xvi -

- 1 -

1. Introduction

The joint geological survey project on the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect was endorsed by the Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee (MT-JGSC) during the Fifth Steering Committee Meeting; held in Ipoh, Perak on 13th September 2003. The main objective of this study is to get a better understanding of the local geology and to solve problems concerning the geological boundaries of the Paleozoic rocks to Quaternary unconsolidated sediments, and the extension of granitic rocks as well as the minerals distribution in the Transect area. Accordingly, problems concerning the stratigraphy and geological boundaries of the rock units can be solved to some extent of certainties. This mapping project commenced in late 2003 and was completed in September 2005.

The Transect area is bounded by Latitude is bounded by Latitude 06o 25´ N to 06o 50´ N and Longitude 100o 00́ E to 100o 30́ E. The location of the Transect area is shown in Figure 1. Detailed location map is shown on the Geological Map in the back pocket of this report.

Figure 1: Location map of the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area.

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In Malaysia, the Transect area covers an area of 829 square kilometres in Perlis and part of Kedah States along the Malaysia-Thailand border. It is bounded by Latitude 06o 25´ N to 06o 45´ N and Longitude 100o 00́ E to 100o 30́ E. The Transect area is covered by four 1:50,000 scale Malaysian topographic map sheets; number 3169 (Kuala Perlis), 3269 (Kangar), 3369 (Jitra) and 3270 (Padang Besar) as shown in Figure 2.

100o 00’ T 06 o 45’ U

100o 30’ T 06 o 45’ U

100o 30’ T 06 o 25’ U

100o 00’ T 06 o 25’ U

KEDAH

PERLIS

3069LANGKAWI

3270

3169 3269 3369 3469

100 TO 101 TO

06 NO

THAILAND

Kangar

Padang Besar

InternationalboundaryStateboundary

10 km Transect area in theMalaysian side

Figure 2: Topographic map sheets 1:50,000 scale, covering the Transect area in Malaysia.

In Thailand, the Transect area covers an area of approximately 55 km long and 30 km wide along the Malaysia-Thailand border from latitude 6° 30′ N to 6° 50′ N and longitude 100° 00′ E to 100° 30′ E (Figure 3). With an area of approximately 1,400 square kilometres, it is geographically covered by five topographic map sheets (scale 1:50,000) of Amphoe Khuan Kalong (5022 IV), Changwat Satun (5022 III), Ban Ko Yao (5021 IV), Ban Khlong Ngae (5022 I), and Amphoe Sadao (5022 II) Quadrangles.

In Malaysia, the Transect area is named after Bukit Batu Puteh, a small limestone hill (78 m above MSL) located at the southwestern part of the Transect area, at the southwestern tip of the Nakawan Range, right on the Malaysia-Thailand border, on the mainland of the Peninsular Malaysia (see Figure 1). In Thailand, the Transect area is named after Satun City located in the central-west of the Transect area; thus the whole Transect area is jointly named as the “Bukit Batu Puteh – Satun Transect”.

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Figure 3: Map showing the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area in Thailand.

In Malaysia, geomorphologically, the western side of the Transect area is overlain by hilly terrain of a north-south trending Nakawan Range; the longest continuous range of limestone hillocks in Malaysia which formed by karsts topography of the Setul Formation. It also serves as the international boundary between the Perlis State of Malaysia and the Satun Province of Thailand. Perlis State Park, which comprises the Mata Ayer Forest Reserve and Wang Mu Forest Reserve, covers 5,000 hectare of the Nakhawan range. The highest peak in this area is Bukit Pelarit (553 m) located to the west of the Kaki Bukit area.

The northern and northeastern parts of the Transect area in the Malaysian are formed by part of Perlis and Kedah States, bordering with Hat Yai Province of Thailand. Flat to undulating plain of Quaternary sediments covers most of the southwestern, northeastern and eastern parts of the Malaysian side’s Transect area. The southwestern part is cultivated by wet paddy (Oriza sativa) crops which is the most important agricultural product in Perlis and north Kedah, whilst the northeastern and eastern parts of the Transect area are characterized by lush

100° 30′ 6° 30′

100° 00′ 6° 30′

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green sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) plantation. Among the most magnificent view in this area are Timah Tasoh Lake and the unique twin peaks of Bukit Chabang (Figure 4).

In Malaysia, the undulating terrain along the Malaysia-Thailand border around the Bukit Arang to Bukit Tangga area is underlain by unconsolidated to semiconsolidated sandy beds of the Arang formation (previously known as Bukit Arang Coal Beds) which is utilised for sugar cane plantation. The occurrence of thin coal seams was reported to occur in this sediment but its distribution is very limited and of no economic value. Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantation covers most of the terrain underlain by the gravelly beds called the Tangga formation, which is well-exposed along the Bukit Tangga border security road.

Figure 4: Magnificent view of Timah Tasoh Lake and the unique twin peaks of Bukit Chabang.

In Thailand, the middle part of the Transect area is geomorphologically mountainous terrains (60-65%) covered by thick forests. Another 15-20% of the eastern and western parts of the Transect area are covered by relatively undulating terrains cultivated with rubber and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). The low-lying area (15-25%) in the eastern (Sadao) and western (near Andaman Sea) parts of the Transect area is covered by Quaternary deposits. The highest elevation is Khao Chin (756 m above MSL).

The climate of the Transect area is Tropical Rainforest type (Koppen`s: ‘Af’ climate). The mean annual rainfall for 30 years (from 1951 to 1980) was 2,618.8 mm. The hottest month is May (28.4°C in average) and the coldest month is December (25.9°C). The weather is normally warm and dry from January to April, whereas it is wetter from September to December. The annual temperature ranges from 21oC to 32oC and the rainfall ranges from 2,000 mm to 2,500 mm.

In Malaysia, although most of the Transect area has been geologically well-documented, series of detailed field investigations have been carried out by the Malaysian Working Group (Appendix 1). Fieldworks had been carried out in the months of February, March, April, June 2004 and February-March 2005 to collect more geological data in order to produce up to date geological map and report of the Transect area. Quaternary geology study was carried out separately in March-April 2004 to delineate an approximate boundary between the continental Quaternary deposits and the marine Quaternary deposits in this area.

In Thailand, detailed systematic geological mapping of the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect area was carried out in the month of March-April 2004 by the Thai Working Group (Appendix 1) comprising geologists from the Bureau of Geological Survey and Bureau of Mineral Resources of the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand. In 2005, geology of the

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Transect area has been slightly revised due to the new discoveries of index fossils and exposures in some formations.

Rock samples were collected for petrographic, microfossil and geochemistry studies, where applicable. In Malaysia, eight chert samples collected from the Kubang Pasu Formation, along the border security road-cuts near the Bukit Tangga area were sent to Prof. Katsuo Sashida of Tsukuba University, Japan for radiolarian study. Six limestone samples of the Setul Formation were also sent to Prof. Katsuo Sashida for conodont analysis. Results of the analysis will be discussed briefly in this report. List of fossil localities discovered during this study is shown in Appendix 2.

Geology data collected during the course of project incorporated with supplementary data provided by previous workers were plotted on the base map of 1:50,000 scale. The base map was later digitized by officers of the Cartographic and GIS Unit, Minerals and Geoscience Deparment Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur, and by officers of Bureau of Geological Survey, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok by using ArcGIS software. Spatial and attribute data were also added into the digital map. Geological maps of the Transect area on scale 1:100,000 were produced for working base map and finally maps on scale 1:250,000 were produced to accompany the report.

Discussions, exchanges of ideas and information on geology and mineral resources amongs the Malaysian and Thai geoscientists were conducted. Agreements on mapping units were resolved based on lithological, stratigraphical, paleontological and sedimentological points of view that enabled the Malaysia-Thailand Working Group to delineate the geological boundaries. Attempts have been made to resolve problems related to the geological boundaries along the Malaysia-Thailand border with consideration to the economic potential of the area.

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2. PREVIOUS WORKS AND GEOLOGIC SETTINGS

2.1 Previous works Systematic geological mapping in northwest Peninsular Malaysia had been carried out by geologists of Geological Survey Department (now known as Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia) in late 1950s and early 1960s. The first comprehensive systematic geological mapping on the scale 1:63,360 covering Langkawi, Perlis and north Kedah was published in 1981. Jones (1981) divided the rocks in these areas into seven lithological units; the Machinchang Formation, Setul Formation, Kubang Pasu Formation/Singa Formation, Chuping Limestone, Bukit Arang Coal Beds, granite and alluvium ranging in age from Upper Cambrian to Holocene. He has also mentioned about the occurrence of the Kubang Pasu and the Singa Formations in north Perlis which covers part of the Transect area but he did not draw any formational boundary between the two formations (Jones, 1981 pp 72). There was no intensive systematic geological mapping carried out in this area since the completion of Jones’s work, except for small and localized areas for specific topics.

Lee and Azhar Hussin (1991) proposed the name of Wang Kelian Redbeds for the sequence of fossiliferous red mudstones and muddy sandstone that exposed on a road-cut at 6.8 km from Wang Kelian along the Wang Kelian-Kaki Bukit road. This rock unit is overlain by dark grey pebbly mudstone, siltstone and graywackes of the Kubang Pasu Formation, and underlain by the limestone of Setul Formation. The rock sequence comprises predominantly brownish red mudstone with Posidonomya sp., small fragmentary trilobites, and subordinate poorly sorted muddy sandstone and siltstone.

Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) proposed a new stratigraphic unit; Jentik Formation to describe the clastic rock sequence overlies conformably the Upper Setul Limestone, and underlying the Kubang Pasu Formation. It consists of predominantly mudstone, and shale; and subordinate siltstone, sandstone and pebbly sandstone with well-bedded limestone in the upper unit. The Jentik Formation ranges from Early Devonian to Earliest Carboniferous age.

Palaeontological studies had been carried out by many workers; i.e. Hamada, Igo and Kobayashi (during 1950’s to 1970’s), Basir Jasin and Koay (1990), Fontaine et. al (1993 & 1994) and Lee (2001). Their findings have provided valuable information for a better understanding in the geology and stratigraphy of the area studied. Igo and Koike (1973) reported the occurrence of late Llandoverian conodonts in the Setul Limestone at Gua Geteri and at Thye Shan Tin Mine near Kangar, Perlis. The occurrences of gastropods i.e. Malayaspira rugosa KOBAYASHI and Lytospira rectangularis KOBAYASHI probably of Ordovician age were reported by Hamada et al. (1975). Jones (1981) also reported that many fossils had been found in the Langkawi Islands, Perlis and North Kedah indicated different ages ranging from Cambrian to Triassic. Later, Basir Jasin and Koay (1990) discovered “Monodiexodina” (fusulinid) in the siltstone at Bukit Wang Pisang, which indicates Early Permian age. Palaeontological study on the Permo-Triassic limestone in the Transect area has been carried out by Fontaine et al. (1988 & 1993). They reported the presence of Triassic fossils at Bukit Mata Ayer, Bukit Chuping, Bukit Keteri, Bukit Reban, Bukit Jernih, Bukit Tunjung, and Bukit Panggas. Subsequently Fontaine et al. (1994) studied the Permian biogeographic units of the Peninsular Thailand and northwest Malaysia and mentioned about the relationship between the Chuping Formation of Kedah/Perlis and the Ratburi Limestone of Thailand. Lately, Lee (2001) discovered Scyphocrinites loboliths at the upper part of the Upper Silurian Setul Limestone in Langgun Island; and at Guar Sanai and Kampung Guar Jentik, Perlis. The presence of Scyphocrinites has affirmed the Late Silurian age assigned to the Upper Setul Limestone by previous workers.

Correlation of the rock units exposed on the Malaysian side of Transect area with the adjacent areas is shown in Figure 5.

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Hutchison et al. (1978) proposed three geographical granite belts in the Malay peninsula based on the lithology and petrochemistry of the granite. The Eastern belt granitoids are composed mostly of I-type, magnetite-series granitoids, which intruded the Palaeozoic host rocks during Permo-Triassic period. The Main Range granitoids (in the central belt area) are composed mainly of S-type, ilmenite-series granitoids with minor intrusions of I-type, magnetite-series granitoids. They also intruded the Paleozoic-Mesozoic country rocks of Permo-Triassic age. The western belt granitoids consist of both I-type, magnetite-series granitoids and S-type, ilmenite-series granitoids of Cretaceous age.

Cobbing et al. (1986) completed a Southeast Asian granite project including the geological mapping of individual granite plutons, petrography, geochemistry and Rb/Sr age determination studies. They suggested that the granites in the east coast of Thai-Malay peninsula are mainly of Triassic age.

In Thailand, the Transect area was first mapped by the then Geological Survey Division, Department of Mineral Resources (Tansuwan et al., 1979) on scale 1:250,000 of sheet NB 47-7 (Changwat Satun).

Dheeradilok et al. (1991) mentioned that the Holocene shallow marine clay and tidal flat deposits consisting of marine clay and peat were investigated along the Pattani coastal plain. The transgression began about 8,500 yrs. BP, and rose up to about 5 m above the present mean sea level about 5,000 yrs. BP. The last regressive phase began 2,500 yrs. BP, and reached the present mean sea level about 1,500 yrs. BP.

Chaimanee (1999) reported that there are two types of peat in the coastal area of Thailand, i.e. topogeneous and ombrogeneous. These types of peat are usually associated with an undulating beach barrier and lagoonal deposits.

2.2 Geologic Setting In Malaysia, the Transect area consists of 11 lithological units in ascending order; the Setul Formation, the Jentik Formation, the Kubang Pasu Formation, the Lubok Sireh Formation, the Chuping Formation, the Kayu Hitam formation, the Arang formation, the Tangga formation, the Simpang Formation, the Beruas Formation and the Gula Formation. Correlation of rock units in the Malaysian side of the Transect area with rock units of part of the Kedah-Perlis areas is shown in Figure 5.

The oldest rock unit in this area is represented by the Ordovician-Silurian Setul Formation, made up predominantly of grey to dark grey, thickly-bedded, stylolitic crystalline limestone with variable amount of argillaceous impurities. It shows banded structures due to the presence of stylolites, which might be developed by diagenetic segregation of the original fine clastic materials from the pure carbonate. The limestone is variably dolomitized where it decomposed to dark red residual soil. This rock unit occurs as a north-south trending hillock known as Nakawan Range, which extends into the Thailand frontier. Many workers had found various kinds of fossils in this rock unit i.e., conodonts, gastropods, cephalopod, brachiopods, coelenterates, bryozoan, and crinoid stems.

The Setul Formation is overlain by the Jentik Formation, which is well exposed at the Kampung Guar Jentik area (Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee, 2002). The Jentik Formation, which ranges from Early Devonian to Earliest Carboniferous age, forms a transitional boundary between the underlying Ordovician-Silurian Setul Formation and the overlying Carboniferous Kubang Pasu Formation. The rock sequence consists predominantly of mudstone and shale; and subordinate siltstone, sandstone and pebbly sandstone with well-bedded limestone in the upper part.

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Gobbet (1972) Burton (1974)Lee and Azhar

(1991)

HOLOCENE Beruas Formation

PLEISTOCENE Simpang Formation

UPPER

MIDDLE

LOWER

UPPER

Unit 6

Unit 5

Unit 4

Unit 3

MIDDLE Unit 2

LOWER Unit 1

UPPER

MIDDLE

LOWER

Lower Setul limestone

MIDDLE

LOWER Basal limestone

Set

ul F

orm

atio

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Upper Setul limestone

Lower Detrital Member

Lower Setul limestone

SIL

UR

IAN Upper Setul

limestone

Kaki Bukit limestone

Upper Setul limestone

OR

DO

VIC

IAN UPPER

Upper unit

Langgun shaleMiddle unit

Set

ul F

orm

atio

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Upper Detrital Member

Lower unit

Rebanggun beds

Wang Kelian Redbeds

Jent

ik F

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atio

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Lubok Sireh formation

CA

RB

ON

IFE

RO

US

UPPER

Kub

ang

Pas

u F

orm

atio

n Upper part

LOWER

Jent

ik F

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atio

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Lower part

DE

VO

NIA

N UPPER

Kodiang limestone Clastic member

PA

LAE

OZ

OIC

PE

RM

IAN Chuping limestone Lower limestone member

MIDDLE

LOWER

Kubang Pasu

Formation

Singa Formation

Arang formation

ME

SO

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IC

CRETACEOUS Kayu Hitam formation

JURASSIC

TR

IAS

SIC

Chu

ping

For

mat

ion Upper limestone member

Existing (including Langkawi, Perlis and north Kedah areas) - Jones 1978

Meor Hakif and Lee (2002) Malaysian Working Group (2004)

CE

NO

ZO

IC

QU

ATE

RN

ER

Alluvium - continental and marine environment

(undifferentiated)

Gula Formation

Tangga formation

TERTIARY Bukit Arang beds

Figure 5: Correlation of rock units on the Malaysian side of the Transect area with rock units of part of the Kedah-Perlis areas.

The Carboniferous rock succession is represented by the Kubang Pasu Formation. It comprises essentially thick interbeds of poorly sorted areno-argillaceous and minor siliceous rocks. An assemblage of Early Carboniferous Posidonomya-gastropod-trilobite-crinoid fauna had been discovered in the Guar Jentik area. Recently, the Malaysian Working Group collected a number of chert samples of the Kubang Pasu Formation outcropping along the security road close to the Malaysia-Thailand border which have yielded well-preserved radiolarians probably indicative of Tournaisian age (Sashida, pers. comm.). The Kubang Pasu Formation is conformably underlies the Lubok Sireh formation.

The Lower Permian rock is represented by the Lubok Sireh formation, which consists predominantly of dark grey, medium- to thick-bedded mudstone, shale, and siltstone sequence. Permian brachiopods (Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp.) have been found within this unit at Km 5 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road. However the contact between the Lubok Sireh formation with the Setul Formation and the Kubang Pasu Formation cannot be observed at this locality, but it is interpreted as fault contact.

Jones (1981) described all limestone bodies exposed in central Perlis as Chuping Limestone, named after Bukit Chuping; and considered them as Permian to Triassic in age. Gobbet and Hutchison (1973) designated the limestones as the Chuping Formation. However, until now there is no detailed study carried out to delineate the boundaries between the Permian and Triassic limestones in this area. The Malaysian Working Group divided the Chuping Formation

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into three distinct members namely; the Lower limestone member that yields Permian faunas, the Clastic member (no fossils found so far) and, the Upper limestone member that yields Triassic faunas. Jones (1981) reported that in Langkawi Islands (to the west of the Transect area); similar limestone rock unit builds much of the western side of Pulau Dayang Bunting and two small outcrops east of Pulau Langkawi.

The Cretaceous rock unit is represented by the Kayu Hitam formation composed of medium- to thick-bedded reddish brown mudstone, conglomerate, conglomeratic sandstone and sandstone sequence. It is exposed only in the area around Bukit Kayu Hitam, to the southeastern part of the Transect area.

The Arang formation was deposited in a localized basin during Late Tertiary. This unit is exposed only in the sugar cane plantation to the west of Bukit Arang. It comprises mainly mudstone, siltstone and sandstone as well as minor conglomerate of lacustrine-deltaic and possibly fluviatile origins. Previous workers reported that coal seams occur occasionally and are usually around 15 cm thick. The Malaysian Working Group had attempted to relocate the coal seams during the current study but were unsuccessful due to high degree of weathering and very thick vegetation covers. Fossils have not yet been discovered from the Arang formation so far, but the presence of coal seams suggests its similarity with the Batu Arang Coal Beds of Selangor which is of Miocene age (Jones, 1981).

Quaternary deposits of appreciable extent and thickness occur along the coastal plain and valleys of Sungai Perlis, Sungai Timah and Sungai Ngolang and also overlying the undulating and hilly areas.

Semi-consolidated to unconsolidated deposits of sandy clay to sand, gravel and boulder that exposed at Bukit Arang, east of Bukit Kayu Hitam, Bukit Tangga and northern part of the Bukit Tangga Forest Reserve is assigned as the Tangga formation of Pleistocene age.

The Quaternary deposits occupying the eastern part of the Chuping area is assigned as the Simpang Formation of Pliestocene age. In the southwestern part of the Transect area, the Quaternary deposits occupying the coastal and flood plains can be divided into the Holocene Gula Formation and Beruas Formation. The former, deposited in a marine environment comprises clay, silty clay, peaty clay and sand; whilst the later deposited in a continental fluviatile environment, is made up predominantly of sandy clay, clay, and sand with minor gravels.

The Bukit China granite is mainly exposed in inaccessible areas in the northern part of Perlis, covering an area of approximately 7 square kilometres. The granite body extends northward into Thailand. The rock is typically coarse-grained, megacrystic, grey with biotite as its essential mafic constituent.

The regional structures in the Transect area are aligned in the N-S direction with local variations to NW-SE and to NE-SW. Fold structure prominently occur in the Kubang Pasu Formation, with a general N-S strike and dips moderately to the east. It is strongly confirmed that the beds had undergone a rather open isoclinal folding with a small plunging angle towards the north. The major anticline strikes slightly to the SW resulting in the formation of rugged limestone range of the Setul Formation. A major syncline can be traced in the central part of the Transect area. It is marked by limestone hills running through central Perlis from Bukit Mata Ayer to Bukit Chuping. Generally, the force associated with formation of folds is trending in the E-W direction.

Faulting is also widespread in the Transect area. The faults are trending NW-SE and NNE-SSW. The most prominent fault is the NW-SE trending, which is consistent with the E-W compressional tectonic activity occurring in the region. Fault traces such as slickenside, drag fold, fault breccia are exposed locally.

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3. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

The rock units in the Bukit Batu Puteh-Satun Transect range in age from Cambrian to Quaternary. It consists of thirteen lithological units in ascending order; Tarutao Group (Єtt), Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts), Jentik Formation (Djt)/ Pa Samed Formation (SDps), Lubok Sireh/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr), Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk), Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb), Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt), Arang/Sadao formation (Tar/sd), Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy), Simpang/Waeng Formation Qpsp/wg), Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) and Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb).

Schematic lithostratigraphic correlation for the Transect area is shown in Figure 6. Geological map of the Transect area is included in the back pocket. Schematic lithostratigraphic column for the Malaysian side’s Transect area is shown in Figure 7. The stratigraphic correlation of rock units in Thailand is summarised in Figure 8.

3.1 Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks

3.1.1 Tarutao Group (Єtt)

The Tarutao Group (Єtt) is the oldest lithostratigraphic unit of the Transect area. The type section is well exposed at Tarutao Island located in the western part of Satun Province, Thailand where good open pit outcrops are exposed. This group is exposed only in the northern part of the Transect area.

Distribution

The Tarutao Group (Єtt) is well distributed as low relief terrains south of Khao Yai Nam Ra, Ban Nam Ra, 5 km north of the Transect area and exposed along the northern flank of Khlong Ka Ming in the Khuan Kalong area of Satun Province, Thailand.

Lithology

The Tarutao Group (Єtt), approximately 100 m thick (Figure 9), can be divided into two parts. The lower part exposed at northern flank of Khlong Ka Ming, consists mainly of light brown to brown, thick-bedded, cross laminated, coarse-grained, moderately sorted quartzitic and micaceous sandstones (Figure 10A & B). However, this part is generally metamorphosed by granite intrusion and faults.

The upper part of the Tarutao Group (Єtt) is well exposed at 5 km north of the Transect area, in the southern part of Khao Yai Nam Ra and Ban Nam Ra. This unit consists mainly of light brown to brown, thin- to medium-bedded, laminated, medium-grained, moderately sorted micaceous sandstones intercalated with light grey, thin- to medium-bedded argillaceous limestone (Figure 10C & D). The rocks are generally slightly metamorphosed and deformed along fault zones.

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Figure 6: Schematic lithostratigraphic correlation for the Transect area.

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Figu

re 7

: Sch

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ic li

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tratig

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ic c

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the

Mal

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Figu

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: Stra

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-Mes

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Stratigraphic column

Description

The upper unit consists mainly of light brown to brown; thin- to medium-bedded, laminated, medium-grained, moderately sorted micaceous sandstones intercalated with light grey, thin- to medium-bedded, argillaceous limestone with small-sized brachiopods and trilobites. The lower unit consists mainly of light brown to brown, thick- bedded, cross laminated, coarse-grained, moderately sorted quartzitic and micaceous sandstones.

Figure 9: Lithologic column of the Tarutao Group (Єtt) at Khlong Ka Ming and Ban Nam Ra.

Age and Correlation

The small-sized brachiopods and trilobites are locally found in the southern part of Khao Yai Nam Ra and Ban Nam Ra, 5 km north of the Transect area. These fossils were found in brown sandstone overlain by argillaceous limestone. The discovery of trilobite fossils (Figure 10E & F) in sandstone implies that the possible age of the succession is Upper Cambrian.

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A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 10: Photographs of rocks and fossils of the Tarutao Group (Єtt):

(A, B) Outcrop showing the lower part of the Tarutao Group; brown, thick-bedded with laminated sandstone.

(C, D) Outcrop of the upper part of the Tarutao Group; thin- to medium-bedded, micaceous sandstones intercalated with argillaceous limestone.

(E, F) Small-sized brachiopods and trilobites (thorax).

3.1.2 Lae Tong Formation (Olt)

The Ordovician rocks in the Transect area can be divided into two formations; the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) and Setul/Rung Nok Formation (Ost/rn) which represent the upper part of the Thung Song Group. However, the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) is exposed only in Thailand.

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Distribution

The Lae Tong Formation (Olt) is well distributed as low relief terrains in the northern part of the Transect area. It is well exposed in the eastern part of Khuan Don and Khao Na La of Khuan Don and Khuan Kalong Districts, Satun Province, Thailand.

Lithology

The lithostratigraphic column of the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) is shown in Figure 11. This section consists mainly of grey to greyish black, recrystalline, thin-bedded limestone with argillaceous limestone interbedded with shale and nodular limestone (Figure 12A-D). The total thickness of this unit from the representative section exceeds 80 m.

Age and Correlation

According to stratigraphic sequence, the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) is overlain by the Setul/Rung Nok Formation (Ost/rn) of Middle Ordovician age. Therefore, the age of this formation is considered to be older than Middle Ordovician.

Stratigraphic

column Description

Grey to greyish black, thin-bedded shale and nodular limestone. Grey to greyish black, recrystalline, thin-bedded limestone with argillaceous limestone interbedded with shale. Grey to greyish black, thin-bedded shale and nodular limestone.

Figure 11: Schematic lithologic column of the Lae Tong Formation (Olt) (not to scale).

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A

B

C

D

Figure 12(A-D): Photographs of the Lae Tong Formation, thin-bedded argillaceous limestone interbedded with shale.

3.1.3 Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts)

In Malaysia, the term Setul Formation (Ost) was introduced by Jones (1981) to describe a sequence of predominantly dark grey stylolitic limestone, exposed in the eastern part of Langkawi Islands and in the western side of Perlis State. In western Perlis, the limestone forms a north-south trending ridge, along the Malaysia-Thailand border known as Nakawan Range of which Jones (1981) referred to as Setul Boundary Range. Setul is not an original Malaysian geographic name but was derived from the word “Satun” (which was pronounced by the elder local people of Langkawi as “Setul”), the name of a province in south Thailand, bordering the Perlis State, where the rock is widely spread. Although the usage of the term “Setul Formation” is incorrect as pointed out by Burton (1972 & 1974) and is not corresponding to the Malaysian Stratigraphic Guide (Geological Society of Malaysia, 1997), the Malaysian geologists, however, considered that this term is well established and better known as compared to the name “Kaki Bukit Formation” suggested by Burton (1972).

In Langkawi Islands, Jones (1981) divided this rock unit in ascending order into Basal Limestone, Lower Setul Limestone, Lower Detrital Member, Upper Setul Limestone, and Upper Detrital Member. He had chosen the area in the north and northeast of Langkawi Islands as the type area of the Setul Formation. The occurrence of a rock unit correlatable with the Lower Detrital Member had been reported further east of the Transect area. In eastern Kedah State, the formation is known as the Mahang Formation, and in North Perak it is known as the argillaceous facies of the Kroh Formation.

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It is difficult to delineate a geological boundary between the Lower and Upper Setul Limestone in the Transect area due to lack of detailed paleontological study. However, the Lower Setul Limestone generally exhibits more conspicuous stylolitic characters and darker colour as compared to the Upper Setul Limestone.

The Upper Detrital Member of Jones (1981) is now being considered as the Lower unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt).

Distribution

The Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) is well distributed as huge mountain ranges, along the Malaysia-Thailand border. In Malaysia, it is well exposed on N-S trending hilly terrain in the western part of Perlis State known as Nakawan Range, which extends northwards and westwards into the Thailand frontier. It also forms prominent karst topography at Bukit Tereh, Bukit Lagi, Bukit Besi Hangit, Bukit Merbok, Bukit Batu Pahat and Bukit Tok Panjang in Perlis. The karst topography is surrounded by flat to slightly undulating alluvial plain in the south and north of Kangar town. The Nakawan Range and most of the limestone hills in the Transect area exhibit vertical cliff classified as fault scarps. The eastern part of the formation is in fault contact with the younger Lubok Sireh/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr). It is conformably overlain by the Jentik Formation (Djt). The limestone of the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) in western Perlis are mainly accessible and can be observed easily such as at the Perlis State Park, Bukit Rongkit area, Wang Kelian area, Tasek Meranti area, Gua Kelam (Cave of the Darkness) area, Kampung Guar Jentik, Bukit Ayer Recreational Park, Kampung Wang Belimbing, Kota Kayang area and Bukit Batu Puteh area. In Thailand, the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) is well exposed at Wang Prachan checkpoint and extended to Khao Wang Mak, Khao Wang Kluang, Khao Pu-U and Khao Na Khaow in the southwestern portion of the Transect area. This rock unit forms huge and isolated mountains, is also well exposed in the northern part of Satun Province such as at Khao Wang Man, Khao To Yong Kong, Khao Ket Tri, Khao Wang Chang and Khao Phraya Bang Sa.

The sequence of the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) in Malaysia is approximaely up to 1,500 m. thick for the whole Setul limestone including the thickness of the Upper Setul Limestone (Jones, 1981) whilst the thickness is approximately 270 m in Thailand. The upper part of the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) in Thailand cannot be observed so far.

Lithology

The Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) comprises predominantly grey to dark grey, thick-bedded, hard, brittle stylolitic crystalline limestone with variable amount of argillaceous impurities. The stylolitic bands are formed by the impurities made up of the argillaceous, carbonaceous and siliceous constituents, which are more conspicuous on the weathered surface of the limestone (Figure 13). The limestone exhibits banded structures due to the presence of stylolites, which was developed by diagenetic segregation of the original fine clastic materials from the pure carbonate. It is variably dolomitized where it is decomposed to dark red coloured residual soil. The localized development of dolomite also gives irregular partings within the limestone.

The limestone of the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) exposed at Bukit Batu Puteh (6o 25.352΄ N, 100o 07.360΄ E) is an example of the Upper Setul Limestone. It is grey to light grey, dolomitic in parts and exhibits less stylolitic characteristic as compared to the Lower Setul Limestone exposed at Pulau Langgun, Langkawi Islands. Bioturbation (trace fossils) can be observed on the limestone beds exposed at Padang China (6o 25.689΄ N, 100o 07.875΄ E), near Bukit Batu Puteh. The limestone is oftenly metamorphosed to light grey to white marble with medium- to coarse-grained calcite near its contact aureoles with granite. This outcrop can be observed near Wang Burma (6o 42.226΄ N, 100o 12.364΄ E) situated in the Perlis State Park.

Jones (1981) proposed that the Lower and Upper Detrital Members consist of variably metamorphosed black shale, cherty beds and sandstone exposed in Pulau Langgun, Pulau Timun

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and Pulau Tuba of the Langkawi Islands, to the west (outside) of the Transect area. In the Transect area, the rock unit correlatable with the Upper Detrital Member of Jones (1981), which yields Early Devonian graptolites and Tentaculites, is now being considered as the lowermost part of the Jentik Formation (Djt).

Age and Correlation

A number of limestone samples of the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) were collected for micropalaeontological study by Professor Katsuo Sashida of the Tsukuba University, Japan. Sashida (pers. comm.) reported that only one out of four limestone samples analysed yields identifiable conodonts. Sample number MT4/MN/R20 collected at Km 6.2, Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.454΄ N, 100o 11.867΄ E) yields the conodonts Ozarkodina, Panderodus, Aulacognathus, Llandoverygnathus? and other fossils indicative of Middle to Late Silurian. Some poorly preserved macrofossils including gastropods, crinoid stems and bryozoan also have been found, but are not good enough for age determination.

In Malaysia, most of the fossils belonging to the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) were found by previous workers in the Langkawi Islands. Ordovician fossils had also been discovered (Kobayashi, 1959). Brachiopods, gastropods, crinoids and conodonts of Ordovician age were found at the following localities:

Locality Grid Reference

Kampung Wang Tangga 6o 38.883΄ N, 100o 11.983΄ E Kaki Bukit Quarry 6o 36.733΄ N, 100o 12.183΄ E Goa Baba Tin Mine 6o 37.683΄ N, 100o 12.333΄ E Woh Brothers Tin Mine 6o 36.867΄ N, 100o 12.283΄ E Thye Sam Mine 6o 36.800΄ N, 100o 12.183΄ E

The quarry and tin mines listed above are no longer operating and the Malaysian Working Group was unsuccessful to relocate those fossil localities. These imply that the limestone exposed in those areas is probably representing part of the Lower Setul Limestone. Recent studies on the limestone sample collected at Km 1.2 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (N6o 40.546΄, E100o 11.829΄), yielded conodonts indicating Middle to Late Silurian age (Sashida, pers. comm.). This result indicates that the limestone might represent part of the Upper Setul Limestone.

Kobayashi (1958 & 1959) and Jones et al. (1966) reported the occurrences of fossils belonged to gastropod-cephalopod association i.e. Malayaspira sp., Lytospira rectangularis Kobayashi, Stereoplasmoceras (?) sp., Ormoceras langkawiensis KOBAYASHI, Armenoceras chediforme KOBAYASHI, Actinoceras perlisense KOBAYASHI and Actinoceras sp. at Bukit Lagi near Kangar and Thye San Mine in north Perlis. Later Jones (1981) reported the occurrence of conodonts, gastropods, brachipods and coelenteratas at Thye San Mine and Kaki Bukit i.e. Drepanodus spp., Oistodus spp., Scandodus sp. (conodonts), and Malayaspira rugosa KOBAYASHI (gastropod). All these fossils indicate Ordovician age, which suggests that the limestone occurs in those areas representing the Lower Setul Limestone.

Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee (2002) reported the occurrence of Scyphocrinites loboliths (Figure 14) together with crinoid ossicles in the limestone just below the Early Devonian dacryoconarids-monograptids-Plagiolaria beds of the Jentik Formation (Djt) (equivalence of the Upper Detrital member of Jones, 1981) at Hill A (6o 33.103΄ N, 100o 12.460΄ E), Guar Sanai, Kampung Guar Jentik near Beseri, Perlis. This fauna suggests that the limestone is of Late Silurian age (Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee, 2002) and is confirmed to be part of the Upper Setul Limestone. Therefore, in Malaysia, the Setul Formation is assigned as Ordovician-Silurian age.

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Figure 13: Stylolitic limestone of the Setul Formation/

Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) at Bukit Ayer Recreational Park, Perlis, Malaysia (6o 32.763΄ N, 100o 10.131΄ E).

Figure 14: Scyphocrinites loboliths at Kampung Guar Jentik , Perlis, Malaysia (6o 33.103΄ N, 100o 12.460΄ E).

In Thailand, fossil assemblages are found at Khao Noi and Khao Bang Bai, small isolated

mountains, and Ko Pratmana (Ko Rung Nok), 2 km north of the Malaysia-Thailand border southeast of the Tarutao Island, containing cephalopod Orthoceras sp., Actinoceras sp., and Ormoceras sp., crinoid, coral and sponge. Based on the stratigraphic sequence and index fossils cephalopods, i.e. Orthoceras sp., Actinoceras sp., and Ormoceras sp. found in argillaceous limestone, the Middle Ordovician age is assigned to the formation.

In conclusion, the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) is Ordovician in age. However the upper part of the formation is exposed only in Malaysia extending into Silurian age.

Depositional environment

The Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) in the Transect area had been deposited mainly in the continental shelf. The stylolitic structure formed by bands of siliceous and carbonaceous impurities indicate that it was deposited in continental shelf environment, above the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), where both carbonate and clastic materials could be accumulated synchronously. The Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) was deposited in rather shallow water environment characterized by the presence of carbonaceous materials with conspicuous argillaceous stylolitic structures, and bioturbated benthonic faunas.

3.1.4 Pa Samed Formation (SDps) Distribution

The Pa Samed Formation (SDps) is confined to the western part of the Transect area in the vicinities of Muang, La Ngu and Thung Wa Districts of Satun Province, Thailand. The upper part of this formation is correlatable with the Jentik Formation (Djt).

Lithology

The Silurian-Devonian succession of the Pa Samed Formation (SDps), approximately 120 m thick, is represented by grey to light grey, thin-bedded mudstone, chert and siliceous mudstone (Figure 15A-D).

Age and correlation

At Khuan Klang of Muang District, Satun Province, the Pa Samed Formation is conformably overlain by the Carboniferous Khuan Klang Formation. Abundant graptolite (Figure 16E), Tentaculites sp., Nowakia sp. and a few graptolite (Figure 16F), brachiopods, and trilobite

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Plagiolaria poothaii are found in this unit. The presence of these faunas indicates that the formation ranges in age from Silurian-Devonian.

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 15: Photographs of the Pa Samed Formation (SDps) and its associated fossils at Khuan Klang, Muang District, Satun Province.

A-D: Sequence of the Pa Samed Formation E: Graptolite F: Tentaculites sp., Nowakia sp. and graptolite.

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Depositional environment

The Pa Samed Formation (SDps) was deposited in low-oxygenated deeper sea environment as a condensed sequence indicated by the presence of black shale and siltstone including graptolites and Tentaculites sp.

3.1.5 Jentik Formation (Djt)

The term Jentik Formation (Djt) was introduced by Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) for a transitional sequence from the Setul Formation to the Kubang Pasu Formation which is well exposed in earth quarries at unnamed hills designated as Hill A, Hill B and Hill C at Guar Sanai, Kampung Guar Jentik, Beseri, Perlis, Malaysia (Figure 16). The same name for those particular hills is applied in this report to describe the geology and stratigraphy of the rock units exposed there. This formation is correlatable with the upper part of the Pa Samed Formation (SDps).

The Jentik Formation (Djt) is confirmed to be continuously deposited during Early Devonian to Earliest Carboniferous. It represents a complete transitional sequence between the two formations that had never been reported before. Previously, some authors including Jones (1981) reported that there was an unconformity or depositional hiatus during the Devonian era especially on the mainland of the northwest Malay Peninsula.

Figure 16: Location of Hill A, Hill B and Hill C at Guar Sanai, Kampung Guar

Jentik where the Jentik Formation is exposed. (after Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee, 2002).

Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) have described and correlated the rock sequence exposed at

Guar Sanai area with the rock units exposed at Wang Kelian, Langkawi Islands, and southern Thailand. However, in this report, part of the original sequence proposed by Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) is modified to suite the regional geology of the whole Transect area. Unit 1 of the Jentik Formation (Djt) consists of black carbonaceous and reddish shale with the presence of

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Dacryoconarid-Monograptus-Plagiolaria assemblage equivalent to the Upper Detrital Member of Jones (1981). The Upper Detrital Member of the Setul Formation exposed at Langgun Island (Jones, 1981) has yielded dacryoconarid Tentaculites associated with lamellibranchs and graptolites of the Monograptus hercynicus group, which indicate the age of Gedinnian (Early Devonian).

Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) also reported that Unit 4 of the Jentik Formation (Djt) exposed at Hill B consists of well-bedded dark limestone beds with straight cone nautiloid fossils. Since this unit is underlying the rocks of Early Carboniferous age, the Malaysian Working Group interpreted that this unit is probably younger than the Upper Setul Limestone.

Distribution

The distribution of the Jentik Formation (Djt) is limited to a condensed sequence of about 300 m thick exposed in earth quarries at Hill A, Hill B and Hill C of Kampung Guar Jentik, Guar Sanai area. It forms a transitional boundary with the underlying Ordovician Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) and the overlying Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). To date, no other outcrop of this rock unit can be observed in the Transect area.

To the south of the Transect area, the occurrence of Mid-Palaeozoic red beds sequence similar to that exposed at Hill A and Hill C, was reported at Bumita Quarry (6o 33.200΄ N, 100o 12.400΄ E) in Kampung Binjal, Perlis (Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee, 2004).

Lithology

Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) divided the Jentik Formation (Djt) into six units designated as Unit 1 to Unit 6, in ascending order. However, after considering the regional geology of the whole Transect area and its correlation with rock units exposed in Kedah-Perlis and Langkawi Islands, the Malaysian Working Group concluded that the Jentik Formation (Djt) is divided into three major parts in ascending order; Lower, Middle and Upper units which consist of Unit 1, Unit 2, Unit 3 and Unit 4 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002). Their Unit 5 and 6 are now considered as a portion of the lower part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh).

The new units of the Jentik Formation (Djt) are as follows:

i. Lower unit

The Lower unit consists of clastic sequence of black carbonaceous and reddish shale with Dacryconarid-Monograptus-Plagiolaria assemblage. It is equivalent to Unit 1 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002) and is correlatable with the Upper Detrital Member of the Setul Formation of Jones (1981). This unit is well-exposed in the western side of Hill C (6o 33.657΄ N, 100o 12.182΄ E) and north western side of Hill B (6o 33.278΄ N, 100o 12.428΄ E) as well as in the south eastern side of Hill A (6o 33.103΄ N, 100o 12.460΄ E). It is conformably overlain by the areno-argillites sequence of the Middle unit of the formation.

The Lower unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt) overlies conformably the grey crystalline, hard, and brittle stylolitic limestone of the Upper Setul Limestone containing the Late Silurian Scyphocrinites loboliths as reported in detail by Lee (2001), and Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002). The transitional boundary between the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) and the overlying Jentik Formation (Djt) can be clearly observed particularly in the eastern side of Hill A.

ii. Middle unit

The Middle unit consists of medium- to thick-bedded unfossiliferous light coloured areno-argilites with predominantly arenaceous sequence. Slump structures are not common and it is exposed just above the Lower unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt) on the western side of Hill C, on the

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northwestern side of Hill B and on the southeastern side of Hill A. It is equivalent to Unit 2 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002).

The bottom part of the Middle unit is unfossiliferous. The top part exposed at Hill C is composed mainly of red coloured, thick-bedded mudstone, containing crinoid ossicles, a few Posidonomya (Figure 17), abundant brachiopods Tornquistia burtonae, Malayanoplia sp., Perakia sp., Echinocoeliopsis sp., trilobite Diacoryphe sp. (Figure 18), indicative of Late Devonian age. Tabulate coral of Pleurodictium indicates Devonian age of the rock unit is also found.

iii. Upper unit

The Upper unit consists predominantly of argillaceous, mainly of thick-bedded red mudstone with Late Devonian brachiopods-Diacoryphe-Posidonomya assemblage. It can be observed in the eastern side of Hill C. It is correlatable with the Wang Kelian Member (Lee and Azhar, 1991) and Rebanggun beds (Gobbet, 1973). It can also be observed at Km 5.5 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (N6o 40.156΄, E100o 11.850΄), the locality that was named as Wang Kelian Member (Lee and Azhar, 1991). It is equivalent to Unit 3 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002).

Towards the top of the succession, the mudstone changes gradually to a sequence of thick sandstone beds interbedded with laminated mudstone containing fairly well preserved bivalve Posidonomya with occasional dark coloured, well-bedded limestone beds containing nautiloid fossils, which is equivalent to Unit 4 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002). This Upper unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt) can be observed at Hill B. Subsequently, Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2003) formalized this limestone unit as the Sanai Limestone Member. The occurrences of Devonian conodonts were reported in this limestone. At the same locality, the Upper unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt) is also forming a transitional boundary with the lowermost part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), which consists of Unit 5 and 6 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2002).

Age and Correlation

Dacryoconarids-monograptids-Plagiolaria assemblage was found in the dark grey and brownish grey argillaceous sequence of the Lower unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt) just above the Upper Setul Limestone at Hill A, Hill B and Hill C of Guar Sanai, Kampung Guar Jentik, near Beseri, Perlis (Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee, 2002). The fossils are Dacryoconarids Nowakia sp. and Styliolina sp. (Figure 19), Plagiolaria sp. and monograptids (Figure 20). This indicates the Early Devonian age for the Lower unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt).

Recently, fossil of small tabulate coral “Cladochonus” (Figure 21) was discovered in red mudstone at the east of Hill B (6o 33.278΄ N, 100o 12.428΄ E). It resembles the rare “Cladochonus” malayensis discovered from red mudstone at a locality near Kampung Jelutong, southeast of Alor Setar, Kedah, further south from the Transect area (Hamada, 1968 & 1973). The geological age of this fossil is possibly early Tournaisian (Hamada, 1973).

Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee (2003) also reported the occurrence of conodonts identified as Palmatolepis sp., Palmatolepis glabra and some polygnathids fossils in the bedded limestone within the Upper unit. These conodonts suggest Late Devonian (Frasnian to Fammenian) age. Straight cone nautiloid fossil (Figure 22) also has been discovered in the limestone that might suggest the Devonian age. This fossil was discovered at Hill C, Guar Jentik and Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.156΄ N, 100o 11.850΄ E).

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Figure 17: Posidonomya, Guar Jentik (6o 33.278΄ N,

100o 12.428΄ E) Figure 18: Diacoryphe pygidium at Guar Jentik

(6o 33.657΄ N, 100o 12.182΄ E).

Figure 19: Dacryoconarid, Guar Jentik

(6o 34.968 ΄N, 100o 11.998΄ E) Figure 20: Graptolite, Guar Jentik (6o 34.968΄ N,

100o 11.998΄ E).

Figure 21: Small tabulate coral “Cladochonus”

discovered in red mudstone at the east of Hill B (6o 33.278 N ΄, 100o 12.428΄ E).

Figure 22: Straight cone nautiloid indicative of Devonian age, Hill C, Guar Jentik, Malaysia (6o 40.156΄ N, 100o 11.850΄ E).

Based on palaontological evidences, it is confirmed that the Jentik Formation (Djt) is of Early Devonian to Earliest Carboniferous age and it forms condensed sequence of a transitional boundary with both the underlying Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (OSst/ts) and the overlying Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh).

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Depositional Environment

The Jentik Formation (Djt) was deposited in moderately deep-water marine slope environment (Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee, 2002). The transitional boundary between the Lower unit of the Jentik Formation (Djt) with the underlying Upper Setul Limestone implies that it was deposited during the transgression period; when the water level was increasing which formed a deep-water environment where the deposition of black argillaceous materials took place. The lithology comprises predominantly argillaceous sequence, suggesting a low energy environment. Black coloured, fine-grained sediments as well as the absence of benthic fossils indicate anoxic water condition.

The presence of slumped structures in the Middle unit of the sequence indicates that the deposition took place on paleoslope. Predominant arenaceous sequence in the Middle unit implies that the current was slightly strong during the deposition of this unit. The occurrences of megaclasts (Figure 23) in poorly sorted sandstone bed indicate rapid deposition due to strong current that occurred periodically during the deposition of this formation.

Figure 23: Megaclast in poorly sorted sandstone bed

at Hill B, Guar Jentik (6o 33.278΄N, 100o 12.428΄ E).

The occurrences of red coloured mudstone indicate that the rocks had been exposed to oxidised condition, may be due to the regression period occurred during its depositional history. The occurrence of minor limestone beds in the Upper unit of the formation also suggests the decrease in water level during the regression period that formed a favourable environment for the deposition of the carbonate materials.

3.1.6 Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk)

The Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) is classified as one of the well known rock units for the Carboniferous age. It can be distinguished from the Yaha Formation by its finer lithologies and more abundant macrofaunas. This rock unit is exposed only in Thailand and the formation was named by Tansuwan et al. (1985).

In general, the Khuan Klang Formation has not been affected by granite intrusion except for the area near the main range granite. However, dynamic metamorphism by fault movement is common and the rocks were changed to fissile spotted slate, phylllite, meta-quartzite and quartz-mica schist.

Distribution

The formation occurs in the western and eastern parts of the Transect area. The sequence (200-250 m thick) occurs as N-S trending relief west of the main range granite belt, covering Trang, Satun and Songkhla Provinces.

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The type section for the Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) is at Khuan Klang. It is well exposed in the vicinities of Muang and Tha Phae Districts of Satun Province. Various exposures of the formation at Khuan Klang and its vicinities are shown in Figure 24.

Lithology

The Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk), approximately 210 m thick, is represented by light grey, brown to reddish brown, thick-bedded, laminated, fine- to very coarse-grained, poorly sorted, moderately rounded, poorly cemented mudstone intercalated with sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and pebbly mudstone. Pebbles consist of quartz, sandstone and shale.

The Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) is characterized by the presence of light grey, red, reddish brown, thin- to very thick- bedded, mudstones, claystones and siltstones with often smooth and with powdery textures. Ripple mark, lamination, graded bedding and flaser bed are commonly recorded. The argillte is interbedded with lithic and quartzitic sandstones, sandy siltstones and siliceous mudstones or chert. Quartzitic sandstones are brown, reddish brown and grey, usually fine-grained and well-sorted. Lithic sandstone is brown to dark grey, fine- to coarse-grained with some pebbles at the bottom part. Both types of sandstone have thin- to thick-bedded and lenticular beds. Low angle cross-bedding and lamination are common. Sandy siltstones are grey and greenish grey, thin- to medium-bedded. Chert or siliceous rocks are grey, dark grey to black, well-bedded, folded, thin- to very thin-bedded.

A B

C D

Figure 24 (A-D): Photographs of various exposures of the Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) in the Transect area.

Depositional Environment

The Khuan Klang Formation has been deposited on the continent shelf of the cratonic area in Shan-Thai terrane. Environment of deposition is interpreted as having been deposited in the tidal flat to upper subtidal environment.

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Age and Correlation

Generally the Posidonomya sp. and other fossil assemblages e.g., bivalves, brachiopods, trilobites, crinoids, ammonites, ostracods and corals are found in several beds of the formation indicating that the age of the Khuan Klang Formation is Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous. A more detailed study has shown that fossils of the Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) contain abundant bivalves; Posidonomya sp. (Figure 25), Edmondia sp., Pterinopecten sp., Aviculopecten sp., and Allorisma sp., trilobites; Langgonbole vulgaris and Dalmanites sp.?, brachiopods; Chonetes sp. and Echinoconchus sp., ammonites; Agathiceras sp. and Euomphalus sp., gastropod; Pronorite sp.?, ostracode and crinoids. Based on these fossils, the Carboniferous age is assigned to this formation.

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A B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J Figure 25 (A-J): Photographs of various types of Posidonomya sp. of the Khuan Klang

Formation (Ckk) from numbers of exposure in the Transect area.

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3.1.7 Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh)

In Malaysia, the term Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) was introduced by Jones (1981) for a sequence of thick- to very thick-bedded sandstone, mudstone, shale, and a variety of poorly sorted areno-argillaceous deposits varying from muddy siltstone through greywacke to feldspathic sandstone. The stratigraphic name was taken after the Kubang Pasu District, Kedah. The Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is conformably underlain by the Jentik Formation (Djt) and it is conformably overlain by the Lubok Sireh/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr).

In Thailand, the Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) clastic rocks are exposed only in the eastern part of the Transect area. The stratigraphic name was taken after the Yaha District, Yala Province. This formation is separated from the Carboniferous Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk) by its coarser lithologies.

Distribution In Malaysia, the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) occupies the eastern part of the Transect area, covering the Pauh and Temin areas where it forms N-S trending ridges. Good exposures can be observed along the road-cuts and at earth quarries in Guar Jentik, south of Bukit Ramera, Kampung Tok Kasim, Kampung Sentang and Temin areas. It is also well exposed along the border security road that runs from Bukit Tangga to Sintok area.

In Thailand, this formation, approximately 300 m thick, is distributed as isolated hills in the vicinity of Sadao District, Songkhla Province.

Lithology

The Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) comprises essentially of thick interbeds of poorly sorted areno-argillaceous and minor siliceous rock. The arenaceous rock consists of predominantly grey to white sandstone, greywacke, subordinate grit, and conglomerate. Quarzitic sandstone also occurs. Feldspar is usually present in varying amounts in the sandstone. In some of the sandstone, the feldspar increases to such proportions that the rock may be termed as feldspathic sandstone.

Mudstone and shale are the most common argillaceous rock with lesser siltstone. The rocks are essentially dark grey and red in colour. Thickness of the individual bed of arenaceous and argillaceous rocks ranges from 10 cm to more than 1 m. The siliceous rocks consist of thin-bedded chert and siliceous shale. It contains minute and rounded texture made up of microcrystalline quartz and chalcedony that may represent traces of replaced radiolarians.

The base of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) can be observed at Guar Jentik (6o 33.657΄ N, 100o 12.182΄ E) where it overlies conformably the Jentik Formation (Djt). It is made up of red and dark grey mudstone, shale and subordinate sandstone and chert lenses (equivalent to Unit 5 of Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee, 2002). Some parts of the chert and cherty mudstone are highly folded. Similar rocks sequence is also exposed in the Bukit Tangga area. Good exposures can be observed along the security road from Bukit Tangga to Sintok (especially from boundary stone TS26/15 to TS26/75), where radiolarian chert beds are intercalated with red and dark grey mudstone, shale and subordinate sandstone (Figure 26).

The upper part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is made up of a sequence of predominantly argillaceous rocks consisting of thick-bedded red mudstone interbedded with medium- to thick-bedded sandstone. Towards the higher level of the succession, arenaceous and argillaceous rocks are interchangeably predominating. The rock is composed of well-bedded sandstones intercalated with mudstone and shale (Figure 27 and 28). Various sedimentary structures such as well-sorted quartzitic sandstone with graded bedding and cross lamination can be observed in the sandstones. In Malaysia, thick-bedded sandstone and feldspathic sandstone forms a prominent north-south ridge of Bukit Ramera (6o 30.215΄ N, 100o 22.233΄ E) and Bukit Telipong (6o 26.068΄

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N, 100o 23.473΄ E; in the south-central part), Bukit Bendang Bongsu (6o 28.437’ N, 100o 27.141΄ E) and Bukit Buluh Telang (6o 27.319΄ N, 100o 27.954΄ E; in the eastern part). Whenever mudstone and shale are predominating, they usually form low undulating terrains. This feature can be seen in the Padang Siding and Bukit Kayu Hitam areas.

Figure 26: Thin-bedded chert at boundary stone TS26/45

(6o 30.736΄ N, 100o 29.626΄ E), Malaysia. Figure 27: Thick- to very thick-bedded sandstone

intercalated with mudstone and shale at Ulu Pauh area (6o 28.221΄ N, 100o 20.694΄ E), Malaysia.

A B

Figure 28: Photographs of the exposure of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in Thailand. A - General view of the rock exposure. B -Close-up view of A.

Age and Correlation

In Malaysia, the lower limit of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is exposed at Guar Jentik where it rests conformably on the Jentik Formation (Djt). At this locality, a rock sequence consists of red and grey mudstone and subordinate sandstone, and chert forms the basal part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). A characteristic Posidonomya-gastropod-trilobite-crinoid faunal assemblage has been discovered in these beds. The trilobite Macrobole kedahensis gives an Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian) age (Meor Hakif Hassan and Lee, 2002). Similar rock unit also crops out at Gunung Hutan Aji, to the south of the Transect area and at Pulau Panjang (Ko Yao) off Kuala Perlis (Jones, 1981). The trilobite found in the mudstone at Gunung Hutan Aji has been identified as Cyrtosymbol (Waribole) perlisensis. This was said to be indicative of a Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous age (Jones, 1981). Large, ribbed Posidonomya impressions found in road cutting at Hutan Aji have been identified by the British Museum as Posidonomya aff. becheri

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Bronn, which suggestive of a Lower Carboniferous age (Jones, 1981). Basir Jasin (1995, 1999 & 2001) studied some of the radiolarian chert which is statigraphically located at the base of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation exposed to the south, outside of the Transect area. He identified nine radiolarians species that belong to Albaillella indensisrota Zone of Won (1988). This assemblage indicates an age of late Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous).

Gobbett (1973) mentioned that chert lenses occurred in the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in central Perlis, which yielded Fusulina konnoi (a Moscovian fusulinid) was recorded by Scrivenor (1926). Effort has been made by the Malaysian Working Group to relocate the above mentioned chert locality but unsuccessful. At this stage, it is still uncertain whether the rock is chert or cherty limestone or silicified limestone. Accordingly, the occurrence of Middle Carboniferous chert in the upper part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) has yet to be established to some degree of certainty.

Strata of the upper part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) are very hard to establish due to lack of index fossils. However, Jones (1981) reported that the Upper Carboniferous strata do exist by the occurrence of a goniatite-brachiopod-gastropod fauna at Milestone 11 Alor Setar-Kuala Nerang road, to the south of the Transect area. Among the fossils, Gobbett identified the Upper Carboniferous genera Agathiceras? and Paralegoceras? The Malaysian Working Group has recently found ammonoids of genus Agathiceras together with Posidonomya sp. on a road-cut at Kampung Tok Kasim (6o 26.947΄ N, 100o 27.060΄ E) and in front of the Northern University of Malaysia campus at Sintok, Kedah (6o 26.871΄ N, 100o 30.633΄ E) as shown in Figure 30).

Figure 29: Ammonoids genus Agathiceras discovered near the front gate of the Northern University of Malaysia campus, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia (6o 26.871 N ΄, 100o 30.633 E ΄).

During the recent study, eight samples of radiolarian chert have been collected from the Lower part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) exposed along the border security road in the Bukit Tangga area were studied by Professor Katsuo Sashida of the Tsukuba University, Japan. Seven chert samples containing well-preserved radiolarian fossils probably indicative of Tournaisian age (Early Carboniferous) had been identified. Details of his findings are listed in Table 1.

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Table 1: Results of the radiolarian chert samples studied by Professor Katsuo Sashida.

No. Sample No. Grid References Fossils Age

1 MT4/MN/R4 6o 31.338΄ N 100o 29.831΄ E

Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Tournaisian

2 MT4/MN/R5 6o 31.091΄ N 100o 29.748΄ E

Stigmosphaerostylus. sp. Archocyrtium riedeli Deflandre

Tournaisian

3 MT4/MN/R7 6o 31.104΄ N 100o 29.656΄ E

Stigmosphaerostylus tortispina (Ormiston and Lane) Triaenospahera? Bareillensis Gourmelon Astroentactinia multispinosa (Won) Helioentactinia polycanthina (Foreman)

Tournaisian

4 MT4/MN/R8 6o 30.585΄ N 100o 29.675΄ E

Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Stigmosphaerostylus cfr. palimbola (Foreman)

Tournaisian

5 MT4/MN/R10 6o 30.286΄ N 100o 30.080΄ E

Archocyrtium sp. Stigmosphaerostylus sp.

Tournaisian

6 MT4/MN/R11 6o 30.119΄ N 100o 30.112΄ E

Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre, Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Pylentonema sp.

Tournaisian

7 MT4/MN/R13 6o 30.915΄ N 100o 29.453΄ E

Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Tournaisian

During the study, there is no fossil found in the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in Thailand because the formation only covers a very small area on the Thai side of the Transect area. The age of this formation is assigned as Carboniferous on the basis of its stratigraphic and lithologic correlation with the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in the Yaha District of Yala Province, to the east of the Transect area.

On the basis of the faunal assemblages, the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is assigned as Carboniferous age.

Depositional Environment

The lower part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is characterized by mudstone, shale, and occasional occurrence of chert. The colour of the rocks is dominantly in the shade of red. This indicates that the rocks have been affected by oxidation process, which usually takes place in shallow water. Fossils found in this unit are usually broken and they include Posidonomya sp., Macrobole sp., gastropod and crinoid, which also indicates shallow water environment. According to lithological characteristics and fossil assemblages, it is interpreted that the lower part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) was probably deposited in a continental slope environment. The presence of chert and siliceous shale in the lower part of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) may be due to the increase in supply of silica derived from the siliceous rocks of the Mahang Formation, or radiolarians activity, or both aspects.

The upper part of this formation may represent a near shore environment of deposition, probably in either intertidal or upper subtidal zones. The rock is composed of well-bedded sandstones intercalated with mudstone and shale. Sedimentary structures such as well-sorted quarzitic sandstone with graded bedding and cross lamination have been observed. Fossils found in this rock sequence are broken as a result of strong current and wave action. The increase in proportion of coarse clastic material may also indicate that the basin was becoming shallower. A sudden increase in the rate of erosion on land brought about by eustatic fall in sea level (regression) or a diastrophic uplift of the land could explain the significant increase in the arenaceous component.

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3.1.8 Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr)

The Lubok Sireh formation (Psr) was introduced by the Malaysian Working Group for a rock sequence made up of medium- to thick-bedded grey to dark grey mudstone, shale, and siltstone exposed extensively in North Perlis. Fairly well preserved Permian brachiopods have been discovered within this rock unit.

Distribution

In Malaysia, this rock unit is exposed extensively at the north central part of the Transect area, extending from Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road, along the border security road from Boundary Stone TS8D/50 to Boundary Stone TS9 on the west of Bukit Mat Jelai, covering most of the Mata Ayer Forest Reserve, and from the east of Bukit Mata Ayer to Padang Besar (Figures 30-32). At the western side of the transect area, it is in fault contact with the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts). On the eastern side of Bukit Mata Ayer, this rock unit is in fault contact with the lower limestone member of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc).

Figure 30: Dark grey mudstone exposed at Km 5 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.353΄ N, 100o 12.099΄ E) that contain Early Permian brachiopods.

Figure 31: Dark grey, indurated siltstone that contains

megaclasts with dropstone character near CH20000 along the border security road from Padang Besar to Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 41.334΄ N, 100o 17.461΄ E).

Figure 32: Megaclast showing distinct dropstone character observed at the outcrop shown in Figure 31.

- 35 -

In Thailand, the Permian clastic rocks in the middle part of the Transect area is named as the Khao Phra Formation (Pkr) belonging to the Kaeng Krachan Group. It crops out mainly in the eastern part of the Transect area in Sadao District of Songkhla Province. In places, the formation is exposed near Malaysia-Thailand border in the vicinity of Padang Besar. The formation is bounded by the granitic rocks of Khao Chin granite to the west and the Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) to the east. In the western part of the Transect area, west of Muang District, Satun Province, the formation crops out at Khuan Pho (Figure 33).

A

B Figure 33: Outcrops of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) at Khuan Pho, Thailand.

Lithology

In Malaysia, the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) consists predominantly of commonly indurated, dark grey, medium- to thick-bedded mudstone, shale, and siltstone sequences. Thin bands of lighter coloured, fine-grained sandstone also occur. At some localities, especially along the border security road from Padang Besar to Bukit Mata Ayer; the mudstone exhibits hornfelsic characteristics. Pyrite nodules with perfect isometric crystal system and calcite-filled joints are commonly present. At CH20000 (6o 41.334΄ N, 100o 17.461΄ E), near Khuan Chuk, along the border security road from Bukit Mata Ayer to Padang Besar, sequence of dark grey, thick-bedded to massive siltstone contains megaclasts occurring as dropstones (Figure 31 and 32) interpreted to be of glacial marine origin. The dropstones are composed of subrounded to well-rounded pebbles of quartzite, vein quartz, and granitic rocks, ranging in size from 0.5 cm to 5 cm in diameter.

The lower part of the clastic succession is composed predominantly of medium- to thick-bedded siltstone interbedded with thin-bedded shale and mudstone, and occasionally sandstone. The rock sequence can be observed at CH3800 along the security road (Guar Petai) and Guar Keh. At CH3800 (6o 42.239΄ N, 100o 15.249΄ E), the rock comprises light grey thick-bedded sandstone interbedded with thin-bedded mudstone and shale and rare siltstone. The sandstones are fine- to medium-grained quartzitic sandstone, subordinate feldspathic sandstone, and graywacke. Individual sandstone bed is up to 1 m thick. Sedimentary structures such as ripple mark and lamination can be observed (Figures 34 & 35). Laminations are obvious in shale and fine-grained sandstone. A small scale cross lamination can be observed in the sandstone. Meanwhile, bioturbations and plant fragments (calamites) are found in dark grey mudstone.The rocks are folded in the N-S trending anticlinal axis. At Guar Keh (6o 39.307 N΄, 100o 15.222΄ E), the rock sequence is represented by grey sandstones, 10 cm to 50 cm thick, calcareous in parts and interbedded with dark grey shale and mudstone.

Towards the higher level of the succession, a passage bed comprises interbeds of thin- to medium-bedded sandstone, black shale, and mudstone, with some calcareous beds that yield late

- 36 -

Early Permian to Middle Permian faunas. The clastic succession is well exposed at several localities especially at the Bukit Mata Ayer, Bukit Mat Jelai, Guar Petai, Guar Keh areas and at the lower section of Bukit Mata Ayer, Guar Geteri, Bukit Wang Pisang, Bukit Chondong and Bukit Temiang. A complete sequence of this rock unit can be observed on the road-cut along the security road in the Bukit Mata Ayer area, from CH3800 (Guar Petai, west) to CH10000 (Bukit Mata Ayer, east). The rock unit exceeds 100 m thick showing an obvious fining and thinning upwards sequence.

Figure 34: Ripple mark on sandstone bed of the lower

part of Lubok Sireh formation exposed at CH3800 along the border security road (6o 42.239΄ N, 100o 15.249΄ E).

Figure 35: Cross lamination in sandstone bed of the lower part of Lubok Sireh formation exposed at Guar Keh (6o 39.202΄ N, 100o 15.271΄ E).

The upper part of the clastic succession known as passage bed by Jones (1981) occupies a N-S trending narrow band in central Perlis that can be observed at the foothill of Bukit Temiang in the south, extending northwards to the foothill of Bukit Mata Ayer. Along this zone, the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) grades conformably into the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc). Good exposures can be observed at Bukit Mata Ayer, Bukit Chondong and Bukit Temiang. Diagrammatic sketches showing the relationship between the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) are shown in Figures 36 to 38. At Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E), the sequence of the upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) is more than 70 m thick; overlain conformably by the Lower limestone member of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) as shown in the measured lithostratigraphic column in Figure 39. It is composed of thin beds of sandstone of approximately 10 to 20 cm thick (individual thickness) and with comparatively thinner beds of mudstone and shale of approximately 2 to 5 cm. Medium- to thick-bedded dark grey to light grey sandstones also occur occasionally. The sandstones are of quartzitic sandstone, subordinate feldspathic sandstone, and greywacke. Towards the upper portion, fossiliferous calcareous sandstone and limestone lenses are present. Bivalves, brachiopods, bryozoans and crinoid fragments are found in these calcareous sandstone and limestone.

Sedimentary structures such as parallel and cross laminations, load structure and fucoidal marking are common. Similar clastic sequence can also be observed at Bukit Temiang (6o 31.600΄ N, 100o 14.282΄ E), and Bukit Chondong (6o 33.346΄ N, 100o 14.293΄ E). At Bukit Temiang, the calcareous sandstone and limestone at the topmost part of the clastic sequence contain gastropods, bivalves, brachiopods, bryozoans and algae. Plant fragments (calamites) are also found in siltstone and shale. At Bukit Chondong, fusulinid (Monodiexodina) has been found in sandstone beds. Recently, poorly preserved fusulinid-bearing sandstone was found at an abandoned earth quarry at Guar Geteri (6o 34.698΄ N, 100o 14.049΄ E) and at Bukit Chondong (6o 33.346΄ N, 100o 14.293΄ E).

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........

........

........

....

........

........

........

....

........

........

........

....

........

........

........

....

........

........

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....

........

........

........

....Road

Grey to reddish grey, well-bedded and fine laminated limestone with brachiopods and crinoid fragments.

Limestone (10 cm thick) rich in brachiopods and crinoids.

Limestone (2 m thick) rich in brachiopods and criniods.

Thin-bedded mudstone, shale and sandstonewith minor thick-bedded sandstone.

Not to scale

+ 34 m

?

?

Lower limestone member

/Khao Rub Chang Formation

Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation

Location: Bukit Mata Ayer (view south)

Thin-to medium-bedded sandstoneintercalated with shale and mudstone

Figure 36: Diagrammatic sketch showing the relationship between the Lubok

Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) exposed at Bukit Mata Ayer, north Perlis (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E).

3 m thick sandstone

Thick-to very thick-bedded,medium- to course-grained limestone; dolomitic in parts

Limestone breccia (5 m thick)

Thin-to thick-bedded grey to light limestone

Location: Bukit Condong (view south) Not to scale

Thin-bedded mudstone andshale with minor sandstone

20 m

30 m

10 m

F

F (010/80 E)o

Lower limestone m

ember

/Khao Rub Chang Formation

?

?

B/S: 020/40 SEo

B/S: 020/40 SEo

Lubok Sireh formation/

Khao Phra Formation

Figure 37: Diagrammatic sketch showing relationship between the Lubok Sireh

formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) exposed at Bukit Chondong, central Perlis (6o 33.346΄ N, 100o 14.293΄ E).

- 38 -

Calcareous sandstone

Fossiliferous limestone bed (60 cm)

B/S: 005/40 Eo

Thin-bedded sandstone,mudstone and shale

Plant fragments

Well-bedded limestone

15 m

Location: Bukit Temiang (view north) Not to Scale

Lubo

k Sire

h/Kh

ao P

hra

Form

atio

n Lo

wer l

imes

tone

mem

ber

/Kha

o Ru

b C

hang

For

mat

ion

Figure 38: Diagrammatic sketch showing the relationship between the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) exposed at Bukit Temiang, central Perlis (6o 31.600΄ N, 100o 14.282΄ E).

In Thailand, the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr), approximately 170-200 m thick, is composed predominantly of dark grey, fine- to very coarse-grained, poorly sorted, moderately rounded, moderately cemented, thick-bedded and laminated mudstone, shale, siltstone and pebbly mudstone. Pebbles consist of quartz, sandstone and shale (Figure 40).

During current study, a number of brachiopods of Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp. (Figure 41) and chonetids as well as fragmentary crinoid stems discovered in dark grey, thick-bedded mudstone at Km 5 of the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.353΄ N, 100o 12.099΄ E). The brachiopods are of Early Permian age of Sakmarian stage (Mohd Shafeea Leman, pers. comm.). There is no other fossil found within this rock unit so far.

Fossiliferous calcareous sandstone and lenses of limestone usually occur in the upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) i.e., at Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E) and Bukit Temiang (6o 31.600΄ N, 100o 14.282΄ E). At Bukit Mata Ayer, these beds contain bivalves, brachiopods, bryozoans and crinoid fragments. Some brachiopods were identified as Taeniothaerus sp., Arctitreta sp. (Figure 42 & 43), Cancrinella sp., Derbyia sp., spiriferids, and chonetids. At Bukit Temiang, a thick-bedded, fossiliferous limestone contains brachiopods fauna Cancrinella sp. found at the uppermost part of the Lubok Sireh Formation, just below the limestone of the Chuping Formation.

- 39 -

Figure 39: Measured lithostratigraphic column of the upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation

exposed at Bukit Mata Ayer, north Perlis (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E).

- 40 -

A

B

C

D Figure 40 (A-D): Photographs of various lithologies of the Khao Phra Formation in the Transect area.

A

B

C

D

Figure 41: Dark grey mudstone bed containing Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp. at Km 5 along the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.353΄ N, 100o 12.099΄ E).

A - Close-up view of the grey mudstone outcrop B - Close-up view of Spinomartinia sp. at the outcrop as shown in A C - Spinomartinia sp. D - Bandoproductus sp.

- 41 -

Figure 42: Taeniothaerus sp. (brachiopod)

found in calcareous shale exposed at Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E)

Figure 43: Arctitreta sp. (brachiopod)

found in calcareous shale exposed at at Bukit Mata Ayer (6o 40.539΄ N, 100o 15.999΄ E)

In Thailand, sandstone and shale of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr)

exposed in the vicinity of Ban Khao Rub Chang, Sadao District (Figure 44 A-B) contain Spinomartinia sp. (Figure 45), brachiopods (Figure 46A). In places, fusulinids (Figure 46B) are found.

A B

Figure 44 (A-B): Outcrop of the Khao Phra Formation at Ban Khao Rub Chang, Sadao District of Sonkhla Province.

A

B Figure 45: Photographs of Spinomartinia sp. discovered from the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra

Formation (Psr/kr) at Ban Khao Rub Chang (from figure 44):

- 42 -

A

F

Figure 46: Brachiopod (A) and fusulind (B) discovered from the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) at Ban Khao Rub Chang at Ban Khao Rub Chang

Laminated siltstone and mudstone of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr)

exposed at Ban Khuan Pho (Figures 47A & B) contain the brachiopod Spinomartinia sp. (Figures 47C & D).

A

B

C

D

Figure 47: Photographs of various exposures and fossils of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) exposed at Ban Khuan Pho, Muang District of Satun Province in the Transect area. A & B - Outcrops of siltstone and mudstone C & D - Brachiopod of Spinomartinia sp.

- 43 -

Age and Correlation

Brachiopods belong to Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp. and chonetids as well as fragmentary crinoid stems discovered in dark grey, thick-bedded mudstone at Km 5 of the Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road (6o 40.353΄ N, 100o 12.099΄ E) indicate Early Permian age of Sakmarian stage (Mohd Shafeea Leman, pers. comm.). The presence of Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp. in the Singa Formation at Pulau Langkawi, to the west of the Transect area was reported (Shi et al., 1997; Mohd Shafeea Leman and Asmaniza Yop, 2002 and Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2003). Previously, Stauffer and Lee (1986) reported the presence of megaclasts with dropstone characteristic in the dark grey siltstone in the Singa Formation that exposed extensively in Langkawi Islands. These evidents suggest that the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) is biostratigraphically and lithostratigraphically correlatable with the Singa Formation. Bioturbation is present within this rock unit.

Brachiopods Taeniothaerus sp., Arctitreta sp., Cancrinella sp., Derbyia sp., spiriferids, and chonetids found in the calcareous sandstone at Bukit Mata Ayer and Bukit Temiang indicate Early to Middle Permian age (Mohd Shafeea Leman, pers. comm.). Jones (1981) reported that Cancrinella cf. cancrini (Vern) and coral Sinopora dendroidea (Yoh) found below the limestone of the Chuping Formation indicate Early Permian age. Basir Jasin and Koay (1990) reported that the fusulinids (especially Monodiexodina krafti) discovered in the sandstone at Bukit Wang Pisang as indicator of the Early Permian age.

In Thailand, Spinomartinia sp. and other brachiopods, and fusulinids found in mudstone in the vicinity of Ban Khao Rub Chang and Ban Khuan Pho indicate Early Permian age.

Lithological characteristic and the faunal assemblages found in the Lubok Sireh formation in Malaysia are very well correlatable to the Khao Phra Formation of Thailand.

Depositional Environment

Medium- to thick-bedded sequence of mudstone, shale and siltstone suggests that this formation was deposited in a rather quiet environment. Dark coloured rocks as well as the presence of perfect isometric system of pyrite crystals embedded within this rock unit may indicate a reducing environment. This implies that the deposition of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) was probably taken place in a quite deep marine environment probably in the outer continental shelf. However, there were some parts of the depositional basin that were relatively shallower as indicated by the presence of bioturbation as a result of benthic faunas activities.

The upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr), which was earlier considered as a passage bed overlying the Kubang Pasu Formation by Jones (1981) may be deposited on a near-shore environment, probably in either intertidal or lower subtidal zones. This idea is supported by the presence of primary sedimentary structures, i.e. ripple mark, well-sorted quartzitic sandstone with cross lamination, and parallel lamination in fine-grained sandstone and shale. Significant increase in the arenaceous component could be influenced by eustatic fall in sea level (regression) or a diastrophic uplift of the land. Fragments of bivalves and plant fragments are also present indicating the influence of wave current. The presence of Arctitreta sp. and Bandoproductus sp. in the upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) indicates that this rock unit was probably deposited in a cold-water environment.

A further detailed study on the brachiopods may provide more precise data for interpretation of the depositional environment and palaeobiogeography of this formation in the future.

- 44 -

3.1.9 Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb)

In Malaysia, the term Chuping Limestone (named after Bukit Chuping, a prominent hill in central Perlis) was first introduced by Jones in1981 to describe a characteristically pure, light-coloured, thick- to very thick-bedded limestone sequence of Permian to Triassic age. The limestone is predominantly micstone and wackstone in which the individual crystal is rather indistinct. Packstone is also common where the individual grain is much larger and sometimes developed into euhedral grains. Calcite concretions ranging in size from 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm are also found sets in a matrix of micrite. Calcite veins vary from hair-like stringers to 10 cm width occur very commonly in the limestone. Quartz veins are rare.

In Langkawi Islands, the Chuping Limestone builds much of the western side of Pulau Dayang Bunting outcropping in two small areas. Gobbet and Hutchison (1989) referred it as the Chuping Formation. Gobbett (1973) suggested that the Chuping Formation might form a continuous sequence into the Triassic Kodiang Formation exposed in the Kodiang area of north Kedah. In Malaysia, the Chuping Formation (PTrch) is divisible into three members based on its fossil content and lithological differences: the Lower limestone member (Pch1), the Clastic member (Trch1) and the Upper limestone member (Trch2).

Generally, the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) shows karst topography in which abundant solution phenomena such as caves, caverns, swallow-hollows, underground river courses, dry valleys, and undercut cliffs are present. Dripstone such as stalactites, stalagmites, columns, and pillars are found all over the rock unit.

Distribution

In Malaysia, the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) occurs as a group of N-S trending hills in the central part of the Transect area. The northernmost hill is Bukit Mata Ayer on the Malaysia-Thailand border, and the southernmost hill is Bukit Chuping located in the Beseri area, 22 km to the south. The limestone hills form karst topography surrounded by the low and flat-lying areas (Figure 48). There are two distinct trends of limestone bodies that strike N-S, almost parallel to each other; interpreted as having been separated by a fault zone. Structurally, the Chuping Formation hills dispose about the core of the Chuping syncline that strikes N-S from the Malaysia-Thailand border through central Perlis into north Kedah.

In Thailand, the Permo-Triassic succession of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb), approximately 150-200 m thick, is confined to the middle part of the Transect area, particularly in the vicinity of Khao Rub Chang, Sadao District, Songkhla Province near the Malaysia-Thailand border.

Lithology

In Malaysia, the Permo-Triassic Chuping Formation (PTrch) is divisible into three distinct members based on its age and lithological differences. Its possible correlation with rock units in Thailand as shown in Table 2. Table 2: Correlation of the Permo-Triassic rock units in the Transect area.

Correlatable rock units Age Malaysia Thailand Middle to Late Triassic Upper limestone member

(Trch2) Early Triassic Clastic member (Trch1)

Chaiburi Formation (Trcb)

Middle to Late Permian Chu

ping

Fo

rmat

ion

Lower limestone member (Pch1)

Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pkc)

- 45 -

i. Lower limestone member/ Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc)

In Malaysia, the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) forms approximately N-S trending limestone hills to the west of the railway line in central Perlis. It is represented by Bukit Temiang, Bukit Tungku Lembu, Bukit Chondong, Bukit Wang Pisang, Bukit Manek, Bukit Chabang, and Bukit Mata Ayer. The limestone is fine-grained, light grey in colour with occasional darker colour varieties due to the presence of carbonaceous material. It is a very pure carbonate composed of calcite with varying amounts of dolomite. Beddings are well developed especially on the western side of the Bukit Temiang and Bukit Mata Ayer. The base of the individual beds shows an almost distinct, sharp and planar contact. Brecciated limestone is conspicuous. A good example occurs at Bukit Chondong where the steep cliff provides natural section through a 5 m thick breccia bed (Figure 49). The breccia consists of angular fragments of limestone up to 10 cm in diameter set in micrite and sandy matrix.

Figure 48: Panoramic view of limestone hills of the Chuping Formation, showing Bukit Keteri (center) with Bukit Jerneh (left) and Bukit Tungku Lembu (right). Photograph looking north from Bukit Chuping.

Figure 49: Brecciated limestone in the Lower limestone member of the Chuping Formation at Bukit Chondong, (6o 33.346΄ N, 100o 14.293΄ E).

ii. Clastic member (Trch1)

The Clastic member (Trch1) is exposed only in Malaysia. It occurs in between the Lower limestone member (Pch1) and the Upper limestone member (Trch2). However, its relationship with both of the members was not observed in the field because of its poor exposures. Interpretation was made based on the aerial photographs and satellite imagery. The Clastic member (Trch1) forms isolated small hillocks and elongated undulating terrain striking N-S just next to the railway line in the central part of the Transect area. The most obvious outcrop of the Clastic member (Trch1) is located on the southern end of an unnamed hill in the Cowder Estate, to the south of Bukit Chuping, Kedah where it is interpreted as in a fault contact with the overlying Upper limestone member.

Lithologically, the Clastic member (Trch1) of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) consists of thin- to medium-bedded sandstone-shale sequence (Figure 50). Medium- to thick-bedded sandstone occurs toward the upper part of the sequence. The sandstone is light grey, generally medium-grained, normally greywacke, feldspathic and poorly sorted. Load structures can be observed below the sandstone beds occasionally. Minor folds and slump structures are present.

Previous workers considered that this Clastic member (Trch1) represent part of the uppermost sequence of the Singa Formation grading upward into the Chuping Formation. However, current observation reveals marked different characteristics and younger stratigraphic position as compared to those of clastic sediments (passage beds of Jones, 1981).

- 46 -

iii. Upper limestone member/Chaiburi Formation (Trch2/cb)

In Malaysia, the Upper limestone member/Chaiburi Formation (Trch2/cb) of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) forms a N-S trending limestone hills to the east of the railway line in central Perlis. It is represented by Bukit Chuping, Bukit Keteri, Bukit Jerneh, Bukit Guar Sami and unnamed limestone hills in the Choon Joo Estate. Generally, it consists of fairly uniform deposit of thick- to very thick-bedded limestone. The rock is fine-grained and generally light grey or white in colour. Coarse-grained marble do occur locally. Good exposures of the Upper limestone member can be observed at CIMACO Quarry, Bukit Chuping (6o 30.524΄ N, 100o 15.877΄ E) as shown in Figure 51. Dolomitized limestone is common at the low lying hills in the northern part of the limestone range, where it is composed of highly fractured limestone with high MgO content.

Figure 50: The Clastic member of the Chuping

Formation exposed at Cowder Estate, Chuping (6o 28.800΄ N, 100o 15.861΄ E).

Figure 51: The Upper limestone unit of the Chuping Formation exposed at CIMACO quarry, Bukit Chuping (6o 30.443΄ N, 100o 15.925΄ E).

In Thailand, the Khao Rub Chang Formation is characterised by grey to dark grey, medium- to thick-bedded dolomitic limestone and limestone (Figure 52).

Figure 52: Photographs of the Permian limestones and

dolomitic limestones of the Khao Rub Chang Formation (Trch2/cb).

- 47 -

Age and Correlation

In Malaysia, Jones et al. (1966) reported the discovery of some Permian faunas from Chuping limestone now equivalent to the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) i.e., from Bukit Mata Ayer, Bukit Wang Pisang, Bukit Chondong, Bukit Tungku Lembu and Bukit Temiang. Jones (1981) reported the occurrences of the brachiopods Hamletella cf. alta (Hamlet) and Marginifera sp. at Bukit Tungku Lembu. Fontaine et al. (1994) concluded that the age of the lower part of the Chuping Formation which is equivalent with the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc), ranges from Middle to Late Permian (Bolorian to the end of Permian). Therefore the age of the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) is assigned as Middle to Late Permian.

The Clastic member (Trch1) is interpreted as Early Triassic in age based on its occurrence just below the Middle to Late Triassic Upper limestone member/Chaiburi Formation (Trch2/cb). To date, there is no fossil found within this Clastic member (Trch1). Fontaine et al. (1988) reported the discovery of some Triassic foraminifera including Malayaspirina sp. and algae of Ladinian or Carnian age at Bukit Chuping.

Metcalfe (1990) reported the occurrence of Triassic conodonts (Epigondolella abneptis subsp. A) at Bukit Keteri and Bukit Jerneh which is diagnostic of early Norian age. He also mentioned that fragmentary pectiniform elements collected from Bukit Chuping may indicate a probable Middle or Late Triassic age. The discovery of conodonts has also elucidated in dating the upper part of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb). Therefore, the age of the Upper limestone member/Chaiburi Formation (Trch2/cb) is assigned as Middle to Late Triassic. It can be concluded that the bulk of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) is ranging in age from Permian to Triassic.

In Thailand, the age Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) is assigned as Permian based on fusulinids and foraminifera found in these rocks. Ampornmaha (2002) reported that the Chaiburi Formation (Trcb) consists of carbonate rocks distributed as several isolated limestone hills in the Phatthalung area and others in Peninsular Thailand. Micropaleontological study of these carbonate rocks indicates that they should be assigned a late Early to Late Triassic age.

The Chaiburi Formation (Trcb) is divided into three members: the Phukhaothong Dolomite, Chiak Limestone and Phanomwang Limestone in ascending order. The Phukhaothong Dolomite consists of thick-bedded to massive dolomite and yields Neospathodus kummeli Sweet, N. waageni Sweet, N. cfr. waageni Sweet and other conodonts that indicate Dienerian to Smithian (Early Triassic). The Chiak Limestone Member consists of bedded and laminated limestone with intercalated thin chert layers and nodules. This limestone commonly yields Early Triassic to Middle Triassic conodonts such as Neospathodus timorensis (Nogami) and Neospathodus kockeli (Tatge); both reliable indicators of latest Spathian to early Anisian. Rare occurrences of Neogondolella bulgarica (Budurov and Stefanov) indicates middle Anisian age. The Phanomwang Limestone Member is mostly massive limestone with intercalated reef limestone (coral buildups) and yields abundant fossils that indicate Carnian (Late Triassic).

Depositional Environment

The depositional environment of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) is interpreted based on lithology and faunal assemblages. During the Permian, a slow and discontinuous deposition occurs as indicated by the beddings character of the base of the lower part of the formation. The muddy (micritic) nature of the Lower limestone member/Khao Rub Chang Formation (Pch1/kc) suggests that the deposition took place in a quite environment where the water was deep enough and not disturbed by strong current. The occurrence of wackestone to packstone

- 48 -

indicated that the limestones were deposited in a better living condition. As such, the lower part of the formation might probably have been deposited on an undulating shelf relatively far from the shoreline.

During the Early Triassic, part of the depositional basin might become deeper where the Clastic member (Trch1) had been deposited as the outer (distal) submarine fan deposits.

A rapid and continuous deposition took place in the later stage of the sedimentation as indicated by the massive character of the limestone of the Upper limestone member/Chaiburi Formation (Trch2/cb). This indicates that the upper part of the formation probably was deposited in a shallower and sheltered environment that was quite enough for the deposition of thick-bedded to massive limestone. Fontaine et al. (1994) suggested that the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) was deposited on an undulating shelf relatively far from the sea shore. This shelf consisted of deeper parts, sheltered depressions, parts not too deep with abundant life, mud mounds and shoals reaching the zone of wave action. Ampornmaha (2002) mentioned that carbonate rocks of the Chaiburi Formation in this area show the gradual change of depositional environment from low to high energy conditions based on microfacies analysis and stratigraphic sequences.

3.1.10 The Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt)

In Malaysia, the Kayu Hitam formation (Kkh) is proposed informally to describe a recently discovered reddish brown, medium- to thick-bedded mudstone, conglomerate, conglomeratic sandstone and sandstone sequence that exposed around the Bukit Kayu Hitam area north of Kedah State. It is well correlatable with the Lam Thap Formation (Klt) of Thailand.

In Thailand, the Lam Thap Formation (Klt) is proposed by Teerarungsigul et al. (1999) for the fining-upward sequence of reddish brown conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and mudstone interpreted as having ben deposited by the meandering river system.

Distribution

In Malaysia, the Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) is well exposed around the Bukit Kayu Hitam industrial estate especially at Bukit Telaga Batu (6o 28.981΄ N, 100o 24.740΄ E) and at Km 2.3 along the Bukit Kayu Hitam-Changlun highway (6o 29.915΄ N, 100o 25.433΄ E) near Bukit Kayu Hitam town, north Kedah. Small outcrops can be observed along the border security road at the foothill of Bukit Tangga i.e. at locality 6o 31.536΄ N, 100o 27.910΄ E and locality 6o 31.203΄ N, 100o 28.228΄ E.

The red conglomerate exposed at Bukit Telaga Batu (6o 28.981΄ N, 100o 24.740΄ E) in the Bukit Kayu Hitam industrial estate is more than 5 m thick overliying the red to reddish brown, thick-bedded mudstone (Figure 53).

In Thailand, the non-marine Cretaceous Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt), approximately 180-230 m thick, belonging to the Thung Yai Group, is unconformably underlain by the Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). It crops out as isolated hills in the easternmost part of the Transect area at Klong Sadao reservoir, in Sadao District of Songkhla Province.

Lithology

In Malaysia, the rock unit exposed at Bukit Telaga Batu in the Bukit Kayu Hitam industrial estate (6o 28.981΄ N, 100 o 24.740΄ E); comprises reddish brown, thick-bedded mudstone bed overlain by 5m thick reddish brown conglomerate bed. It is poorly sorted and polymictic, with matrix-supported, subrounded to rounded clasts comprising mainly sandstone, quartz and mudstone. This conglomerate bed is overlain by thick-bedded reddish brown sandstone.

- 49 -

Outcrop of sandstone interbedded with mudstone are exposed at other two localities in the Bukit Kayu Hitam Industrial Estate (6o 29.331΄ N, 100o 25.23΄ E and 6o 29.278΄ N, 100o 25.030΄ E). The sandstone beds are thick and more dominant, approximately 20 cm to 1 m thick, well-bedded and well-laminated. The less dominant mudstone is well-bedded, approximately 5 mm to 20 cm thick.

At Km 2.3 of the Bukit Kayu Hitam-Changlun highway (6o 29.915΄ N, 100 o 25.433΄ E), the exposure comprises reddish brown, very thick sandstone bed, fine- to medium-grained, very poorly sorted, very coarse-grained and conglomeratic in parts is observed.

The Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) exposed at the northwestern side of the foothill of Bukit Tangga (6o 31.536΄ N, 100 o 27.910΄ E and 6o 31.549΄ N, 100o 27.799΄ E) consists of reddish brown thick-bedded sandstone interbedded with thin-bedded reddish brown mudstone (Figure 54). The sandstone is mainly fine- to medium-grained, very coarse-grained to pebbly or conglomeratic in parts, poorly sorted; mainly feldspathic and of greywacke in composition. Cross lamination can be observed in the sandstone beds. Mudstone clasts of about 0.5 cm to 2 cm in diameter, alligned parallel with the laminations of the sandstone beds are also present. At the bottom part of the exposure, calcareous sandstone with calcite veinlets of approximately 1 mm thick was also observed.

Figure 53: Thick-bedded sandstone and conglomerate the Kayu Hitam formation exposed at Bt. Telaga Batu (N6o 28.981΄ E100o 24.740΄).

Figure 54: Thick-bedded mudstone of the Kayu Hitam formation exposed at Bukit Tangga (N6o 31.536΄, E100o 27.910΄).

In Thailand, the formation is composed of reddish brown, well sorted, sub rounded, well cemented arkosic and lithic sandstones, siltstone and mudstone. The clasts of the conglomerates are made up of pebbles of sandstone and quartzite. Primary sedimentary structures such as ripple marks and cross bedding are very common.

Age and Correlation

No fossils have been found in this rock unit to date. However, its age is interpreted as Cretaceous based on its lithological characteristics and stratigraphic position. Stratigraphically, the Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) is unconformably underlain by the Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). However, the contact between these rock units cannot be observed so far.

In Thailand it is also unconformably underlain by the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra (Psr/kr) and Khuan Klang Formations (Ckk). The rocks are equivalent to the Cretaceous Lam Thap Formation exposed in the Thung Song and Thung Yai areas. Accordingly, this formation is interpreted to be Cretaceous in age.

- 50 -

Depositional environment

The Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) clearly exhibits continental deposit characteristics. The rock unit is interpreted as having been deposited in meandering river channel. The reddish brown, poorly sorted conglomerate was probably deposited as channel deposits. The poorly sorted sandstone of variable grain size might indicate that it was deposited in meandering channel. The mudstone suggests the flood plain deposits. Cycles of meandering river deposits with primary sedimentary structures are shown in Figure 55A-F.

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 55 A-F: Photographs of red beds of the Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) in Thailand showing cycles of meandering river deposits with primary sedimentary structures.

- 51 -

3.1.11 Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) In Malaysia, the presence of sandstone and conglomerate beds containing thin coal seams in the Transect area was first recorded in the vicinity of Bukit Arang, Perlis by Scrivenor (1913). The formation was named as the Bukit Arang Coal Beds, which was reported to comprise mudstone, siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate of lacustrine-deltaic and possibly fluviatile origin. He correlated this rock unit with the Batu Arang Coal Measures in Selangor, which had been assigned to Late Tertiary age (Jones, 1981). The sediments might be deposited in a localised basin in the Late Tertiary.

The name Arang formation (Tar) is proposed to replace the term Bukit Arang Coal Beds to suite the Malaysian Stratigraphic Nomenclature Guide (Geological Society of Malaysia, 1997). During current works, the Malaysian Working Group divided the former Bukit Arang Coal Beds into two formations; predominantly mudstone, siltstone and sandstone beds, and predominantly gravelly and boulderly beds. The predominant mudstone, siltstone and sandstone beds is assigned as the Arang formation of Tertiary age, whilst the overlying predominantly gravelly and boulderly beds is assigned as the Tangga Formation (Qptg); confirmed to be Pleistocene age. However, the boundary between the Arang and Tangga formations could not be established due to a limited number of exposures.

Desktop study using aerial photograph interpretation and previous geophysical study (gravity survey) has been done. Field check had been carried out in February 2004.

In Thailand, the Sa Dao formation (Tsd) is informally introduced by the Thai Working Group. It consists of rocks deposited in lacustrine environment. This formation is formed as an isolated hills, consisting mainly of sandstones, siltstones and claystones of lacustrine and fluviatile environments.

Distribution

The Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) occupies low undulating terrain on the border area between east Perlis, north Kedah and southwest of Sadao District, Thailand. Exposures of this formation can be observed in low-lying areas at Bukit Arang, Malaysia (Figure 56). The thickness of this unit is interpreted to be more than 130 meters.Most of the areas covered by this unit are cultivated with sugar cane.

In Malaysia, Abd Rahim Harun and Ho (2001) of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia conducted a gravity survey in order to get a better picture on the extension and to delineate the geological boundaries of the Arang formation (formerly known as Bukit Arang Coal Beds). A total of 164 gravity stations had been set up, covering an area of approximately 188 square kilometres.

Bouguer anomaly map shows the gravity values range from 7.50 to 22.00 miligal. The low gravity zones are interpreted as due to the presence of the semi-consolidated nature of the Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd). The gravity survey has successfully managed to delineate two separate low gravity zones in the survey area, i.e. the Bukit Arang and the Bukit Kayu Hitam areas. Both zones seem to widening towards the Malaysia-Thailand border.The occurrence of low gravity zones is believed to correspond to the semi-consolidated nature of the sedimentary deposits of the Arang formation. In the Bukit Arang area, the basin is interpreted as a fault bounded by two parallel dip-slip faults, which runs in the north-south direction. Similar structural control had been suggested for the Tertiary basins in the Batu Arang area, Selangor (Mahendran, 1990), Lawin, Perak (Syed Sheikh Almashoor et al., 1987) and Layang-Layang, Johor (Vijayan, 1990).

In Thailand, the Tertiary Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd), approximately 60-200 m thick, is exposed at Khao Wang Ching, north of Sadao District, Songkhla Province and widespread under the Quaternary sediments.

- 52 -

Lithology

Lithological characteristics of the Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) are derived from surface mapping carried out during the field check. In Malaysia, it is incorporated with the borehole and pitting data from Jones (1981) and Aw (1982). The Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) consists mainly of mudstone and sandstone as well as thin conglomerate. Some of the mudstone and sandstone were altered to lateritic soil due to weathering process. The occurrences of a few thin coal seams, usually around 15 cm thick had been reported by previous workers especially by Jones (1981). Efforts have been made by the Malaysian Working Group to relocate the coal seams during the current study but unsuccesful. Details of the coal deposit will be discussed in Chapter 5. Authigenic limestone grains of up to 4 mm in size as well as intact and broken, bivalve and gastropod shells are also present (Aw, 1982).

In Thailand, the Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) is represented by greyish brown to brown, thin- to thick-bedded mudstones, siltstones, sandstones and conglomeratic sandstones.

Figure 56: The Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) is

exposed at Bukit Arang. (6o 33.645΄ N, 100o 21.417΄ E).

Age and Correlation

In Malaysia, no fossils have been discovered so far from the Arang/Sadao formation (Tar/sd), but the presence of coal seams suggests that they may be similar to the Miocene Batu Arang Coal Beds of Selangor (Jones, 1981). Aw (1982) suggested that the age of Arang formation is late Neogene or even Quaternary based on the gastropod shells, identified as Stenophyra sp. and Pseudovivipara sp. The Malaysian Working Group tentatively assigned this unit as Miocene in age.

In Thailand, age determination of the Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) is based on plant fossils of angiosperm wood (diffuse porosity, narrow vessels, and heterogenous narrow rays) and gastropod Nassarius sp. Accordingly, Middle Tertiary (Oligocene-Miocene) age is given for this formation. According to drilling results, Tertiary lignite beds were found at 100 m deep unconformably overlain by Quaternary sediments.

Depositional Environment

The presence of coal seams, gastropods and narrow sinuous bands of clay indicates that it was probably deposited in lacustrine environment, of either fresh or brackish water. Jones (1981) interpreted that the deposits are of fluvio-deltaic and lacustrine character.

Fluviatile sandstone and claystone of the Arang/Sa Dao formation (Tar/sd) at Khao Wang Ching, Thailand, with Tertiary faunas and florasn are shown in Figure 57A-F.

- 53 -

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 57: The Arang/Sa Dao formation at Khao Wang Ching, Thailand. A-D: Photographs of fluviatile sandstone and claystone of the Arang/Sa Dao formation

(Tar/sd) at Khao Wang Ching. E- F: Tertiary faunas and floras.

3.2 Quaternary Geology In Malaysia, fieldwork for the Quaternary Geology study has been carried out in the period between March and April 2004. A total of 59 shallow holes were drilled in the Quaternary deposits. Locations of boreholes are shown in Figure 58. Besides the present survey, this report has also incorporated the data available from the previous hydrogeology survey, aerial photo interpretation as well as from the previous geophysical studies (Abd Rahim and Ho, 1991).

Based on shallow borehole data and open pit investigations, the Quaternary sediments in the Transect area are interpreted as having been deposited in both marine and non-marine environments. These deposits are subdivided into four formations, in ascending order; Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy), Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg), Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk), and Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb).

Methodology

Shallow holes had been drilled by using Edelmen auger (Dutch auger) and Guts auger (Gouge auger) depending on the soils or sediments type to be drilled. The localities were randomly selected, based on aerial photographs interpretation map. A total of 59 boreholes had been drilled throughout

- 54 -

the Transect area (Malaysia) with an average depth of 3.5 m and the maximum depth is 10 m. The holes spacing is in the range of 1.5 to 3 km.

In Thailand, the field survey is mainly focused on shallow drilling boreholes with the maximum depth of 7 m. The samples were collected every 10 cm. and were described carefully. In addition, soil pits or quarry exposures were also observed and the sedimentary sequences were identified and recorded.

MATA AYERFOREST RESERVE

BUKIT TANGGAFOREST

RESERVE

KANGAR

THAILAND

CHANGWATSONGKHLA

Khuan Chuk

Padang Besar

(Piak Peng Chang)

Khao WangKu Nong

Khao Wang Kluang

Bt.Jitra(Bt.Wang Keluang)

BUKITBINTANGFOREST

RESERVEBt. Kayu Hitam

Bt. Tangga

RIMBA MAS MASFORESTRESERVE

Khao Chin725

CHANGWATSATUN

Khao Pa Long

100° 10' 100° 15' 100° 20' 100° 25' 100° 30'

06° 40'

06° 35'

Khao Wang MuKg.Tasoh

06° 30'

06° 25'

100° 10' East of Greenwich 100° 15' 100° 20' 100° 25' 100° 30'

06°35'

06°30'

06°25'

06°25'KANGAR

Kuala Perlis

METER

1000 1000 20000SCALE: 1:50000

Beseri

Kangar

Changlun

Arau

475

195

ARH 131.5

2. 5

ARH 14ARH 32 ARH 38ARH 20

ARH 33

ARH 17

ARH 34

ARH 3ARH 2ARH 1

ARH 18

ARH 19

ARH 4

ARH ARH 9

ARH 35

ARH 6ARH 39

ARH 7ARH 8

ARH 12

ARH 40ARH 11

ARH 27

ARH 10

ARH 26

WS 8WS 7WS 10

WS 4 WS 3WS 2

WS 1

ARH 36ARH 29 ARH 28

WS 6

ARH 30

ARH 15

ARH 31

WS 13

WS 7

ARH 24

ARH 20 ARH 23

ARH 22

ARH 21

WS 16

ARH 43

ARH 42

ARH 37WS 5

WS 14

WS 12 WS 11

ARH 16

ARH 41

ARH 5

ARH 25

1.04.1

4.0 2.0

21. 5

25. 5

1.01.25

2.2

1.1

1. 5

1.04.7

1.05.7

3. 03.2

16. 0

1.5

2.8

0.86.9 1.5 3.9

2. 5 3.24.3

6. 0

4.0

1. 5

7.8

3.74.4

2. 5

4.0 4.0 5.0

2. 5

3.0

3.5 1.5

3.5

3.0

6.7

3.34.0

6.5 2.0

0.5 3.5

3.5

3.43.04.0

3.04.2

2.03.04.0 3.0

3.5

3 6.0

6.6 23.2 0.5

3.5

0.5 1.5

23.8 1.3

3. 5

0.2

1. 5

1.51.5

0.51.5

MALAYSIA

PERLIS

KEDAH

Figure 58: Location of boreholes for Quaternary study in Malaysia.

3.2.1 Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy)

In Malaysia, Jones (1981) reported that this lithologic unit represented part of the Bukit Arang Coal Beds. However, based on its lithological characteristics and its semiconsolidated to unconsolidated nature, the Malaysian Working Group is of the opinion that the alternating layers of sandy, gravelly and boulderly beds that were considered as part of the Tertiary Bukit Arang Coal Beds (Jones, 1981 and Aw, 1982) may be younger than Tertiary, most probably of Pleistocene age. The term Tangga formation is introduced to describe this unit.

On the Thai side, this formation is represented by the high terrace gravel bed deposits.

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During current study, statistical analysis of pebbles rock types and clast size distribution (Appendix 3), imbrication analysis (Appendix 4) and gradation analysis (Appendix 5) were carried out at several selected locations.

Distribution

In Malaysia, this formation is exposed in four separate areas; the Bukit Arang, up stream of Huat Trap Hin, near water tank of the FELDA Chuping Sugar Cane Plantation, and around Bukit Kayu Hitam to Bukit Tangga areas. At Bukit Arang, the Tangga formation (Qptg) covers an area of approximately 1 square kilometre, whilst at the upper stream of Huat Trap Hin and near the water tank of the FELDA Chuping Sugar Cane Plantation, it covers an area of approximately 0.5 square kilometre. In the vicinity of Bukit Kayu Hitam to Bukit Tangga, it appears to be nearly semi-circular in shape with an areal coverage of approximately 15 square kilometres.

In Thailand, this formation is exposed as high mountains in the eastern part of the Transect area from Hat Yai District to Sa Dao District.

Lithology

The Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) is composed of semi-consolidated to unconsolidated deposits of sandy clay to sand, gravel and boulder beds. The beds are characterised by gently dipping and prominently exhibiting alternating of sand, gravel and boulder beds (Figure 59). It consists of poorly-sorted gravels and boulders cemented by sandy to clayey matrix with some sand lenses. Some of the layers are also cemented by secondary iron oxides and hydroxides. The boulders are waterworn, well rounded, varying size up to 1.5 m in diameter. They are composed chiefly of sandstone, vein quartz and subordinate amount of mudstone, shale, chert and conglomerate. Jones (1981) reported that decomposed granite boulders occurred in this rock sequence. The characteristics of the clasts indicate that the rock unit may be named as Boulder beds. The thickness of this unit is estimated to more than 90 m thick.

In Thailand, this formation is widely distributed along the eastern rim of Sadao Basin is referred to the sequence of sandy clay, laterite and gravel beds in high undulating landforms (Figure 60). Its morphology and the upper sequence are similar to colluvial deposit but can be distinguished by the presence of key bed of thick gravel beds. The sediments were transported by fluvial system. The unit is mainly composed of at least two to three layers of gravels interbedded with clayey sand layers. The clasts are made up of subrounded to rounded sandstone, quartzite, shale, quartz, chert, limestone, and granite with clast- or matrix-supported texture. Clasts range in size from 1-8 cm in diameter. The thickness of gravel beds is about 1-3 m thick. The sand layers are characterized by medium- to coarse-grained, moderately sorted, subrounded, loose to friable consistency and light grey to light brown in colour. The uppermost layer consists of silty or clayey sand, friable to firm, light brown to reddish brown, well sorted, subrounded, fine- to medium-grained with sparse iron concretion. It overlies sharply on hard layer of laterite or plinthite layer.

Depositional Environment

The Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) shows continental sediments characteristics. The formation was probably deposited by a fluvial system, where the water current was sometimes strong enough to transport the very coarse-grained sediments. This interpretation is based on the presence of sedimentary structures such as chanelling, current beddings, and clasts imbrication and abundant of gravels. Tectonics resulted in floodplain uplifting as high remnants above the new river level.

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Age and Correlation

The age of Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) is assigned as Pleistocene based on its present position and correlation with the similar deposits exposed in the Kinta Valley in Perak and Batu Arang in Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia.

In Thailand, the thickness of this formation is more than 15 m. Pleistocene age is proposed to this unit based on its lithologic characteristics and stratigraphic position.

Figure 59: Photograph of the Tangga/Hat Yai

formation (Qptg/hy) exposed at Bukit Tangga, Malaysia (6o 31.536′ N, 100o 27.910′ E).

Figure 60: Photograph of the Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy) near Hat Yai District, Thailand.

3.2.2 Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg)

In Malaysia, the term Simpang Formation (Qpsp) was introduced by Suntharalingam and Teoh (1985) for the clay, silt, sand, gravel, and peat deposited in a terrestrial environment before the most recent major low sea-level changes. In the Transect area, the colluvium/high terrace and former floodplain deposits which are dominantly characterized by gravel, sand, silt and laterite with abundant iron concretions is assigned as the Simpang Formation/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg).

Distribution

In Malaysia, the Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) covers most of the area that is cultivated with rubber, palm and sugar cane plantation particularly in the middle to eastern part of the Transect area (Figure 61).

In Thailand, the formation is exposed along the footslope of the hills and mountains of the eastern and northern parts of the Transect area (Figure 62).

Lithology

The Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) is made up of former flood plain/colluvium deposits that consist of clay, silt, and sand with some granules and pebbles with the presence of iron concretions. It is generally covered by the top soil.

In Thailand, sequence of sandy clay, lateritic layer or laterite and residual sediments on high undulating landforms are also referred as Waeng Formation (Qpwg), with thickness ranging from 5 m to approximately 25 m. The sediments were transported by gravity and run off water at a short distance from the sources. The colluvial comprises three distinct layers; the upper, middle, and lower layers. The upper layer consists of fine sandy clay, red, reddish brown or yellowish brown in

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colour and consistently friable. Most of the sands are about or least 250 μ in diameter, subangular, moderately to poorly sorted, made up of mainly quartz, with sparse iron concretions. The thickness of the layer varies from 20 cm to 1 m. This layer is formed as a transional boundary with the underlying middle layer.

The middle layer is composed of dark brown to reddish brown laterite or lateritic soil. The laterite displays a hard crust of ferricrete or iron concretion in vermiform or honeycomb structure while the lateritic soil is formed as layers of loose ferricretes or iron concretions with clay and sand or rock fragments. The lower layer comprises sandy clay, very stiff, light grey with abundant red or yellow mottles. Rock fragments are also found disseminated in this layer. It overlies the country rocks with gradual contacts.

Figure 61: Photograph of the area occupied by the

Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) on the east of Bukit Kayu Hitam Industrial Estate, Malaysia. The high ground at the background is formed by predominant sandstone of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation.

Figure 62: Photograph of the Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) in Thailand.

Depositional Environment

The Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) appears to consist mainly of alluvial fan and stream deposits (Suntharalingam and Teoh, 1985). According to the lithology, degree of consolidation and structure, it is interpreted that the Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) was deposited as colluvial deposits or in situ weathering environment. The sediments were derived from denudation process of the older rock units.

Age and Correlation

It is assigned as Pleistocene in age based on its lithology characteristics, present position and correlation with similar deposits exposed in the adjacent areas.

3.2.3 Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk)

In Malaysia, Suntharalingam (1987) introduced the term Beruas Formation for the clay, silt, sand, gravel and peat, deposited in a terrestrial environment after the most recent major low sea level stand. This unit is also includes recent sediments deposited by streams and rivers.

In Thailand, Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) can be subdivided into two members; Alluvial sand and clay Member, and Floodplain clay Member.

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Distribution

The Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) covers most of the low-lying ground in the Transect area. At present, most of the area occupied by this sediment is planted with wet paddy crops.

Lithology

Generally, the formation comprises predominantly sandy clay, clay and sand with minor gravels. In Malaysia, most of the sandy clay and clay occur along the valleys of Sungai Perlis, Sungai Arau, Sungai Gial and most of the other river valleys. The sand is made up predominantly of quartz.

Suntharalingam and Teoh (1985) mentioned that the lithology, heavy minerals content, grain size characteristics and colour indicate that this formation is mainly of fluvial deposits related to the existing river system.

The clays are formed from sediments brought down by rivers i.e., Sungai Perlis, Sungai Arau, Sungai Gial and their tributaries. The formation represents a long continued accumulation of fine-grained, suspended sediments resulting from flooding. After the deposition ceased, soil was formed on the top of these sediments.

Alluvial sand and clay member of the Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) The alluvial member includes former alluvial, recent alluvial and valley plains. The sequence was considered to develop by combined agents such as small rivers, gravity or run off water. Accordingly, the characteristics of sediments are mixed from clay to fine gravel with changing in composition rapidly (Figure 63A-B). The sequence is exposed as the wide flat landform between high terrace and flood plain in the middle part of the Transect area. The alluvial deposit consists mainly of coarse sand with very clayey and slightly gravelly. They are very firm, light grey with abundant yellowish brown to red mottles, subangular grains, poorly sorted and very compacted sediments. These beds are intercalated with the beds of stiff fine sandy clay in light grey and red mottles. In some sections, it contains only sandy clay and clayey sand beds and is covered by recent dark brown sandy clay. The alluvial member overlies the older sedimentary units or country rocks and has partly sharp contact with overlying shallow marine sediments.

A

B Figure 63 A-B: Photographs of the Alluvial sand and clay member of the Beruas/Sungai Kolok

Formation (Qhbr/sk).

Floodplain clay member of the Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) This member is defined as the fluvial sediments of Holocene age deposited in floodplain environment. The sediments were transported and sorted by river system showing the characteristics of well bedded and showing clear separation. The unit is distributed locally throughout the flat area on both sides of Khlong Chalung, Khlong Kane and Khlong Wang Pha Niat, Thailand. The floodplain member consists of brown to grey colour clay, very firm consistency, thick-bedded, alternated with loose medium to coarse sand (Figure 64A-B). The sand grains are subrounded,

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moderately sorted, light brown to light grey, consisting small amount of mica, and medium- to thick-bedded. The thickness of this member varies approximately from 2 m to more than 10 m. Sequence of the floodplain clay member overlies the alluvial sand and clay member with gradational contact. The composition of sediments clearly shows that the depositional environment is overbank flow, flood plain, and partly swampy. The loose sand in the sequence is contributed to the migration of channel through time.

A

B

Figure 64 A-B: Photographs of the Floodplain clay Member of the Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk).

Depositional Environment

The sediments of the Beruas/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) was originated from denudation process of the Pre-Quaternary rocks as indicated by the characteristics of the sediments within the rock sequence, as well as its present stratigraphic position and its correlation with similar sediments in the adjacent areas. These sediments might have been deposited in a fluviatile environment.

Age and Correlation

It is believed that the young continental sediments exposed in the Transect area is correlatable with the Beruas/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) exposed in the adjacent areas wich was studied by previous workers. The age of the sediments ranges from Holocene to the present day and it is contemporaneous with the marine deposits of Gula Formation (Suntharalingam and Teoh, 1985).

3.2.4 Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb)

In Malaysia, the term Gula Formation was introduced by Suntharalingam (1987) for the Holocene marine deposits. It consists of clay, silt and sand with occasional gravel and shell fragments.

Distribution

The Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb) is exposed on the present coastal areas. In Malaysia, it is distributed around the Kuala Perlis area extending eastward to Arau, from Kangar area extending northwest to Wang Bintong and in the northeast to the Chuping area.

In Thailand, this formation is widespread and wedged out gradually southwardly with increasing in thickness on the shoreline. It also extends into the upland area as far as 14 km from the present shoreline. The formation is distributed in the western part of the Transect area and is covered with mangrove forests. The thickness of this formation varies from 1 to approximately 15 m.

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Lithology

In Malaysia, the Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb) is made up mainly of clay, silty clay, peaty clay and sand. The recent beach sand parallel to the present coastline in Kuala Perlis area is also considered as part of this unit.

The deposits are characterized by clay, silty clay, and very fine sand, very soft to soft, greenish grey to grey, with abundant shell fragments and plant remains (Figure 65A-B). The formation overlies former alluviums with sharp contact.

A

B

Figure 65 A-B: Photographs of the Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb).

Depositional Environment

In Malaysia, its present stratigraphic position as well as the physical characteristics of the sediments of the Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb) indicates that this formation had been deposited in marine environment with tidal influence i.e. the old beach, recent beach, tidal flat, peat swamp, and shallow marine environments influenced by tides.

Age and Correlation

Abundant shell fragments and plant remains are found in the Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb) exposed in the Transect area. Most of the shell fragments are belonging to gastropods and bivalves of Holocene age. This unit is correlatable with similar deposits exposed in the Taiping area (Suntharalingam and Teoh, 1985) and in Beruas area (Suntharalingam, 1987). They assigned the age of sediments as Holocene.

3.3 Igneous and related rocks In the transect area, the igneous rocks are dominated by granites and their related rocks named

as Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn), which intruded the overlying Paleozoic rock sequences. On the Malaysian side of the Transect area, the term Bukit China granite was taken after the Bukit China, whilst In Thailand, the term Khao Chin granite is taken after the Khao Chin. Both the “Bukit China” in Malaysia and the “Khao Chin” in Thailand form a continuous hillock located right on the Malaysia-Thailand border area.

Geologically, the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) intruded the Paleozoic country rocks, including sandstone, shale, pebbly sandstone and limestone resulting in the metamorphism of rocks to quartzite, slate and recrystallized limestone

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Distribution

In Malaysia, the granite is exposed in the vicinity of Wang Burma and occupies an area of 7.3 square kilometres. In Thailand, Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn), covering an area of approximately 160 square kilometres. The granite forms the Khao Chin ranges in elevation from 100-720 m, and is classified as part of Khao Phab Pha Range to the north. This elongated, N-S trending granitic rock, is exposed in the central-northern part of the Transect area.

Petrology

The rock is typically pale grey, fine- to coarse-grained, megacrystic to equigranular biotite-muscovite granite (Figure 66). Aplite and pegmatite dykes are normally found in this pluton. Cognate or syngenetic xenoliths in various shapes and size comprising accumulation of mafic minerals are widespreadly occur throughout the pluton.

In Malaysia, the granitic rock exposed along its margin in Sungai Wang Burma, Wang Kelian; is fine-grained, equigranular, and contains appreciable amount of biotite and muscovite (Figure 67). Petrographically, the rock displays holocrystalline allotriomorphic-granular texture consisting of quartz (30-35%), K-feldspar (30-40%), plagioclase (20-25%) and both biotite and muscovite (5-10%); either of which may predominate. The accessory minerals include tourmaline, magnetite and zircon. Quartz and quartz-tourmaline stringers and veins ranging from 1-10 cm thick also present, and sometimes they contain arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite. Irregular patches of greisen may occur associated with lenticular bodies of quartz-tourmaline rock. The presence of quartz and quartz-tourmaline, either in the form of veins or irregular bodies, seems to characterize the contact zone along the Sungai Wang Burma. Skarn consisting of garnet and diopside is also developed locally along the contact margin.

Figure 66: Megacrystic granite exposed at Perlis State Park, Malaysia (6o 42.368΄ N, 100o

11.976΄ E).

Figure 67: Equigranular granite exposed at Sungai Wang Burma, Malaysia (6o 42.100 ΄N, 100o 12.100΄ E).

In the northern part of the Khao Chin granite body at Khlong Ka Ming, Thailand, the majority of the granitic rock consists of megacrystic biotite-muscovite granite cut across by tourmaline-muscovite aplite dykes (Figure 68). K-feldspar phenocrysts range in size from 1.0 to 2.0 cm, generally euhedral, occupying approximately 5–15% of their volume. The granite is composed of quartz (20%), K -feldspar (35-40%), Plagioclase (20-25%) muscovite (7-10%) and biotite (3-5%). Accessory minerals such as tourmaline (5-7%) and traces of sphene are locally present.

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A

B

Figure 68: Photographs of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Khlong Ka Ming, Thailand. A – The granite outcrop B – The hand specimen collected from outrcrop A

In the eastern part of the Khao Chin granite, at Ban Si Yaek Patthana, the rock is commonly holocrystalline, hypidiomorphic granular texture. The granitic rock consists of megacrystic biotite-muscovite granite (Figure 69A-B) and fine-grained equigranular muscovite-biotite granite. K-feldspar megacrysts range in size from 3x1.5 cm to 2.5x1.0 cm. The minerals are composed of quartz (20-25%), K-feldspar (25-30%), plagioclase (20-25%), muscovite (10%) and biotite (3-5%). Secondary alteration minerals are commonnly chlorite and sericite. The presence of fine-grained muscovite granite in this area is considered to be late phase intrusive rock favourable for primary tin and tungsten deposits.

A

B

Figure 69: Photographs of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Ban Si Yeak Patthana, Thailand. A – The granite outcrop B – The hand specimen collected from outrcrop A

In the eastern part of the Khao Chin granite at Ban Ta Loh, the granitic rock consists mainly of megacrystic biotite-muscovite granite with K-feldspar phenocrysts ranging in size from 1.2 cm to 3.0 cm, with an average of 2 cm (Figure 70). The feldspar groundmass had undergone sericitization as indicated by cloudy surfaces. The major minerals are quartz (20-25%), K-feldspar (25-30%), plagioclase (20-25%), biotite (1-3%) and muscovite (1-3%).

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A

B

Figure 70: Photographs of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Ban Ta Loh, Thailand. A –The granite outcrop B – Close-up view of the granite from outrcrop A

In the western part of the Khao Chin granite at Yaroi Falls, the granitic rock is mainly of megacrystic muscovite-biotite granite (Figure 71). K-feldspar phenocrysts are prominent ranging in size from 2.4x1.4 cm to 2.2x1.0 cm. Pegmatite and aplite dykes as well as quartz veins cut through this granite. The minerals consist of quartz (30-35%), K-feldspar (30-40%), plagioclase (25-30%), biotite (5%) and muscovite (1%). Alkali feldspar comprises predominantly orthoclase and some microcline. Intergrowth of quartz and feldspar forms myrmekitic texture as observed under microscope. Secondary minerals are sericite and chlorite.

A

B

Figure 71: Photographs of the megacrystic muscovite-biotite granite of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) at Yaroi Falls, Thailand.

A –The granite outcrop B – Hand specimen of the granite from outrcrop A

Contact Aureole

Contact metamorphic rocks and associated late stage mineralisation can be observed both in the granitic and country rocks. The granite emplacement probably occurred during the Triassic resulted in narrow contact metamorphic aureole. Late stage leucocratic granites including aplites, pegmatite dykes, and quartz-feldspar veins are abundant. Spotted and biotite-calcite hornfels are observed in Ban Thung Tamsao, Sadao District, Songkhla Province. The rock is composed mostly of fine-grained biotite, quartz, feldspar and calcite. Most biotites are lath shaped, randomly orientated, and are altered to chlorite and iron oxide. In the Transect area, light grey to white, medium- to coarse-

- 64 -

grained marble and recrystalline limestone are also found near the contact of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn).

Age

No age dating on the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) done on the Malaysian side of the Transect area. However age dating by using the Rb/Sr method was done on this granite collected at Boripat Falls, Thailand and the granite age was reported as 211 ±5 Ma (Cobbing et al., 1992). It is strongly confirmed that this granite body is part of the Main Range Granite which was emplaced during Triassic period (Hutchison, 1977).

4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING

4.1 Folding In the transect area, fold structure predominantly occurs in the Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) and the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), with N-S major fold axis and generally moderately dipping to the east. However, there are a few beds that moderately plunging to the west. It is strongly confirmed that these beds had undergone an open isoclinal folding with small plunging angle towards the north. However, the plunging angles are not clearly defined in the field, mainly due to lack of exposures, thick soil covers, and vegetations. This is concordant with structural features in Thailand where the Paleozoic rock successions are characterized by gentle fold especially in the Ordovician limestones.

In Malaysia, a major syncline can be traced in the central part of the Transect area referred as Chuping syncline by Jones (1981). It is marked by limestone hills that run through central Perlis from Bukit Mata Ayer to Bukit Chuping. A number of secondary folds are superimposed upon major structures. The folds are mostly inclined towards the east or southeast at moderate to steep angles and they occasionally dip to the NW. The minor anticlinal and synclinal folds are generally trending in the N-S direction.

4.2 Faulting

The most prominent faults in the Transect area are the NNW-SSE trending followed by minor faults striking in the N-S, NW-SE and E-W directions, which is corresponding to the E-W compressional tectonic activity occurred in the region. It is difficult to observe the fault zones in the field due to deep weathering and thick soil covers. Fault traces such as slickenside, drag fold, and fault breccia are exposed locally. In Malaysia, fault breccia can be observed at the lower part of Bukit Chondong and Bukit Keteri.

Lai (1994) postulated two parallel NNE trending lineaments that can be traced over 10 km in the Bukit Tunjong area, Chuping, Perlis. One of them is called the Beseri lineament, which separates the two limestone belts and it can be traced through the Kampung Beseri in the south, and to Bukit Chabang in the north. He interpreted that the Beseri lineament represents a dip-slip fault where the western limestone belt might have been relatively uplifted to the eastern limestone belt. This corresponds to the palaontological evidences that the Triassic limestones are dominant to the east of the fault, whereas Permian limestones are dominant to the west.

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5. MINERALS AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

On the Malaysian side of the Transect area, some of the metallic and non-metallic minerals have been exploited since the early nineteenth century. Numbers of abandoned tin mines can be observed especially around the Kaki Bukit area, Perlis. Currently the economic mineral exploitation is restricted to quarrying activities especially for construction materials and rock-based industries.

Systematic geochemical exploration in the Wang Klian area was done by Mohd Badarudin Hasan (1990) and later followed by Mohd Badzran Mat Taib (1998). Currently, studies on the occurrence of non-metallic minerals, limestone, dolomite, and construction material are still on progress.

Preliminary exploration of mineral resources and other natural resources has been conducted on the Thai side of the Transect area. The study area is confined to some parts of the Satun and Songkhla Provinces covering an area of about 800 square kilometres. The occurrences of mineral resources are reported not so widespread throughout the Transect area. Some metallic minerals such as tin, tungsten, antimony and heavy minerals were produced in the past but most of the mining activities have now being stopped for several years. However, non-metallic minerals, sand, ball clay and limestone are still being investigated in the vicinities.

Distribution map of minerals and other natural resources in the Transect area and the adjacent areas is shown in Figure 72.

Figure 72: Minerals distribution map in the Transect area and the adjacent areas.

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5.1 Metallic Minerals

5.1.1 Tin and Tungsten

The occurrences of alluvial tin deposits on the Malaysian side of the Transect area are concentrated in limestone caves, alluvium and valley alluvium. This was derived from the contact zone of the granite by weathering and subsequent distribution of the debris by fluviatile agent (Jones, 1981). The tin-bearing alluvium is found in valley bottoms, caves and underground-river channels throughout the surrounding limestone hills. The caves rich in alluvial tin ore deposits are mainly distributed in the Kaki Bukit area. Tin ore distribution in cave alluvium is rather erratic of which in some places, tin concentration reached up to 90% cassiterite while in other places it is devoid of tin (Jones, 1981). Abandoned alluvial tin mines can be observed as a lake such as Meranti Lake in Wang Tangga (Figure 73).

Wang Kelian and Wang Tangga had served as two main valley alluvial tin ore deposits. Open cast mining started operating in these areas before and after the second World War with average annual production of tin ore was about 18 tonnes (Jones, 1981). Tin ore deposit was also found in the Sungai Burma, Sungai Bahagian Ayer and Sungai Pelarit areas but of less economic potential. Tin mining activities had been stopped for many years ago due to limited deposits and low tin price.

Scheelite (CaWO4) occurs widely though in small amounts along the granite-limestone contact zone in north Perlis (Jones, 1981). The occurrences are not considered to be of economic significance.

Figure 73: Photograph of Meranti lake which is an abandoned mine in Wang Tangga, Perlis.

On the Thai side of the Transect area, tin deposit covering an area of about 12 square kilometres is confined to Ban Khao Rub Chang, Ban Ta Loh and Ban Si Yaek Patthana, Sadao District, Songkhla Province. This deposit is located near the Malaysia-Thailand border or 5 km to the west of Khao Rub Chang, at the southeastern margin of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn) body. Tin- and other minerals-bearing quartz veins cut into granite and host rocks (Figure 74). Cassiterite is generally more abundant than wolframite in which wolframite is widely predominant near the contact zone.

In the past, seven tin mines had been operating in this area. However mining operation was stopped during the tin crisis and economic slump. Drilling and blasting had been conducted at Wachirachai Mine, Ban Si Yaek Patthana, Sadao District to exploit the tin from the 50-75 cm thick, 2700/500 N trending tin-bearing quartz veins. An abandoned open pit at Wachirachai Mine is shown in Figure 75. About 16 tonnes of Tin and 30 tonnes of tungsten had been produced from this mine during 1979-1985.

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Moreover, three kilometers south of Ban Si Yaek deposit, about five quartz veins trending 1600/500 SW direction occur in banded form, with one meter separation and approximately 30 cm thick each. The same mining methods had been operated along quartz veins.

Figure 74: Photograph of tin-bearing quartz veins at Wachirachai Mine, Ban Si Yaek Pattana, Sadao District.

Figure 75: Photograph of an open pit at Wachirachai Mine, Ban Si Yaek Patthana, Sadao District.

Drilling and blasting mining had also been conducted at Ban Ta Loh, along the 1950/300 NW quartz veins. Generally, each vein is about 15 cm thick associated with minerals suc as pyrite, stibnite, chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite. Abandoned tin ore mine and an adit excavated during mining operation is shown in Figure 76.

Figure 76: Photograph of an adit excavated during tin

mining operation at Ban Ta Loh, Sadao District.

At Ban Cha Lung, Hat Yai District of Songkhla Province, tin deposit occurs in the eastern margin of the northern end of Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn). Drilling and blasting mining had been operated in this deposit for a few years. The occurrences of cassiterite- and wolframite-bearing quartz veins can be seen filling the granite fractures of about 1.5 m wide and 47 m long, trending 3100/280 SW. Generally, associated minerals include beryl, tourmaline, pyrite, scheelite, and arsenopyrite.

At Ban Tung Tum Sao, Hat Yai District of Songkhla Province, an underground mine was operated approximately in the middle part of the eastern margin of the Bukit China/Khao Chin granite (Trgrbc/kn). Tin ores were excavated at three levels; 50, 80, and 120 m above MSL.

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Mineralized quartz veins cut into the fine- to medium-grained, porphyritic, two-mica granites and hornfels. Greisenisation is a typical alteration found along the wolframite-bearing quartz veins. The Geological Research Project carried out in the year 1979 reported that hundreds of quartz veins occur in this area and extend 3.5 km in the N-S direction. The quartz veins occur less than 300 m from the granite contact, ranges 1800-1900 and dips 600-900NW with veins thickness of 15-100 cm. In general, the veins contain minerals of quartz, muscovite, potassium feldspar, fluorite, chlorite, wolframite, cassiterite, arsenopyrite, and pyrite.

5.1.2 Antimony To date, there is no record on the exploitation of antimony on the Malaysian side of the transect area. However, on the Thai side, antimony had been mined for several years from the deposit located at Ban Nam Phut, La Ngu District of Satun Province. An open pit of the abandoned mine is shown in Figure 77. Generally, stibnite (Sb2S3) from this deposit is lead-grey colour, metallic luster, and cryptocrystalline texture. Stibnite occurs as veins of irregular thickness, podiform or lenses in the fractures of argillaceous limestone, and shale intercalated sandstone with limestone lenses. Generally the veins are trending NE-SW and N-S directions, dipping 500 - 700 westwardly, with average thickness of 30 cm and the average length is 150 m. Chemical analyses results show that the ore samples contain 43-54% (by weight) of Sb. From 1988 to 2003; 180 tonnes of antimony has been produced from this deposit.

Figure 77: Photograph of an open pit at Ban Nam Phut, La Ngu District.

5.1.3 Gold

On the Malaysian side of the Transect area, gold occurrences have been recorded in stream sediments collected from Sungai Kemian, Sungai Wang Burma, Sungai Gunung Perah and Sungai Benut in the Wang Kelian area. Mohd Badaruddin Hasan (1990) carried out a systematic geochemical survey with emphasis on the gold occurrences in this area. A total of 60 stream sediment samples were collected. Gold values in the stream sediments are in the range of 6-127 ppb with an average of 74 ppb. Twenty five percent of the samples yielded more than 50 ppb of gold, whilst 8% samples yielded more than 100 ppb gold. A tiny gold flake has been found in heavy mineral concentrates in Sungai Kelong.

Later Mohd Badzran Mat Taib (1998) carried out soil sampling for a follow-up study on the potential of gold in the same area studied by Mohd Badaruddin Hasan (1990) and a total of 250 soil samples were collected. The results of soil analyses revealed that the occurrence of gold in the study area is of no economic significance. Gold values are in the range of 3-157 ppb with an average of 6 ppb. Only 9 out of 250 samples analysed yielded gold value of more than 20 ppb. Based on the previous studies, it can be concluded that the gold occurrence in this area is not significant enough

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for further investigation. This finding is corresponding to the previous mining records where gold were only collected as by-product of tin mining. On the Thai side, there is no record of gold study.

5.1.4 Silver

In Malaysia, silver was produced from argentiferous galena as a by-product of the refinement of lead from galena. One sample of galena from Wang Batu Mines in north Perlis was reported to have assayed 781 gram of Ag per tonne (Jones, 1981). However, there is no record of silver occurrence on the Thai side of the Transect area.

5.1.5 Iron

Hematite and limonite occur in several localities in Malaysia but their economic potential is low. Hematite deposit is reported to occur on top of the limestone hill situated 2 km west of Kampung Kubang Tiga. The deposit is considered to be of limited extent and consists of low to moderate grade iron ore (Jones, 1981). To date, there is no record of iron studies available on the Thai side of the Transect area.

5.1.6 Arsenic

Arsenopyrite occurs at few localities in north Perlis, Malaysia but of no economic significance. However there is no record available on the studies of arsenic on the Thai side of the Transect area.

5.1.7 Heavy Minerals and Rare-Earth Minerals

On the Malaysian side of the Transect area, about 200 stream and beach sands, and gravels were panned in order to identify the heavy mineral contents from these samples (Jones 1981). Semi-quantitative analyses of these samples indicate that ilmenite, iron oxides, cassiterite, rutile, zircon, topaz, tourmaline and monazite are the most widely distributed minerals. Pyrite, xenotime, amphibole, garnet, scheelite, epidote and andalusite occur in lesser amounts.

On the Thai side, 69 sand-pump drilling holes were sunk along the shore at Ban Pak La Ngu and Ban Pak Bang, La Ngu District of Satun Province. Quantitative analysis results show that average grade of the heavy minerals is 0.48 g/l; consist of zircon, ilmenite, rutile, tourmaline, leucoxene, limonite, garnet, magnetite, siderite, monazite and xenotime. These heavy minerals and rare-earth minerals were determined to be originated from the host rocks occurred on land and were later transported by streams and deposited in the sea. Subsequently, wave action has reworked these minerals onto the present beach (Figure 78).

Figure 78: Photograph of a heavy mineral deposit along

the beach at Ban Pak Bang, in theThai side.

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5.2 Non-metallic Minerals

5.2.1 Limestone

In Malaysia, limestone occurs widespreadly in the western and central parts of the Transect area as represented by the Setul Formation /Thung Song (Ost/ts) and Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb). The limestone resources are sufficient enough to support quarry operation supplying the rock aggregates and various industrial products. Aw (1981) investigated 13 limestone hills in Perlis State and estimated the limestone reserve of about 500 million tonnes. Most of the limestones investigated contain high amount of CaO but in some places it is high in MgO content. Limestone resources in Perlis are being exploited for rock aggregates, cement industries, lime products, hydrated lime as well as for chemical and agricultural products. There are numbers of limestone quarries currently operating in Perlis in which about 3.8 million tonnes of limestone products were produced (Nursusila Md. Said, 2003). Photograph one of the limestone quarries is shown in Figure 79.

In Thailand, the majority of limestone is produced from the Ordovician limestone, Silurian-Devonian sedimentary sequences containing sizeable limestone lenses, and Permian limestone. Three limestone quarries have been investigated for aggregates in Satun Province i.e. at Ban Thung Nui, Khuan Kalong District and Ban Nam Phut of La Ngu District (Figure 80). Limestone aggregates produced from these quarries during the year 2000-2004 were about 1.5 million tonnes.

In Songkhla Province, limestone quarry has been operating at Khao Nui, Ban Thung Tam Sao, Khlong Hoi Khong District for construction materials production.

Figure 79: Photograph of a limestone quarry at Bukit

Chuping, Malaysia. Figure 80: Photograph of a limestone quarry at Ban

Nam Put, Thailand

5.2.2 Dolomite

In Malaysia, dolomite deposits are located in the central part of the Transect area which is underlain as part of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb). Dolomite localities in Perlis State is shown in Appendix 6. Eighteen limestone samples collected from the Chuping/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch2/cb) were analyzed by the Technical Services Division Laboratory, Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia to determine the MgO content. Chemical analysis results show that 11 samples have yielded MgO content of more than 18% by weight; indicating the limestone at those locaties is dolomite (Appendix 7). The size of dolomite area is estimated to be about 8 square kilometres which includes Felda Rimba Mas Quarry,

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Kampung Belukar Imam and Bukit Ngolang. Highly fractured, pink limestone at Felda Rimba Mas Quarry are quarried to supply dolomite to the Kangar Dolomite Factory, one of the dolomite powder suppliers for the Malaysia Sheet Glass Factory in Johor Bahru (Figure 81).

On the Thai side, limestone samples collected in the Khao Rub Chang area, Sadao District are pink in colour and highly fractured. Calcite veins can be observed in this area. The analysis results reveal that all of the samples have yielded MgO content of more than 18% by weight. This indicates that the limestone at those locations is dolomite. However, a part of that area has been mined for construction materials whilst some of them are waiting for dolomite mining lease approvable (Figure 82).

Figure 81: Photograph of a dolomite open pit at Felda Rimba Mas Quarry, Perlis.

Figure 82: Photograph of a dolomite open pit at Khao Rub Chang Quarry, Sadao District.

5.2.3 Barite

In Malaysia, barite (BaSO4) was reported to occur on the top of Bukit Ramera, near the Kedah-Perlis border. Its occurrence is of less economic significance (Jones, 1981). The Malaysian Working Group has made some efforts to relocate the barite locality but was unsuccessful. However, there is no record of barite occurrence on the Thai side of the Transect area.

5.2.4 Guano On the Malaysian side of the Transect area, most of the limestone hills contain valuable deposits of bat guano, which is used for fertilizer. Bukit Chuping, Bukit Mata Ayer and Bukit Jerneh are the major hills which serve as the main source of guano in the Transect area. The guano-bearing caves are confined to the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb), where the massive nature and purity of the carbonate contribute to the development of the enormous caves, which form place for the bats (Figure 83). On the Thai side, studies on guano have not yet been recorded.

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Figure 83: Guano at Bukit Mata Ayer, Perlis.

5.2.5 Clay

To date, there is no detailed clay investigation carried out on the Malaysian side of the Transect area. Clay deposits are found widely distributed in the alluvial plain on the low-lying areas such as at Kampung Darat, Kampung Beseri, Kampung Salang, Kampung Hutan Kandis, Bukit Nasi Sa Bungkus, Kampung Wai and Kampung Wang Besar. It is generally composed of light to dark grey clay containing variable amounts of fine sand. Fourty four clay samples from shallow auger holes carried out for Quaternary geology study have been selected for firing test (Appendix 8). The result shows that only 10 samples are suitable for bricks manufacturing.

On the Thai side of the Transect area, ball clay had been exploited in several locations. In Songkhla Province, approximately three deposits have been mined for primary industrial materials such as bricks for construction, jar, bowl (latex container), porcelains etc.

Ban Khao Wang Ching deposit is confined to the plain in Ban Thung Lung, Hat Yai District. Generally, the clay are commonly characterized by its brown to red colour, with slightly sandy.

5.2.6 Sand

On the Malaysian side, there is no sand deposit recorded due to lack of source rocks. However, on the Thai side of the Transect area, sand has been exploited from the rivers, canals, and terrace deposits. Most of sand produced is for construction materials. In Satun Province, sand has been investigated from two streams in Muang and Khuan Don Districts.

Sand deposit in Khlong Bam Bang is noted to originate from the Triassic biotite-muscovite granite to the east; transported downstream to deposit along Khlong Mam Bang. The sand is generally white in colour, angular to rounded shape and composed of translucent-transparent quartz (93%), feldspar (5%), iron concretion and granite fragments (2%), and small amount of tourmaline.

Along the Khlong Du Son and Khlong Chiow, it is noted that four sand deposits had been exploited. The sand deposit is transported downstream from the same source as mentioned earlier, but its grain size is angular to rounded shape and has coarser grain as compared to that of Khlong Bam Bang, due to its closer sources. Chemical analysis results indicate that the sand is composed of translucent-transparent quartz (90%), feldspar (7%), iron concretion and some granite fragments (3%), and small amount of tourmaline and muscovite. Sand mound in this deposit is shown in Figure 84.

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Figure 84: Photograph of sand mound at Khlong

Du Son, Khuan Don District.

In Songkhla Province, sand has been exploited in four deposits in Sadao District, along Khlong U Ta Phao, Ban Pang La and Khlong Ram, Ban Thung Mor and Ban Thung Pho. The sand is characterized by yellowish brown colour and angular to rounded shape. It is composed of translucent yellowish brown quartz (95%), feldspar (3%), iron concretion and some granite fragments (2%), and small amount of tourmaline.

5.3 Other Natural Resources

5.3.1 Coal

On the Malaysian side of the Transect area, the occurrence of coal in the Bukit Arang Beds was first reported by Scrivenor (1913). He mentioned that the coal-bearing strata were exposed in the pits on the slopes of Bukit Arang located on the Malaysia-Thailand border. Its quality is comparable to the coal at Batu Arang in Selangor. Deep boring by the Railway Department in the year 1919 and 1921, revealed that very small amount of coal deposits exist in this area and considered as of no economic significance (Jones, 1981).

In 1982, Geological Survey Department Malaysia carried out coal investigation in this area. During the exercise, four deep boreholes (to the depth of 135–180 m) and numerous shallow holes (< 100 m) were sunk. A few coal seams of not more than 30 cm thick had been observed and evaluated (Aw, 1982). On the Thai side, drillings was done at Ban Kaun Lak, Sadao District, Songkhla Province. However, the results revealed that lignite potential is in the Pleistocene terrace deposits.

5.3.2 Hot spring There is no hot spring discovered so far on the Malaysian side of the Transect area. On the Thai side, hot spring was discovered only at Khlong Nam Ron and Ban Bor Nam Ron, Khuan Kalong District of Satun Province (Figure 86). This area is confined to the contact zone of coarse-grained granite and argillaceous limestone. Water temperature is about 500 C and the rate of water flow is about 140 cubic meters per hour. However, this area has not yet been developed for tourist attraction (as of 2004).

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Figure 85: Photograph of a hot spring at Ban Bor Nam Ron, Khaun Kalong District of Satun Province.

6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Discussions

i. The Tarutao Group (Єtt), exposed only in Thailand, is the oldest rock unit in the Transect area. In Malaysia an Early Carboniferous-Devonian Jentik Formation (Djt), which was introduced by Meor Hakif Hasan and Lee (2002), is representing the transitional boundary between the underlying Ordovician-Silurian Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) and the overlying Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). Previously it was considered as part of the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp).

ii. The Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) is introduced by the Malaysian Working Group for the thick- to very thick-bedded mudstone, shale and siltstone sequence, exposed at Lubok Sireh and Khuan Chuk areas, on the Malaysia-Thailand border. This rock unit was considered as part of the Singa Formation by Jones (1981) but he did not attemp to delineate its geological boundary with the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation. The upper part of the Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) consists of thin- to medium-bedded areno-argillite sequence (calcareous) in parts which have yielded late Early to Middle Permian faunas. It can be observed at the lower section of the limestone hills; Bukit Temiang, Bukit Tungku Lembu, Bukit Chondong, Bukit Wang Pisang and Bukit Mata Ayer where it is underlain conformably by the Lower limestone member of the Chuping Formation (Pch1). Early Permian brachipods (Sakmarian) Spinomartinia sp. and Bandoproductus sp. recently discovered at Km. 5, Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road indicate that this rock unit may be biostratigraphically and lithologically correlatable with the upper part of the Singa Formation in Langkawi, Island.

iii. The Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) is redefined into three members; the Lower limestone member, the Clastic member and the Upper limestone member. Quite a number of fossils were discovered in limestone of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb). Based on the palaentological evidences, it can be concluded that the bulk of the Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb is from Middle Permian to Triassic in age.

iv. Historically, the deposition of those rock units took place continuously throughout Ordovician to Triassic without any break. This is in contrast with the earlier thoughts of many previous workers who believed there was a hiathus between the Silurian and Carboniferous rock sequence.

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v. The Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt) represents the Cretaceous sediments in the Transect area. It consists of reddish brown siltstone, sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and sandstone exposed around the Bukit Kayu Hitam area in Malaysia, and the Sadao area in Thailand. However, there is no fossil found within this rock unit.

vi. The Arang/Sadao formation (Tar/sd), previously known as the Bukit Arang Coal Beds in Malaysia, is distributed in the northeastern part of the Transect area. It consists of semiconsolidated silty and clayey beds with occasional thin coal seams without economic significance.

vii. Quaternary sediments that occupy the low-lying areas are divisible into the continental Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy), Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg) and Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk), and the marine Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb).

viii. Numerous metaliferous minerals occur within the Transect area but are of no economic interest. Limestone as well as dolomite is the only non-metallic resources that are currently being exploited.

Conclusions

Stratigraphically, fifteen lithological units have been identified in the Transect area, namely in ascending order; the Tarutao Group (Єtt), Lae Tong Formation (Olt), Setul/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts), Pa Samed Formation (SDps), Jentik Formation (Djt), Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), Khuan Klang Formation (Ckk), Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr), Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb), Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation (Kkh/lt), Arang/Sadao formation (Tar/sd), Tangga/Hat Yai formation (Qptg/hy), Simpang/Waeng Formation (Qpsp/wg), Beruas/Sungai Kolok Formation (Qhbr/sk) and Gula/Tak Bai Formation (Qhgl/tb).

Marine sedimentation took place contineously throughout the Palaeozoic Era; from Cambrian to Triassic Periods. The oldest rock, the Cambrian Tarutao Group (Єtt) is exposed only in Thailand.

The Ordovician-Silurian Setul Formation/Thung Song Group (Ost/ts) is overlain conformably by the Early Carboniferous-Devonian Jentik/Pa Samed Formation (Djt/ps), followed by the Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), the Permian Lubok Sireh formation/Khao Phra Formation (Psr/kr) and the Permo-Triassic Chuping/Khao Rub Chang/Chaiburi Formation (PTrch/kc/cb) Formation. Large post-Triassic break can be observed due to the uplifting of the depositional basins as a result of the collision between Eastmal and Sibumasu blocks during Middle to Upper Triassic. This event has caused the pre-collision rocks to be fractured and faulted in the North-South direction. Those tectonic episodes had been contemporaneously accompanied by the intrusion of the granitic rocks. It is considered as part of the Main Range Granite and Bukit China/Khao Chin granite.

Continental deposits in the Transect area are represented by the Cretaceous Kayu Hitam formation/Lam Thap Formation and the semiconsolidated Arang/Sadao formation which is interpreted as Tertiary in age based on the presence of the thin coal seams. However, attempt made to relocate the coal seams was unsuccessful.

Quaternary sediments are represented by the Pleistocene Tangga formation (Qptg) and Simpang Formation (Qpsp), the Holocene continental Beruas Formation (Qhbr) and the marine Gula Formation (Qhgl). The Tangga formation (Qptg) is forming the hilly terrain along the Malaysia-Thailand border in the northeast of the Transect area, whilst the Simpang Formation (Qpsp) is forming the undulating terrain mainly used for sugar cane plantation and rubber estate. The Beruas Formation covers the low lying area which is used mainly for wet paddy cultivation. The Gula Formation overlies the flat areas particularly not far from the present coast line.

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Only limestone and dolomite are exploited as the non-metallic resources of the Transect area. Other minerals also occur but of no economic interest.

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- 80 -

APPENDICES

Page Appendix 1: List of the Malaysian and Thai Working Groups Members ..........................................81 Appendix 2: Fossil localities on the Malaysian side ..........................................................................82 Appendix 3: Statistical analysis of pebbles rock type & clast size distribution .................................83 Appendix 4: Imbrication analysis .....................................................................................................101 Appendix 5: Gradiation analysis ......................................................................................................103 Appendix 6: Dolomite localities in Perlis, Malaysia. .......................................................................106 Appendix 7: Results of the chemical analysis of the selected dolomitic limestone samples. ..........107 Appendix 8: Clay firing test results ..................................................................................................108

- 81 -

Appendix 1: List of the Malaysian and Thai Working Groups Members

1. The Malaysian Working Group (Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia - JMG)

1. Mr. Ibrahim Amnan (Working Group Leader) Technical Services Division, Ipoh.

2. Mr. Mustafar Hamzah Cartography and GIS Unit, Headquaters, Kuala Lumpur

3. Mr. Noor Bakri Endut Technical Services Division, Ipoh.

4. Mr. Mohd Badzran Mat Taib JMG Kelantan

5. Mr. Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin JMG Kelantan

6. Mr. Hamdan Ariffin JMG Kedah/Perlis/Penang

7. Mr. Mat Niza Abdul Rahman JMG Perak

8. Mr. Abd. Rahim Harun Technical Services Division, Ipoh.

9. Mr. Ahmad Rosli Othman JMG Kelantan

10. Mr. Wan Salmi Wan Harun JMG Kedah/Perlis/Penang

2. The Thai Working Group (Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand - DMR)

Geoscientists 1. Dr. Assanee Meesook (Working Group Leader) 2. Mr. Suwat Tiyapairach 3. Mr. Somboon Khositanont 4. Mr. Thawatchai Tepsuwan 5. Mr. Naramase Teerarungsigul 6. Mr. Nimit Sornklang 7. Mr. Suvapak Imsamut 8. Mr. Surachet Poonpun 9. Ms. Piya-orn Wechsri 10. Mr. Kitti Khaowiset 11. Mr. Wirote Saengsrichan 12. Mr. Jirasak Charoenmit 13. Mr. Surasak Meetuwong 14. Mr. Surached Ruamtum 15. Ms. Wanida Romruen Technicians 1. Mr. Tinakorn Mahapum 2. Mr. Santi Sricham Drivers 1. Mr. Kasem Lekngarm 2. Mr. Chamlong Ketsathit 3. Mr. Wichian Joychu 4. Mr. Somchai Charoernsuk

- 82 -

Appendix 2: Fossil localities on the Malaysian side

Nos. Locality no. Locality name Lat. Long. Fossils discovered

1 MN7 6o 31.338’N 100o 29.831’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus sp.

2 MN8 6o 31.091’N 100o 29.748’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Archocyrtium riedeli Deflandre

3 MN10 6o 31.104’N 100o 29.656’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus tortispina (Ormiston and Lane) Triaenospahera? bareillensis Gourmelon Astroentactinia multispinosa (Won) Helioentactinia polycanthina (Foreman)

4 MN11 6o 30.585’N 100o 29.675’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Stigmosphaerostylus cfr. palimbola (Foreman)

5 MN13 6o 30.286’N 100o 30.080’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Archocyrtium sp.

6 MN14 6o 30.119’N 100o 30.112’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre Pylentonema sp.

7 MN16 6o 30.915’N 100o 29.453’E Radiolaria: Stigmosphaerostylus sp.

8 MN29 6o 40.454'N 100o 11.867'E Conodonts: Ozarkodina Panderodus Aulacognathus Landoverygnathus?

9 MN30 6o 40.156'N 100o 11.850'E Posidonomya sp.TrilobiteOther brachiopods

10 MN42 Security road- 6o 40.475'N 100o 15.429'E Spheriferidnear TS9/27 Cancrinellid

Crinoid stems11 MN53 Bukit Mata Ayer 6o 40.539'N 100o 15.999'E Arctitreta sp.

Taeniothaerus sp.SpheriferidDerbyaChonetidPectinidCancrinellidBryozoanCrinoid stems

12 MN66 Bukit Chondong 6o 33.162'N 100o 14.273'E Monodaexodina sp.earth quarry Cancrinellid

Crinoid stemsPlant fragmentsSmall brachiopods

13 MN67 Guar Jentik 6o 33.278'N 100o 12.428'E Posidonomya sp.earth quarry Trilobite

NautiloidCrinoid stemsCladochonus (tabulate coral)

14 MN68 Guar Jentik 6o 33.103'N 100o 12.460'E Scyphocrinites (lobolith)earth quarry Tentaculites

Stylolina15 MN69 Guar Geteri 6o 34.698'N 100o 14.049'E Brachiopods

Crinoid stemsFusulinid (Monodaexodina sp.)

16 MN70 Guar Geteri 6o 34.793'N 100o 14.147'E GastropodsBrachiopodsCrinoid stemsShell fragmentsPlant fragments

17 MN77 Guar Jentik 6o 33.657'N 100o 12.182'E GraptoliteDacryoconaridsTrilobiteBrachiopods

18 MN84 Km 84, 6o 28.221'N 100o 20.694'E Posidonomya sp.Chuping-Pauh Crinoid stemsroad plant fragments

19 MN89 Kaki Bukit- 6o 40.353'N 100o 12.099'E Spinomartinia sp.Wang Kelian Bandoproductus sp.trunk road Chonetid

Crinoid stems20 MN94 Security road- 6o 41.587'N 100o 13.807'E Fusulinid

west of TS8D/5021 MN95 Kampung 6o 26.947'N 100o 27.060'E Posidonomya sp.

Tok Kasim22 MN112 Abandoned 6o 28.815'N 100o 10.385'E Gastropods

quarry near Shell fragmentsKampungSentol

23 MN115 Kampung 6o 24.595'N 100o 09.232'E Shell fragmentsBangsal Lebah

24 MN134 Kampung 6o 27.955'N 100o 11.243'E GastropodsUjong Bukit

25 MN155 Timah Tasoh 6o 34.633'N 100o 12.317'E BrachiopodsWater Treatment Crinoid stemsPlant Posidonomya sp.

Bukit Tangga security road

Kaki Bukit-Wang Kelian trunk road

- 83 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH3/2 Date : 23-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 3/2 Depth : 2.4 m-4.8 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test

Gravel % 27.34 Sand % 39.02 Silt % 10.14 Clay % 23.50 Specific Gravity 2.70

- 84 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH5/3 Date : 24-03-04 Borehole No. :BH 5/3 Depth : 1.5 m-2.0 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 12.64 Sand % 61.53 Silt % 12.70 Clay % 13.14 Specific Gravity 2.68

- 85 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH2/2 Date : 23-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 2/2 Depth : 1.3 m-1.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 17.25 Sand % 55.91 Silt % 13.77 Clay % 13.08 Specific Gravity 2.83

- 86 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH5/2 Date : 24-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 5/2 Depth : 1.0 m-1.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 5.82 Sand % 60.20 Silt % 12.14 Clay % 21.84 Specific Gravity 2.63

- 87 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH5/4 Date : 24-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 5/4 Depth : 2.0 m-2.8 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 26.41 Sand % 48.42 Silt % 12.35 Clay % 12.82 Specific Gravity 2.53

- 88 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH6/4 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 6/4 Depth : 3.2 m-4.2 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 21.85 Sand % 46.62 Silt % 12.01 Clay % 19.52 Specific Gravity 2.88

- 89 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH7/1 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 7/1 Depth : 0.9 m-1.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 39.46 Sand % 17.26 Silt % 20.27 Clay % 23.01 Specific Gravity 2.70

- 90 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH7/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 7/2 Depth : 1.5 m-2.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 56.79 Sand % 13.80 Silt % 11.84 Clay % 17.57 Specific Gravity 2.70

- 91 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH12/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 12/2 Depth : 2.0 m-2.2 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test % Gravel % 29.74 Sand % 50.20 Silt % 7.39 Clay % 12.67 Specific Gravity 2.66

- 92 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/WS/BH6/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 6/2 Depth : 2.0 m - 2.4 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53

- 93 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH6/7 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : BH 6/7 Depth : 5.0 m - 5.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 17.79 Sand % 51.63 Silt % 6.12 Clay % 24.46 Specific Gravity 2.63

- 94 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/WS/BH8/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 8/2 Depth : 2.0 m - 2.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 5.26 Sand % 48.34 Silt % 27.84 Clay % 18.56 Specific Gravity% 2.63

- 95 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/WS/BH9/4 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 9/4 Depth : 2.5 m - 2.8 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53 Liquid Limit NP Plasticity Index NP Moisture content 29.7 Organic matter 4.18

- 96 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/WS/BH11/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 11/2 Depth : 3.0 m - 3.4 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53 Liquid Limit NP Plasticity Index NP Moisture content 29.7 Organic matter 4.18

- 97 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/WS/BH12/4 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 12/4 Depth : 3.0 m - 3.5 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53 Liquid Limit NP Plasticity Index NP Moisture content 29.7 Organic matter 4.18

- 98 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH13/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 13/2 Depth : 1.5 m - 1.7 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53 Liquid Limit NP Plasticity Index NP Moisture content 29.7 Organic matter 4.18

- 99 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/WS/BH14/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 14/2 Depth : 2.3 m- 2.7 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53 Liquid Limit NP Plasticity Index NP Moisture content 29.7 Organic matter 4.18

- 100 -

Appendix 3: Statistical Analysis of Pebbles Rock Types and Clast Size Distribution (continued)

Lab. Ref./Sample No.: S 06/04/ MT4/ARH/BH15/2 Date : 25-03-04 Borehole No. : 15/2 Depth : 3.8 m - 4.0 m

B.S. 1377:1975

Test Gravel % 52.08 Sand % 44.21 Silt % 3.08 Clay % 0.64 Specific Gravity 2.53 Liquid Limit NP Plasticity Index NP Moisture content 29.7 Organic matter 4.18

- 101 -

Appendix 4: Imbrication Analysis

85.2%

11.7% 2.8% 0.3%

CoarseVery coarseSmall cobbleLarge cobble

Clast size distribution at N 06 31.361' E 100

97.4%

0.7%0.9%

0.9%

sandstonequartzconglomeratechert

Pebbles rock type

66.4%

22.6%

11.0%

coarseVery coarsesmall cobblelarge cobble

Clast size distribution at N 06 31.585' E 100 27.065'

96.2%

0.7%0.3%

2.8%

sandstonequartzconglomeratechert

Pebbles rock type

52.3%

20.9%

19.2%

7.0% 0.6%

Coarse pebblesVery coarse pebblesSmall cobblesLarge cobblesVery large cobbles

Clast size distribution atN 06 31.366' E 100 27.632'

93.6%

6.4%

SandstoneVein quartzConglomerateChert

Pebbles rock type

68.0%

24.3%

6.2%1.0%

0.7%

Coarse pebblesV. coarse pebblesSmall cobblesLarge cobblesVery large cobbles

Clast size distribution atN 06 31.327' E 100 28.112'

91.9%

2.3% 5.8%

SandstoneVein quartzConglomerateChert

Pebbles rock type

- 102 -

79.3%

17.9%2.8%

Coarse pebblesV. coarse pebblesSmall cobbles

Clast size distribution atN 06 31.644' E 100 27.312'

96.7%

1.0%0.3%

2.0%

SandstoneVein quartzConglomerateChert

Pebbles rock type

42.9%

54.1%

3.0%

Coarse pebblesV. coarse pebblesSmall cobbles

Clast size distribution atN 06 30.214' E 100 20.258'

96.5%

1.7%0.4%

1.3%

SandstoneVein quartzConglomerateChert

Pebbles rock type

41.5%

50.7%

6.1%1.3%

0.4%

Coarse pebblesV. coarse pebblesSmall cobblesLarge cobblesVery large cobbles

Clast size distribution atN 06 33.717' E 100 21.310'

79.9%

16.6%

3.1% 0.4%

SandstoneVein quartzConglomerateChert

Pebbles rock type

- 103 -

Appendix 5: Gradiation Analysis

Figure xx. Rose diagram for imbrication studies at 06 0 31.604’ N, 1000 26.814’ E

Figure xx. Rose diagram for imbrication studies at 06 0 31.408’ N, 1000 26.083’ E

- 104 -

Figure xx. Rose diagram for imbrication studies at 06 0 31.644’ N, 1000 27.312’ E

Figure xx. Rose diagram for imbrication studies at 06 0 31.361’ N, 1000 25.999’ E

- 105 -

Figure xx. Rose diagram for imbrication studies at 06 0 33.717’ N, 1000 21.310’ E

- 106 -

Appendix 6: Dolomite localities in Perlis, Malaysia

- 107 -

Appendix 7: Results of the chemical analysis of the selected dolomitic limestone samples

No. Sampel SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O LOI

1 P1 0.25 0.16 0.04 0.46 55.6 0.03 <0.01 42.6 2 P2 0.12 0.15 0.06 17.3 34.7 0.03 0.01 46.4 3 P3 0.06 0.15 0.03 21.4 33.3 <0.01 <0.01 46.7 4 P4 <0.01 0.12 0.05 19.9 31.0 0.04 <0.01 46.8 5 P5 0.04 0.17 0.04 1.40 52.5 0.06 <0.01 43.7 6 P6 <0.01 0.14 0.08 20.3 31.9 0.03 <0.01 46.5 7 P7 0.05 0.10 0.05 19.0 31.9 0.04 <0.01 46.9 8 P10 0.53 0.13 0.23 18.2 31.9 0.04 0.04 46.5 9 P11 <0.01 0.19 0.03 21.3 31.7 0.02 <0.01 46.4 10 P15 0.09 0.12 0.06 20.7 31.0 0.03 <0.01 46.3 11 P17 <0.01 0.15 0.06 17.9 33.8 0.04 <0.01 46.3 12 P18 <0.01 0.33 0.03 20.6 31.4 0.02 <0.01 46.3 13 P19 1.43 0.16 0.08 8.76 44.2 0.04 0.02 44.6 14 P20 0.15 0.25 0.02 0.46 54.7 0.05 <0.01 42.2 15 P21 <0.01 0.24 0.01 0.24 55.1 0.06 <0.01 42.6 16 P29 0.10 0.15 0.05 20.7 30.9 0.04 <0.01 46.3 17 P31 0.31 0.23 0.03 20.1 31.3 0.02 0.01 46.3 18 P32 <0.01 0.12 0.03 20.6 31.3 0.03 <0.01 46.6

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.5*

IS

7.0

9.5

0.5*

0.

3*

MT4

/AR

H/B

H4/

2 21

.7

med

ium

7.

2 go

od

15.2

15

.0

13.9

13

.5

13.0

0.

1 0.

5 0.

8 1.

0 1.

7

MT4

/AR

H/B

H4/

3 21

.7

med

ium

6.

6 go

od

15.6

15

.6

14.8

14

.6

14.6

0.

1 0.

3 0.

6 0.

6 0.

6

MT4

/AR

H/B

H8/

5 37

.0

med

ium

1.

1 go

od

NF

31.8

21

.2

0.7

0.5

0.0

1.1

7.0

15.5

13

.2#

MT4

/AR

H/B

H9/

6 37

.7

med

ium

4.

7 go

od

NF

NF

NF

12.0

11

.5

3.0

4.0

4.1

12.9

13

.3

MT4

/AR

H/B

H10

/2

28.6

m

ediu

m

9.3

good

20

.2

19.6

18

.4

17.3

17

.0

0.4

0.5

2.1

2.9

2.9

MT4

/AR

H/B

H11

/1

23.0

m

ediu

m

6.2

good

IS

18

.8

16.5

IS

IS

IS

0.

6 1.

8 IS

IS

MT4

/AR

H/B

H12

/1

18.1

lo

w

5.7

good

IS

14

.2

12.7

10

.8

8.5

IS

0.7

1.5

2.6

3.9

FI

RED

CO

LOR

AT

TEM

PER

ATU

RE

OF:

CO

LOR

BEF

OR

E FI

RED

900˚

C

1000˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

TEM

PREA

TUR

E O

F ST

EEL

HA

RD

MO

DU

LUS

OF

RU

PTU

RE

/ MO

R

kg/c

m²

L. B

row

n O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

B

row

n 12

50

20.2

LE

GEN

D: D

: Dar

k L

: Lig

ht G

: Gre

y P

: Pin

k

L. B

row

n O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

row

n D

. Bro

wn

1000

23

.5

L. B

row

n IS

O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

row

n D

. Bro

wn

1100

16

06

REM

AR

KS:

(1

) * -

Sam

ple

Blo

ated

L. B

row

n O

rang

e O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

12

50

24.4

(2) I

S - I

nsuf

ficie

nt S

ampl

e

L. B

row

n L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

Buf

f B

uff

>125

0 15

.4

(3

) # -

Sam

ple

Expa

nded

L. B

row

n L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e O

rang

e D

. Bro

wn

D. B

row

n 12

00

2.7

(4

) NF

- Not

Fire

d (W

ater

abs

orpt

ion

L. B

row

n Pi

nk

Pink

L.

Pink

L.

Bro

wn

G. B

uff

>125

0 2.

7

no

t ana

lized

)

P. B

row

n O

rang

e O

rang

e L.

Bro

wn

L. B

row

n L.

Bro

wn

>125

0 9.

4

(5) S

ampl

e N

o.7

- Hai

rline

cra

ck

L. B

row

n IS

L.

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

IS

IS

- 22

.9

at te

mp.

900

, 100

0, 1

100,

L. B

row

n IS

L.

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

L. B

row

n G

. Buf

f 12

50

21.8

12

00 &

125

0˚C

- 108 -

App

endi

x 8:

Cla

y fir

ing

test

res

ults

(con

tinue

d)

MIN

ER

AL

S A

ND

GE

OSC

IEN

CE

DE

PAR

TM

EN

T M

AL

AY

SIA

C

LA

Y F

IRIN

G T

EST

RE

SUL

TS

%

%

WA

TER

AB

SOR

PTIO

N A

FTER

FIR

ED A

T TE

MPR

EATU

RE

OF

: %

SH

RIN

KA

GE

AFT

ER F

IRED

AT

TEM

PREA

TUR

E:

SAM

PLE

NO

TE

MPE

RIN

G

WA

TER

PL

AST

ICIT

Y

% D

RY

SH

RIN

KA

GE

DR

Y S

TREN

GTH

900˚

C

1000˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

90

0˚C

10

00˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

M

T4/A

RH

/BH

12/4

21

.9

med

ium

6.

0 go

od

16.7

14

.1

10.4

7.

0 3.

8 0.

4 1.

8 4.

9 5.

6 6.

0 M

T4/A

RH

/BH

13/1

20

.1

low

4.

9 go

od

17.0

15

.8

11.7

7.

5 6.

1 0.

5 0.

9 3.

0 4.

1 4.

1

MT4

/AR

H/B

H15

/1

23.1

m

ediu

m

6.6

good

16

.3

13.9

11

.7

11.6

10

.5

0.4

2.8

3.7

4.5

4.6

MT4

/AR

H/B

H15

/2

20.0

lo

w

4.6

good

15

.9

15.9

14

.9

13.5

13

.2

0.5

0.5

1.1

2.2

2.4

MT4

/AR

H/B

H16

/2

16.1

lo

w

4.0

good

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

M

T4/A

RH

/BH

20/1

24

.6

med

ium

4.

9 go

od

20.3

19

.4

15.0

10

.0

7.3

0.0

1.2

3.8

5.7

6.5

MT4

/WS/

BH

1/2

20.6

m

ediu

m

5.6

good

18

.5

18.3

17

.2

15.9

15

.5

0.0

0.4

0.7

0.8

1.1

MT4

/WS/

BH

2/1

22.6

m

ediu

m

5.4

good

19

.5

18.4

16

.2

15.2

14

.2

0.2

0.6

2.3

2.8

2.9

MT4

/WS/

BH

2/3

25.4

m

ediu

m

6.6

good

14

.0

9.0

3.5

6.1#

12

.8#

2.1

5.1

7.4

5.8#

3.

6#

MT4

/WS/

BH

2/4

24.3

m

ediu

m

7.1

good

11

.8

7.2

0.2

**

**

1.6

3.3

7.0

**

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

3/1

32.6

m

ediu

m

7.8

med

ium

21

.1

17.3

8.

0 3.

4 4.

6#

2.4

3.9

7.4

9.0

7.4#

M

T4/W

S/B

H3/

2 25

.4

med

ium

5.

8 go

od

17.3

16

.0

12.0

9.

7 9.

5 0.

4 1.

0 2.

9 4.

9 5.

0

FI

RED

CO

LOR

AT

TEM

PER

ATU

RE

OF:

CO

LOR

BEF

OR

E FI

RED

900˚

C

1000˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

TEM

PREA

TUR

E O

F ST

EEL

HA

RD

MO

DU

LUS

OF

RU

PTU

RE

/ MO

R

kg/c

m²

L.

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

Bric

k R

ed

D.B

row

n 12

00

24.1

Pe

tunj

uk: D

: Dar

k L

: Lig

ht G

: Gre

y P

: Pin

k G

rey

L. B

row

n L.

Bro

wn

L. B

row

n G

. Buf

f G

. Buf

f 12

00

24.1

L. B

row

n O

rang

e O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

>1

250

33.9

U

lasa

n:

(1) D

- Sa

mpl

e D

ecre

pita

ted

L.

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

G. B

uff

G. B

uff

>125

0 12

.9

(2

) # -

Sam

ple

Expa

nded

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

D.B

row

n D

.Bro

wn

- 12

.0

(3

) **

- Sam

ple

Bad

ly B

loat

ed

L.

Pin

k Pi

nk

Pink

L.

Ora

nge

D. P

ink

G. B

uff

1200

8.

7

L. B

row

n L.

Pin

k L.

Pin

k B

uff

Buf

f B

uff

>125

0 12

.0

L.

Bro

wn

L. O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

>1

250

17.0

L. B

row

n O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

B

row

n 10

00

32.5

L. B

row

n L.

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bro

wn

Bric

k R

ed

G. B

uff

1000

36

.5

G

. Bro

wn

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e G

. Buf

f G

. Buf

f 11

00

4.9

D

. Pin

k L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e O

rang

e B

row

n B

row

n 12

00

16.7

- 109 -

App

endi

x 8:

Cla

y fir

ing

test

res

ults

(con

tinue

d)

MIN

ER

AL

S A

ND

GE

OSC

IEN

CE

DE

PAR

TM

EN

T M

AL

AY

SIA

C

LA

Y F

IRIN

G T

EST

RE

SUL

TS

%

% W

ATE

R A

BSO

RPT

ION

AFT

ER F

IRED

AT

TEM

PREA

TUR

E O

F :

% S

HR

INK

AG

E A

FTER

FIR

ED A

T TE

MPR

EATU

RE:

SA

MPL

E N

O

TEM

PER

ING

W

ATE

R

PLA

STIC

ITY

%

DR

Y

SHR

INK

AG

E D

RY

STR

ENG

TH

900˚

C

1000˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

90

0˚C

10

00˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

MT4

/WS/

BH

11/1

32

.6

med

ium

9.

0 go

od

16.0

13

.4

2.0

0.8

5.7#

2.

2 3.

7 7.

4 8.

3 6.

4#

MT4

/WS/

BH

12/1

27

.4

med

ium

7.

7 go

od

15.8

10

.0

4.1

9.0#

**

0.

2 3.

5 6.

4 3.

9#

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

12/2

34

.7

med

ium

7.

0 go

od

15.4

10

.8

5.7

**

**

2.7

5.6

6.9

**

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

12/3

37

.4

med

ium

8.

4 go

od

14.7

11

.0

9.7

**

**

2.9

4.8

6.2

**

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

13/1

26

.6

med

ium

8.

4 go

od

11.6

6.

5 3.

2 8.

0#

**

2.0

4.8

6.0

4.0#

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

13/2

28

.6

med

ium

7.

7 go

od

13.2

9.

3 5.

2 **

**

2.

6 3.

3 5.

9 **

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

13/3

30

.4

med

ium

6.

7 go

od

12

9.7

6.3

**

**

3.3

4.7

5.4

**

**

MT4

/WS/

BH

14/1

24

.7

med

ium

6.

4 go

od

18.7

17

.2

14.0

10

.7

8.3

0.7

1.3

2.5

5.2

6.0

MT4

/WS/

BH

15/1

23

.7

med

ium

5.

4 go

od

17.7

16

.6

11.8

10

.7

10.0

0.

8 3.

0 4.

6 6.

0 6.

3

FI

RED

CO

LOR

AT

TEM

PER

ATU

RE

OF:

CO

LOR

BEF

OR

E FI

RED

900˚

C

1000˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

TEM

PREA

TUR

E O

F ST

EEL

HA

RD

MO

DU

LUS

OF

RU

PTU

RE

/ MO

R

kg/c

m²

Bro

wn

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

1100

10

.6

Bro

wn

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

1100

30

.4

Petu

njuk

: D: D

ark

L: L

ight

G: G

rey

P: P

ink

G. B

row

n L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e B

row

n B

row

n B

row

n 11

00

19.8

L.G

rey

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

1100

22

.6

Ula

san:

(1

) * -

Sam

ple

Blo

ated

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

Bric

k R

ed

Bro

wn

1000

15

.0

(2

) **

- Sam

ple

Bad

ly B

loat

ed

G. B

row

n L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e B

row

n L.

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

1000

43

.4

(3

) # -

Sam

ple

Expa

nded

Gre

y L.

Ora

nge

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

1000

63

.3

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

Bric

k R

ed

1200

22

.5

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

Bro

wn

1250

17

.9

- 110 -

A

ppen

dix

8: C

lay

firin

g te

st r

esul

ts (c

ontin

ued)

MIN

ER

AL

S A

ND

GE

OSC

IEN

CE

DE

PAR

TM

EN

T M

AL

AY

SIA

C

LA

Y F

IRIN

G T

EST

RE

SUL

TS

%

% W

ATE

R A

BSO

RPT

ION

AFT

ER F

IRED

AT

TEM

PREA

TUR

E O

F :

% S

HR

INK

AG

E A

FTER

FIR

ED A

T TE

MPR

EATU

RE:

SA

MPL

E N

O

TEM

PER

ING

W

ATE

R

PLA

STIC

ITY

%

DR

Y S

HR

INK

AG

ED

RY

STR

ENG

TH

900˚

C

1000˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

90

0˚C

10

00˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

M

T4/W

S/B

H4/

1 35

.1

med

ium

9.

7 go

od

17.9

15

.1

4.6

2.0

9.2#

0.

3 4.

0 6.

3 7.

1 4.

2#

MT4

/WS/

BH

4/2

22.8

m

ediu

m

6.0

good

21

.8

21.8

20

.7

18.3

IS

0.

2 0.

2 0.

9 1.

3 IS

M

T4/W

S/B

H5/

1 32

.0

med

ium

8.

1 go

od

19.9

19

.2

12.0

12

.4*

**

1.3

1.9

4.7

3.8*

**

M

T4/W

S/B

H5/

2 28

.5

med

ium

7.

3 go

od

13.7

12

.6

6.4

4.4

4.1

1.0

3.5

5.9

6.3

5.3#

M

T4/W

S/B

H6/

1 40

.4

med

ium

10

.0

good

10

.6

10.6

**

**

IS

4.

9 5.

2 **

**

IS

M

T4/W

S/B

H7/

1 28

.6

med

ium

7.

6 go

od

17.6

16

.3

12.2

IS

IS

1.

5 2.

8 4.

2 IS

IS

M

T4/W

S/B

H8/

3 22

.6

med

ium

5.

7 go

od

15.8

15

.6

13.3

9.

2 8.

4 1.

0 1.

2 2.

5 2.

9 4.

3 M

T4/W

S/B

H8/

4 23

.7

med

ium

6.

4 go

od

15.1

13

.0

7.6

4.8

4.2

0.0

1.2

4.4

5.4

5.5

MT4

/WS/

BH

9/1

33.4

m

ediu

m

7.9

good

19

.6

17.0

7.

2 0.

2 0.

2 0.

3 1.

7 6.

9 9.

8 8.

3#

MT4

/WS/

BH

9/3

24.6

m

ediu

m

6.0

good

16

.8

16.5

13

.7

10.9

10

.4

0.2

0.9

2.8

3.7

4.3

MT4

/WS/

BH

9/5

25.1

m

ediu

m

7.2

good

16

.3

16.3

14

.9

13.4

12

.7

0.4

0.4

0.8

2.7

4.1

MT4

/WS/

BH

10/1

23

.7

med

ium

6.

6 go

od

15.2

14

.3

11.3

9.

9 8.

3 0.

0 1.

3 3.

3 3.

4 3.

4

FI

RED

CO

LOR

AT

TEM

PER

ATU

RE

OF

:

CO

LOR

BEF

OR

E FI

RED

90

0˚C

10

00˚C

11

00˚C

12

00˚C

12

50˚C

TEM

PREA

TUR

E O

F ST

EEL

HA

RD

MO

DU

LUS

OF

RU

PTU

RE

/ MO

R

kg/c

m²

G

. Bro

wn

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

L. B

row

n B

row

n G

. Buf

f 11

00

12.6

Pe

tunj

uk: D

: Dar

k L

: Lig

ht G

: Gre

y P

: Pin

k

D. G

rey

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

L. B

row

n B

row

n IS

-

33.7

Gre

y L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e L.

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

Bro

wn

1200

29

.4

Ula

san:

(1

) Sam

ple

No.

32(M

T4/W

S/B

H9/

2)

Bric

k R

ed

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

D.B

row

n D

.Bro

wn

1100

56

.4

m

issi

ng

Gre

y O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

rick

Red

B

row

n IS

-

19.8

(2) *

- Sa

mpl

e B

loat

ed

G

rey

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

IS

IS

1100

23

.9

(3

) **

- Sam

ple

Bad

ly B

loat

ed

B

uff

L. O

rang

e L.

Ora

nge

L. O

rang

e B

row

n B

row

n 11

00

24.2

(4) I

S - I

nsuf

ficie

nt S

ampl

e

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

Bric

k R

ed

Bric

k R

ed

1100

32

.4

(5

) # -

Sam

ple

Expa

nded

L. G

rey

L. B

row

n L.

Bro

wn

L. B

uff

G. B

uff

G. B

uff

1100

23

.4

G

. Bro

wn

L. B

row

n L.

Bro

wn

Buf

f L.

Bro

wn

L. B

row

n 12

00

31.7

Bro

wn

Ora

nge

Ora

nge

L. B

row

n B

row

n B

row

n >1

250

23.2

Buf

f O

rang

e O

rang

e O

rang

e B

rick

Red

B

row

n 12

00

28.0

- 111 -