Geologic TimeGeologic Time

• Large extinction of organisms• Led to the “Age of Dinosaurs”• Conifers (gymnosperms) appeared in large numbers• The Supercontinent called Pangaea

• “Age of Reptiles”• Marine reptiles grew

in numbers• Pangaea-allowing

migrations of organisms

• Many invertebrates appear also

• Climate is rather dry

• Early mammals (not much bigger than modern rats)

• No modern flowering-looking plants

• No palm trees• Many conifers (similar to

modern)• Large land dinosaurs• Some modern looking

sea creatures (sharks/rays)

• Pangaea Supercontinent broken up

• Flowering plants• Larger land mammals

among dinosaurs• Modern sharks/rays• Turtles/crocodiles

appear• Extinction Level Event

• Continents mostly separated by large oceans

• Many insects• Large plant diversity• Various climate zones• Mammals dominate

land and sea• Many bird species• Humans

The BasicsThe Basics

• The main features of plate tectonics are:

• The Earth's surface is covered by a series of crustal plates.

• The ocean floors are continually, moving, spreading from the center, sinking at the edges, and being regenerated.

• Convection currents beneath the plates move the crustal plates in different directions.

• The source of heat driving the convection currents is radioactivity deep in the Earths mantle.

Divergent PlatesDivergent Plates

• Divergent Plate Movement: Seafloor Spreading Seafloor spreading is the movement of two oceanic plates away from each other (at a divergent plate boundary), which results in the formation of new oceanic crust (from magma that comes from within the Earth's mantle) along a a mid-ocean ridge. Where the oceanic plates are moving away from each other is called a zone of divergence. Ocean floor spreading was first suggested by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz in the 1960's.

Convergent PlatesConvergent Plates

• When two plates collide (at a convergent plate boundary), some crust is destroyed in the impact and the plates become smaller. The results differ, depending upon what types of plates are involved.    Oceanic Plate and Continental Plate - When a thin, dense oceanic plate collides with a relatively light, thick continental plate, the oceanic plate is forced under the continental plate; this phenomenon is called subduction.    Two Oceanic Plates - When two oceanic plates collide, one may be pushed under the other and magma from the mantle rises, forming volcanoes in the vicinity.

Transform Plate BoundariesTransform Plate Boundaries

• Lateral Slipping Plate Movement: When two plates move sideways against each other (at a transform plate boundary), there is a tremendous amount of friction which makes the movement jerky. The plates slip, then stick as the friction and pressure build up to incredible levels. When the pressure is released suddenly, and the plates suddenly jerk apart, this is an earthquake.

Are You A Dirt Ball?Are You A Dirt Ball?

Minerals and RocksMinerals and Rocks

• QUARTZ = SILICON (Si) + OXYGEN (O)PYRITE = IRON (Fe) + SULFUR (S)APATITE =  CALCIUM (Ca) + PHOSPHATE (P) + OXYGEN (O)ULEXITE = SODIUM (Na) + CALCITE (Ca) + BORON (B) + OXYGEN (O)GYPSUM = CALCIUM (Ca) + SULFUR (S) + OXYGEN (O)MICA = ALUMINUM (Al) + SILICON (Si) + OXYGEN (O)FLUORITE = FLUORINE (F) + CALCIUM (Ca)HEMATITE = IRON (Fe) + OXYGEN (O)CALCITE = CALCIUM (Ca) + CARBON (C) + OXYGEN (O)

Human BodyHuman Body

• The elements listed below are the known elements that make up the human body.

• oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron, fluorine, zinc, silicon, rubidium, strontium, bromine, lead, copper, aluminum, cadmium, cerium, barium, iodine, tin, titanium, boron, nickel, selenium, chromium, manganese, arsenic, lithium, cesium, mercury, germanium, molybdenum, cobalt, antimony, silver, niobium, zirconium, lanthanum, gallium, tellurium, yttrium, bismuth, thallium, indium, gold, scandium, tantalum, vanadium, thorium, uranium, samarium, beryllium, tungsten

Elements in HumansElements in Humans• Macro Elements• Calcium (Ca)

Structure of bone and teeth. • Phosphorous (Ph)

Structure of bone and teeth. Required for ATP, the energy carrier in animals. • Magnesium (Mg)

Important in bone structure. Deficiency results in tetany (muscle spasms) and can lead to a calcium deficiency.

• Sodium (Na)Major electrolyte of blood and extracellular fluid. Required for maintenance of pH and osmotic balance.

• Potassium (K)Major electrolyte of blood and intracellular fluid. Required for maintenance of pH and osmotic balance.

• Chlorine (Cl)Major electrolyte of blood and extracellular and intracellular fluid. Required for maintenance of pH and osmotic balance.

• Sulfur (S)

Elements ContinuedElements Continued• Iron (Fe)

Contained in hemoglobin and myoglobin which are required for oxygen transport in the body. Part of the cytochrome p450 family of enzymes. Anemia is the primary consequence of iron deficiency. Excess iron levels can enlarge the liver, may provoke diabetes and cardiac falurer. The genetic disease hemochromatosis results from excess iron absorption. Similar symptoms can be produced through excessive transfusions required for the treatment of other diseases.

• Copper (Cu)Contained in enzymes of the ferroxidase (ceruloplasmin?) system which regulates iron transport and facilitates release from storage. A structural element in the enzymes tyrosinase, cytochrome c oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, amine oxidases, and the antioxidant enzyme copper zinc superoxide dismutase. A copper deficiency can result in anemia from reduced ferroxidase function. Excess copper levels cause liver malfunction and are associated with genetic disorder Wilson's Disease

• Manganese (Mn)Major component of the mitochondrial antioxidant enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase. A manganese deficiency can lead to improper bone formation and reproductive disorders. An excess of manganese can lead to poor iron absorption.

• Iodine (I)Required for production of thyroxine which plays an important role in metabolic rate. Deficient or excessive iodine intake can cause goiter (an enlarged thyroid gland).

• Zinc (Zn)Important for reproductive function due to its use in FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (leutinizing hormone). Required for DNA binding of zinc finger proteins which regulate a variety of activities. A component of the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase carbonic anhydrase, ribonuclease, DNA Polymerase and the antioxidant copper zinc superoxide dismutase. An excess of zinc may cause anemia or reduced bone formation.

• Lead (Pb)

• Nickel (Ni)

• Silicon (Si)

MineralsMinerals

• The word rock refers to solid mineral deposits. Rocks are minerals, but not all minerals are rocks. Minerals are all substances that can't be classified as "animal" or "vegetable." Metals ores found in the earth, like gold and silver, are minerals. Crystalline substances, like salt and quartz, are minerals.

• Minerals are classified in several "classes" based upon common properties or characteristics.

• Some minerals, given time and circumstance, form solid deposits. These solid mineral deposits are known as rock. Pressure, temperature, erosion, and friction are forces that effect the formation of rocks.

• Quartz and Aurora crystals pictured above.

Mohs Scale of Mineral HardnessMohs Scale of Mineral Hardness

Sedimentary RocksSedimentary Rocks• Have you ever been to the beach and nestled your toes in the sand? Over thousands

of years that sand might become part of a sedimentary rock! • Sedimentary rocks make up about three-quarters of the rocks at the Earth’s surface.

They form at the surface in environments such as beaches, rivers, the ocean, and anywhere that sand, mud, and other types of sediment collect. Sedimentary rocks preserve a record of the environments that existed when they formed. By looking at sedimentary rocks of different ages, scientists can figure out how climate and environments have changed through Earth’s history. Fossils of ancient living things are preserved in sedimentary rocks too.

• Many sedimentary rocks are made from the broken bits of other rocks. These are called clastic sedimentary rocks. The broken bits of rocks are called sediment. Sediment is the sand you find at the beach, the mud in a lake bottom, the pebbles in a river, and even the dust on furniture. The sediment may, in time, form a rock if the little pieces become cemented together.

• There are other types of sedimentary rocks whose particles do not come from broken rock fragments. Chemical sedimentary rocks are made of mineral crystals such as halite and gypsum formed by chemical processes. The sediment particles of organic sedimentary rocks are the remains of living things such as clamshells, plankton skeletons, dinosaur bones, and plants.

Limestone, Shale, and SandstoneLimestone, Shale, and Sandstone

Metamorphic RocksMetamorphic Rocks• Rocks are formed on Earth as igneous,

sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form when rocks are heated to the melting point which forms magma. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the cementing together of sediments, or from the compaction (squeezing together) of sediments, or from the recrystallization of new mineral grains which are larger than the original crystals. Metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure changing the original or parent rock into a completely new rock. The parent rock can be either sedimentary, igneous, or even another metamorphic rock. The word "metamorphic" comes from Greek and means "To Change Form". The diagram above shows you how the rocks on Earth have been changed continually over time from one rock type to another. This changing of rock types is called the "Rock Cycle".

Sample (Gneiss)Sample (Gneiss)

Igneous RocksIgneous Rocks• Igneous rocks are formed from molten magma or lava. The word, igneous

means "fire". All igneous rock starts deep in the earth as hot, molten magma. If the magma cools and hardens inside the earth it is called "intrusive" rock. These rocks cool slowly and have large crystals. When the magma comes out of the earth's crust through a volcano, it is called "extrusive". It cools off quickly, and the crystals that form are very small. Molten, or hot, liquid rock is called MAGMA when it is still inside the earth, but once it comes out through a volcano it is called LAVA. Granite Basalt Obsidian

ResourcesResources• http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/permian/permian.html• http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/triassic/triassic.html• http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/acolvil/geotime/triassic_reptiles2.jpg• http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/jurassic/jurassiclife.html• http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/library/images/news_stories/old/hadro_skull_clip.jpg• http://www.dinodata.net/Marine/gif/ichty.GIF• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous• http://www.lakepowell.net/sciencecenter/early%20cretaceous%20paleomap.jpg• http://www.colorblends.com/img/tulip/display/cretaceous.jpg• http://www.airtool-yutani.co.jp/zairyou/map%20of%20world.gif• http://www.neystadt.org/john/album/Tanzania2003/Animals/DSCN1210-Elephant-Fa

mily.jpg• http://sci.gallaudet.edu/George/lithosphere.jpg• http://www.enchantedlearning.com/egifs/Earthscrust.GIF• http://www.ngdir.ir/SiteLinks/Kids/Image/erathquake%20-en/Picture2e%20(6).gif• http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/103949main_earth10.jpg

Resources ContinuedResources Continued• http://members.tripod.com/NZPhoto/volcano/PacificPlate.gif• http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tecmech.html• http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtm

l• http://web.odu.edu/webroot/instr/sci/tmmathew.nsf/files/transforms.jpg/$FILE/transfor

ms.jpg• http://www.lynchburgrockclub.org/images/rock%20cycle.gif• http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/geology/sed_intro.html• http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/acolvil/sediment/bedding_gc.jpg• http://www.kaibab.org/geology/gc_geol.htm• http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/lessons/Metrocks/Metrocks2.html• http://www.ivyhall.district96.k12.il.us/4th/kkhp/RocksandMinerals/igneous.html• http://www.bwctc.northants.sch.uk/html/projects/science/ks34/rocks/key.html• http://www.fi.edu/tfi/units/rocks/rocks.html• http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/gemstone/rock_cry/roc-26.jpg• http://www.tellmewhereonearth.com/Web%20Pages/Rocks/Rocks%20Photos/

r4back.JPG