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    Canadas GeologyChapter 11

    - Seismologists have discovered that earthquakes occur more frequently inspecific areas

    - Specifically, earthquakes occur more frequently where the edges of theearths plates are colliding or moving away from each other

    Internal Structure of the Earth

    - The planet is made up of three main layers: The Core, The Mantle, The Crust- Crust: (0 to 35 km thick)- About 6,378 km to the inner core

    Theory of Continental Drift

    - Alfred Wegener was the first to introduce the theory of Continental Drift- Evidence of theory: Jigsaw puzzle fit (continents fit together), Fossil evidence

    (same fossils on different continents), Rock Type (same rock composition on

    different continents), Paleoclimatic (Ancient climate)

    - But his ideas were rejected. He was not a specialist in the areas in which heattempted to collect his evidence and he was unable to suggest a mechanism

    for drift

    Geologic History

    - It is theorized that 300 million years ago all of the earths landmasses formedone supercontinent called Pangea (all land)

    - About 200 million years ago,

    Theory of Plate Tectonics

    - Heat from the core can heat the water causing the plate tectonics to crack- The mantle plume is a bubble like effect that punches up on the plates

    causing a Divergent Plate Boundary where the plates are being pushed away

    from each other

    - Convergent Plate boundaries are when plates overlap a convergent plateboundary can only happen with 2 divergent plate boundaries

    - Convection currents is the movement of the heated water up

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    Rift Valleys - Divergent

    - Rift valleys are caused by the magma plume splits the crust and water floodsin when it is deep enough; Mid-Oceanic Ridge

    Convergent

    - Fold; 2 divergent PB makes 1 Convergent PB, creates pressure at hightemperature that causes the rocks and bend into fold mountains

    - Fault; 2 divergent PB makes 1 Convergent PB, creates pressure at lowtemperature that causes the rock to crack making ridge like faults

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    ROCK CYCLE

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    Canadas Physiographic regions

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    Geo 15 Notes

    Eco Zones

    Physical Regions + Climatic Regions

    - Eco zone parameters are distinguished by PRECIPITATION & Temperature

    - The growth of vegetation is dependent upon the average levels fprecipitation

    Precipitation

    - Desert; less than 25 cm/year- Grasslands; 50 90 cm/year- Savannah; 50 127 cm/year- Forest; 75 150 cm/year- Rain forest; more than 200 cm/year

    Temperature

    - Arctic- Tundra- Boreal- Deciduous- Tropical

    Food Chains

    - A FOOD CHAIN represents the steps of organisms transferring energy byeating & being eaten

    - Ex. Sun Grass Grasshopper Mouse Bear Wolf

    Food Webs

    - A FOOD WEB consists of interlocking food chains. The only way to untangle

    the chains is to trace back along a given food chain

    Eco zones

    - Eco zones: a very large-scale ecosystem defined on the basis of broadcommon characteristics

    - Plants are defined by major plant formations rather than detailedclassifications

    - Landforms are defined by large physiographic divisions rather than local

    landforms

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    Chapter 13 Canadas Climatic Regions

    Where does weather and climate takes?

    The Atmosphere: In fact the weather takes place in a thin layer of atmosphere found

    just above the surface of the planet (0 -12 km) known as: The TROPOSPHERE a.k.a.

    The Weather Layer

    Are Weather and Climate the same thing?

    Weather: all of the many and varied phenomena that occur in the atmosphere at a

    particular location over a short period of time

    Weather: Varied phenomena, Local, Short term

    Climate: weather averaged out over a long period of time and is a function of

    temperature and precipitation

    Weather: Temperature and Precipitation, Regional, Long Term

    Polar Climate: Year-round cold temperature warmest is less than 10

    Temperate Climate: Warm to cool summers and cold winters

    Tropical Climate: Year-round warm temperatures usually above 15 all the time

    What Powers Weather and Climate?

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    - Solar Energy turns into Thermal Energy then into kinetic Energy

    Factors that control Canadian Climate

    Temperature

    -Factors that influence latitude, ocean currents and elevation-Influence of latitude-Latitude has the largest influence on climate in the planet-As one goes away from the equator the temp decreases-Solar intensity

    Influence of Ocean Currents

    -Due to the ability of water to hold heats ocean currents can transport warmwater from the equator to polar regions

    -Canadas currents: Labrador cold, gulf stream warm, north pacific mild

    Influence of Elevation-As one moves higher elevations it becomes colder-First reason-The troposphere is heated from below- it is warmer at low elevations which are

    closer to the heat-radiating surface-Second reason-The greater density of air molecules near the surface of the earth holds more

    dust particles and higher humidity levels-The conditions allow the air to hold in the heat radiating from the earth better at

    higher elevations

    Precipitation

    Factors the influence Prec.

    - Wind East- Relief West

    Wind

    - The Storms that form in the Atlantic come up to Eastern Canada

    - Prevailing wind systems over Canada blow W E called the Westerlies

    - Westerlies carry precipitation- Wind is referred to from the direction the wind comes from not going

    Relief

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    - Relief (mountains) and prevailing winds force air to rise and cool. As the air cools,

    water vapor condenses into clouds and then rain on the windward slope (AKA

    Orographic precipitation) Falling, and warming, air on the Leeward creates dry air

    and a rainshadow

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    Market Segmentation

    - Things made towards a certain age group with a massive market (ex. Baby Boom)

    Dependency Ratio

    (Total) Dependency ratio = (number of people aged 0-19 and those aged 65 and over(divided by) number of people aged 19-64) multiplied by 100

    - As the ratio increases there may be an increased burden on the productive part of thepopulation to maintaining the upbringing and pensions of the economically dependent.This results in direct impacts on financial expenditures on things like social security, aswell as many indirect consequence

    - Stability of the total demographic dependency ratio throughout the 1980s was attributeto a decreasing youth demographic dependency ratio that was offset by an increasingsenior demographic dependency ratio

    - Canadas total demographic dependency ratio is projected to rise to 84 dependents forevery 100 people of working age by 2056, as the proportion of seniors increases

    - In 1971, the youth demographic dependency ratio was 74 youth for every 100 working-

    age people. This dropped to 39 youth in 2006 and is projected to drop further to 34 youthfor every 100 working ge people by 2056

    Terms:Demographics - Age groups, targeting

    Demographic Dividend

    - The dividend occurs only when fewer investments are needed to meet the needs of the

    youngest age groups and resources can be released for job training and investment ineconomic development

    - A population realizes there population dividend when they lower their Total FertilityRate or reduce their birth rate TFR=2 kids for every couple

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    - Suburbs/Mortgages- Female Maternity Leaves (takes out of workforce)$ Food/Clothing/Necessities$ Recreational facilities$ Education$ Health care (vaccination)

    - Youthful Population- High Dependency Load

    Demographic Time Bomb

    - Population aging is a shift in the distribution of a countrys population towards olderages as life expectancies continue to rise with improvement health care systems

    Age (Demographic Winter)

    - Economic depression- Political Shift- Population decline (depopulation)- Labour productivity in developed Countries decline (immigrants)

    Attempting to realize the Demographic Dividend is the fire that lights the fuse...

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    Migration

    Push or Pull?

    - Migrants move for a variety of reasons- Push Factors: some migrants are involuntary and people are forced to migratedue to war

    Canada; An Immigrant Receiving Nation

    - Canada is classified as an immigrant receiving country for international migrants- Canada accepts the 7th highest number of international immigrants in the world

    today- Immigration is viewed as a solution to pending social and economic problems- Low fertility, low population growth - Ageing population

    Replacement Migration

    - Commonly reffered to as replacement migration, the theory in Canada is that theimmigration of young people able to work at relatively high-skill jobs for a number ofyears can help the economy grow and lessen the impact of a declining natural

    increase rate and growing senior population

    Immigration Categories

    - Economic: Canada requires large numbers of immigrants to keep its economygrowing. Without immigration, the size of the Canadian workforce would decline andthe dependency load would increase. 61% of immigrants who come to Canada eachyear are economic immigrants. Economic immigrants are chosen because of whatthey can contribute to the Canadian economy

    - Family: Canadas immigration program maintanes a strong commitment to familyunification and supports individuals who want to bring their spouses, dependentchildren and extended families to Canada if they are accepted as an immigrant.

    About 26% of all immigrants who come to Canada each year are family classimmigrants. About 6% of Canadian family immigrants, however, represent parentsand grandparents of existing immigrant. This adds to the senior dependency loadand presents a problem for Canada - Why?

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    - Regions with Ageing populations and depopulation are not being assisted1. Economic Opportunities2. Provincial Nominee Programs

    Issues New Immigrants Face:

    1. Underemployment2. Hidden Racism3. Social Isolation4. Overqualified (Taxi, PhD)

    50, 000 Taxi Drivers (50%)200 PhDLower IncomesHigh Rates of employment

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    Settlement Patterns

    Chapter 19

    Rural Settlement Patterns

    - We are going to learn about 3 specific patterns that exist in Canadian ruralsettlements

    o The long lots of southern Quebec

    o The concession system of Southern Ontario

    o The section system of the Prairies

    Prairies Ontario Quebec

    Lots were bigger

    Crops yield less money so

    more is needed

    Rows are called

    Townships, Columns arecalled Ranges

    SECTION SYSTEM

    Lots are small

    Crops yield more so less is

    needed

    More money to build

    roads

    CONCESSION

    Long lots

    Access to water, only

    transport, so they were

    stacked up on the river

    LONG LOT

    Population Distribution

    - Canadas population is distributed unevenly in both concentrated anddispersed

    - Even- Uneven- Dispersed

    - Concentrated- A linear Pattern: is a specialized example of a concentrated pattern- Population Density: is the number of people who live in each square

    kilometer of land

    - Canada has one of the lowest population densities in the world with 3.3people per square kilometer

    - Most of Canadas population live within 200 kilometers of the United StatesThe Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut are relatively empty, embraced 41%

    of our land mass, but only o.3

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    Urban Settlement

    Urban Settlement Patterns

    - Within the Rural Settlements framework, urban centers tend to emerge

    - Particular settlements act as hubs and serve a particular purposeo Manufacturing (factories, mills, markets)

    o Transportation hub (ships, rail, highways converge)

    o Service hub (government, military, university)

    o Resource hub (forests, minerals, hydro-electric)

    Urbanization vs. Urban Growth

    - As those hubs grow their population grows and they become URBAN- Urbanization is the process through which more people begin to live in urban

    settlements and it is one of the most important features in Canadian history

    - In 1867, when Canada became a Country, 82% of Canadians lived in ruralareas. Today almost 80% live in cities and towns

    Urbanization in Canada

    - Pre-industrial populations (80% rural);- Industrial growth increased urban population;- Slows again once rural populations are in cities; and

    Solutions 2 Sprawl

    - Create a NO DEVELOPMENT zone outside the city to prevent the city growingoutwards

    - Called the Green Belt by the Provincial government, not the municipal- Green Belt made condos more of a regular occurrence because they are

    forced within the Green Belt

    Torontos Downtown Tall Buildings Project

    - Where should the tall buildings go?

    o Near main roads such as Yonge St. Also near subway stations; Thentaper off in height as you move away from the street

    o In the downtown core and near pre existing infrastructure is locatedo Bay, Bloor, University to reflect their significance

    - Why regulate building height?

    o To achieve an urban atmosphere

    o So as not to block views of an older work decreed to be importantlandmark

    o Airplanes and safety

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    - How tall is too tall?

    o The objective of the Tall Buildings Downtown Project is to create avision for tall buildings which identifies which downtown streets tall

    buildings should be located on the height ranges and build form

    typologies that these tall buildings should adhere to in order enhance

    the pedestrian environment; minimizes shadowing of sidewalks,parks and public squares; project landmark views and heritage

    resources and improve the quality of life (access to natural light, sky

    views and privacy) for people living and working in the core.

    Urbanization:When the proportion of a countys population living in Rural vs.Urban settlements changes in favor of urban

    1. All settlements start as RURAL2. Over time certain Settlements grow in population and become URBAN (@

    10000)

    3. This process whereby the percentage of the population living in urban areasvs. rural areas increases is called URBANIZATION

    4. In Canada, the process of urbanization has occurred for two reasons MIGRATION, NATURAL GROWTH and RECLASSIFICATION

    5. The gap between rural urban populations generates disparities in relation to

    the following factorsa) Employmentb) Economicsc) Educationd) Service

    6. Increased urbanization triggers URBAN GROWTHa) Physical growthb) Population growth

    Sprawl

    1. Urban growth that consumes more land is than necessary2. Occurs when the percentage increase in occupied land area is greater then

    the percentage increase in population

    a. It is alleged to increase the level of traffic congestion and increasecommuting distances

    b.

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    Chapter 22: Economic Geography

    - The Canadian economy is divided into three sectors

    o Primaryo Secondary

    o Tertiary- Primary Sector: extracts raw materials from the earth

    o Agriculture- Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, S. Ontario, PEI

    o Fishing East, West

    o Forestry Shield (BC, Ontario, Quebec)

    o Mining, Oil and Gas Mining Shield ( Ontario, Quebec, Alberta)- Secondary Sector: process raw material into usable goods

    o Manufacturingo Construction

    o Utilities- Tertiary Sectors: Goods & Services

    - Basic Industry: Brings money into a communityo Pull in money from outside the local economy

    o Called basic because they are needed to supportthe local economy

    o They are the base of the local economy- Non-Basic: Flows money out of a community

    o Siphons money out of the local economyo It is called non-basic because it cannot support the local economy

    and does not bring new money into the economy

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    Canadas Fishing IndustryKey ConceptsFishing is a renewable resource (Eggs)Fishing is Canadas oldest industry

    Canadas fishing industry takes place in three areas:- The East Coast- The West Coast- Freshwater Inland Lakes

    Fish Caught by FishermanGround Fish:- Shallow Water- Plankton- Dont migrate or school (Cod, Haddock, and Halibut)

    Pelagic Fish:

    - Deep Water- Migrate in schools (Tuna, Salmon, and Mackerel)

    Shell Fish:You find everywhere (Lobster, Crab)

    StatisticsCommercial fishing only accounts for 0.10% of the total value of Canadas Economy

    Canada is NOT one of the worlds top 10 fishing nationsMore than 80% of the catch is exportedCanadas fish exports are larger than our imports helping with ourbalance of trade

    The East Coast FisheriesWhat is a Continental shelfWhat is a fishing bankWhat is plankton

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    The Crisis in the East Coast FisheryWhat is Sustained yield managementWhat are the five major conditions responsible for the collapse of the fishery!- Overfishing- Improved Fishing Technology

    - Destructive Fishing Practices- Changes in Natural Conditions- The conditions

    The West Coast FisheriesSalmon are the most common fish with 5 different typesThe West Coast catch has traditionally been 400 times larger then the east

    The Collapse of the West Coast FisheriesOver Fishing:During the 1990s Canadian and American salmon-fishing were catching 800 000 tonnes

    of fish a year

    This depleted the salmon population and didnt let them spawn newborns

    Changes in the Environment:Global warming is increasing the temperature in the salmons habitatThey like the water below 7C so they will go more north to alaska where their is colder

    water in Alaska, so Canada loses the west coast fishery

    Lack of a Salmon Fishing Treaty:The USA and Canada cant come upon an agreement about how much salmon your

    allowed to catchThis lets them keep on fishing for salmon at a rapid pace since their is no agreement

    against it

    Challenges to the West Coast Fishery1.First NationsThe Aboriginals are to fish for their own food and for social purposes fish for themselvesThe right to fish commercial is a focus of many First Nations land claim in North

    America

    1.Sport FishingThis industry want a bigger share of the available salmonTheir argument is economic: A salmon caught by recreational angler is worth more then

    a salmon caught by a commercial fishing boat

    1.Commercial FishingFirst Nations and Sport fishers want a bigger share of the fish so the government has to

    cut down on the amount of fish commercial boats can catchThe government is doing this by gradually purchasing commercial fishing licenses and

    fishing boats so the amount of commercial fishers are reduced

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    Chapter 24

    -The Business of Farming-

    - A successfulAgriculture Industry depends upon the interaction of fourvariable:

    o Climate (growing degrees days);o Soil (Fertility);

    o Biology (helpful vs. harmful);

    o Topography (drainage, erosion, etc.)

    Climate

    - Growing degree days: calculated by determining the number of degrees theaverage temperature exceeds 6C

    o 6 = 1 GDD

    o 10 = 5 GDD

    o 24 = 18 GDD

    Land Capability for Agriculture

    - To determine whether or not land was capable for agriculture in Canada, asurveywas carried-out in the 1960s and 1970s

    - This survey resulted in a classification system which divided Canadas landinto 7 classes

    - The classes indicate the degree of limitation imposed by the soil in its use foragriculture

    Land Inventory System

    Classes of Soil

    1. No limitations

    2. Moderate limitations3. Moderately Severe limitations4. Severe limitations5. Very Severe

    6. Perennial forage7. No Capacity

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    Types of Farming

    - Intensive farming

    o Densely populated areas;o Farms tend to be small;

    o Large investments in labour and machinery;o Fruits, Vegetables, Dairy, Poultry, and Hogs;

    - Extensive Farming

    o Population density is low;

    o Farms tend to be large;

    o Highly mechanized and requires few workers;

    o Cattle farming, grain and oilseed, mixed farming;- Deficiencies & overcome

    Canada

    - Canada has a total land area of 921 500 000 ha.- Only 13% of this area is suitable for any form of agriculture- Only 5% of this area is suitable for farming

    Intensive Agricultre Extensive Agriculture

    Size of Farms Small Large

    Use of labour/Machinery Lots Modernized

    Types of Farming Fruits, Veg., dairy,poultry

    Cattle, grain

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    Forest Resources- Chapter 25 -

    Tropical

    - Tropical Treeso Palm tree

    o Banana

    o Ferns

    Temperate

    - Deciduous Trees (Leaves) Hard wood furniture, desks, hard wood flooring

    o Oak

    o Birch

    o Maple

    o Willow- Coniferous (Pines, more north, cones) Soft wood Lumber, pulp and paper

    o Pineo Spruce

    o Cedar

    Polar

    - Tundra

    o Tree lineo

    No trees

    Forest Facts

    - Sustained yield forest management- Forests cover 42% of Canadas total area

    o 66% are coniferous

    o 12% are deciduouso 22% are mixed

    Mixed Forest Region

    - Long growing season- Some coniferous (soft wood) is harvested for pulp & paper, lumber- Some deciduous (hard wood) is used for maple syrup etc.

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    Boreal Forest Region

    - Largest region

    - Many coniferous (soft wood)- Tree growth is slow

    - Pulp and paper

    Taiga and Montane Forest Region

    - Stunted trees- Coniferous- Inaccessible and far from markets

    West Coast Forest Region

    - Most productive forest in Canada

    - Temperate rain forest- Abundant precipitation- Volume of wood, per hectare, is highest in Canada

    Three ways to harvest trees

    - Clear Cutting

    o Economically feasible

    o Environmentally damaging

    o Wasteful

    - Selective Loggingo Aesthetics

    - Shelter Wood- Non-commercial forests are those that are unlikely to be cut down for

    industrial use

    - Commercial forests are those which have trees that can be harvestedprofitably

    Threats to Forest

    - Acid Rain- Insect pests and disease- Forest Fires