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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - I996

Geographic Information Systems: Applications and Research Opportunities

for Information Systems Researchers

Brian E. Mennecke School of Business

East Carolina University Greenville, NC 27858

dcbrian@ecuvax. cis. ecu. edu

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction to geographic information systems (GIS) and a research framework for information systems researchers. The paper summarizes the main GIS features, functions, and capabilities, including a research framework for GIS. In addition, several opportunities for research are suggested including those related to GIS management, organizational impacts, collaborative issues, evaluations of decision- making effectiveness, and societal impacts in both developed and developing countries.

Introduction

“If you will have a young man to put his travel into a little room, and in short time to gather much, this you must do; . . . let him carry with him also some map or book describing the country where he travelleth, which will be a good key to his inquiry...” (Sir Frances Bacon, Essay #18, Of Travel, 1625).

This admonition is sage advice and sets the stage well for discussing applications and research opportunities for geographic information systems (GIS) in business. GIS are increasingly being used in business because they are powerful tools that can be used to unleash the wealth of information that is locked up in the data that describes location (e.g., addresses, zip codes, counties, latitude and longitude). GIS. is a decision support tool that allows a user to bring together spatial data (e.g., maps) and databases containing attribute and other types of data (e.g., images or graphs). A key features of GIS which distinguishes it from other information systems is that the spatial relationship between objects can be integrated into analyses. This provides users the opportunity to realize greater benefits from their data because most data includ~e a significant geographic component.

Despite these facts and the large size of the GIS market ($3.5 billion in 1992; [23]) plus its prospects for significant future growth (25%-33% through the 1990’s; [IS]), little

Martin D. Crossland College of Business Administration

Southwest Missouri State University Springfield, MO 65804

mdc299fQvma. smsu. edu

attention has been paid to the technology by business school researchers in general, and by information systems researchers in particular. More than a decade ago business school scholars had recognized the promise and importance of mapping as a tool for visualization [see 31; 581. More recently, GIS vendors such as MapInfo, Strategic Mapping, Inc., and the Environmental Systems Research Institute @SRI) have all partnered with mainstream business software vendors such as Microsoft, Oracle, and others to bring their GIS products to the business community. Nevertheless, to date, few information systems researchers have chosen to examine this technology. As a result, researchers from other academic disciplines such as geography and computer science have performed the bulk of the GIS research. As GIS becomes more pronounced as a decision support tool for business and management, information systems researchers need to become more involved in examining GIS.

Given this, the purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction to GIS and a research framework for information systems researchers. To accomplish this, we first provide an overview of GIS technology. Following this, a framework for GIS applications is presented and discussed. Next, prospective research directions for scholars from the information systems community are presented. The paper concludes with a summary and conclusions.

Geographic Information Systems: A Definition

A logical starting point for discussing GIS is to define the term. It should be recognized that GIS is more than a tool for map preparation or for generating presentation graphics. For example, several spreadsheet packages now include GIS functionality that allows users to prepare map displays. Although such capabilities are useful for creating presentation graphics and similar displays, this represent only a few of the capabilities that full-function GIS possess. Thus, GIS should be viewed as much more than a simple mapping tool. Although several definitions for GIS have been advanced [see 371, we prefer the following:

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Proceedings of the 1996 Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-29) 1060-3425/96 $10.00 © 1996 IEEE

‘A geographic information system (GLS) is a computer- based information system that provides tools to collect, integrate, manage, analyze, model, and display data that is referenced to an accurate cartographic representation of objects in space.” [4 11.

Given this definition, it should also be recognized that GIS possess several characteristics that distinguish them from other information systems. First, GIS are designed to support the production of maps. Several methods are available for map making. These include digitizing paper maps, generating maps from aerial photographs or satellite imagery, and collecting map coordinates using surveying techniques or global positioning systems (GPS). Such techniques are either labor intensive or require specialized training and equipment. Thus, in many ways data acquisition can potentially be one of the more ditIicult and costly issues in implementing a GIS.

Second, GIS are spatial database management tools. In other words, they can be used to collect and manage spatially-defined data. The process of data management begins with defining a link between map data and attribute data. The term geocoding describes the process of linking attribute data with the spatial coordinates on a map. For example, if a user needed to place the locations of her customers’ stores on a map, she could geocode each customer’s address against coordinates on the map to define points that would be used to represent the location of each customer. The geocoding process creates fields in the attribute database for the longitude (location X-value) and latitude (location Y-value) of each address. The resulting link generates a geographic database which is a synergistic combination of the two data sets (i.e., the map data and the attribute data). For most applications, this database provides the user with significantly more information than each data set would provide if used separately.

Once these databases are defined, GIS can be used to query data based on spatial criteria, based on criteria derived from the attribute data, or based on some combination of these data. Spatial queries can be used to answer questions such as “where is this house?’ or “what is located at this intersection “‘. Although queries such as this may be possible with attribute data alone; GIS provides an integrated environment for performing these queries. Furthermore, GIS can be used to perform queries with concepts such as “next to, ” “contained within,” and other spatially-referenced questions that often cannot be asked using other database management systems [5]. For example, while GIS and other types of database systems both offer tools that allow users to perform queries based on attribute data such as an address or a zip code, GIS incorporate tools that allow users to query data by pointing to objects, by

defining polygons, or by selecting records within a given distance from a location.

A third category of GIS capabilities is the display of spatial data. In other words, maps can be portrayed using a GIS. In addition, more than one set of data can be displayed and viewed simultaneously. This capability is available because data sets are represented as unique layers. Each layer is similar to an individual user view (or table) in a database. Layers can be laid one on top of another, thus creating one or more new layers (or user views) which contain images showing how data are related. For example, a common application for layering is to display a map showing both sales territories and the locations of prospective customers. These two distinct data sets would be stored in a GIS as two separate layers; however, these layers can be simultaneously displayed on the same map so that the user can see where the sales territories are relative to the prospective customers. This display capability is important because it allows a user to visualize the data and thereby identity patterns or relationships that might not otherwise be obvious.

Spatial analysis represents a fourth capability of GIS. Spatial analysis is similar to the decision modeling capabilities of decision support systems (DSS) which allow DSS to be used to perform sophisticated what rf analyses. GIS can be used to perform what if analyses that incorporate spatial data. In other words, GIS supports queries such as &t number of people will drive by our service station ifwe locate it at the corner of Charles Street and Fire Tower Road or &t number ofpeople per day will see an advertisement if the billboard is placed at 1401 Maple Drive? Statistical tools and data manipulation functions that can be used to implement models and transform data are generally available to make such analyses. Furthermore, a variety of add-in spatial models have been developed and can be used for common business problems such as those related to transportation and logistics (e.g., truck routing), marketing analysis (e.g., proximity modeling), and environmental management and remediation (e.g., modeling the impact of clear-cutting on erosion rates). Fundamentally, one of the key value-adding capabilities of GIS is for visualizing the variables in these models.

In summary, GIS is a powerful decision support tool because it allows users to not only manage attribute data, but also to capture, manage, and incorporate spatial data in their analyses. Because of these capabilities as well as other industry trends (e.g., decreased computing costs, increased data availability), the GIS market has experienced rapid growth in the past few years. Although government still represents the largest segment of the GIS-user community, much of this recent growth can be attributed to widespread di&sion of GIS into the business community. To define how GIS can be and is being used in business, the following

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section presents a framework for understanding GIS functionality in the context of business.

GIS Applications

Most organizations use information systems for one or more of the following core applications: transaction processing, operations, inventory management, planning and decision making, and internal management and control. GIS can be used for these and other applications because they possess functionalities that are common to other types of information systems. However, GIS also possess unique functionalities that distinguish them from other information systems. For instance, Mennecke et al. [41] proposed a framework which defines the relationships between GIS functionalities and the application areas for which GIS can be used by businesses (see Figure 1). This framework is useful for identify how GIS can be used and defining research opportunities.

The framework specifies four core GIS functions: spatial visualization, database management, decision modeling, and design and planning. Spatial imaging refers to the fundamental GIS capability of representing data and information within a spatially defined coordinate system (e.g., a map). The database management function represents the capability of GIS to store, manipulate, and provide access to data. The decision modeling tinction represents the GIS capability to provide analytical tools that can be used to support decision making. Finally, the design andplanning function represents those GIS tools that can be used to create, design, and plan. In addition to the core GIS functions, the model also represents several specific GIS applications toward which these GIS functions can be applied. These applications include surveying and mapping, facility management, market analysis, transportation, logistics, strategic planning, decision making, design and engineering. Each of these application areas utilizes, to one degree or another, each of the core GIS functions. However, each application also relies to a greater degree on one or more of the core GIS functions; thus, each application is shown proximate to the core function(s) that is (are) most important for that application.

Surveying and mapping is commonly called automated mapping (AM) and represents one of the first GIS applications [13]. AM is an important business application because it allows organizations to generate spatial data in- house. In addition, remote sensing and GPS can be used to more accurately generate maps because the paper map is removed as the data source [28]. In spite of this, map acquisition can be one of the most problematic areas in GIS usage. For instance, costs for data can exceed twenty percent of the cost of a GIS implementation [.57] and data accuracy can be a significant problem [9; 281. Errors can


arise for several reasons including problems associated with defining positional accuracy (i.e., is the object where the map says it is?), attribute accuracy (i.e., is the object defined and classified correctly?), and completeness (i.e., are all of the relevant objects shown?) [9]. Additionally, definitional problems can complicate data collection because the classification of an object can depend both on the user’s purpose for the map (i.e., what objects are to be coded?) and interpretive issues (e.g., is this a tree or a bush?) [28]. An organization’s ability to produce maps can also be constrained because many business personnel do not have the cartographic training that is needed to generate maps WI-

A second GIS business application is in facilities management (FM). GIS are useful for FM applications because they provide managers with tools to support real- time monitoring of facilities and resources. This becomes all the more important for organizations that are undergoing restructuring or for organizations that have resources that are geographically distributed. The key functions of GIS used in FM are the spatial visualization and database management functions. In other words, most FM applications use historical or transaction (real-time) data to manage or monitor facilities. They also rely heavily on the imaging capabilities of GIS to represent the spatial arrangement of data elements. The AM function of GIS are often combined with FM functions to provide organizations with a system for generating, managing, and utilizing maps and other spatial data (i.e., AM/FM Systems).

The third GIS application is market analysis. The primary function of market analysis is to understand the customer [26]. GIS is a powerful market analysis tool because it provides a platform for representing the spatial relationship between the components of the market; that is, the customers, suppliers, and competitors. The key GIS functions used for market analysis are the database management and decision modeling functions. In other words, most market analysis applications use historical or transaction (real-time) data in combination with decision modeling and support tools to analyze the organization’s marketing environment.

The fourth GIS application area is in logistics and transportation problems. GIS is useful for logistical problems because these problems almost always involve spatial data. In this context, GIS can be used both as a platform for performing decision modeling and also for displaying the results of analyses [29]. A number of specific GIS applications in this area including vehicle routing, dispatch, production control, inventory management, and navigation [6 11. The heart of transportation and logistical GIS is the decision modeling function [S]. Algorithms such as transportation network models, facility layout models, proximity models, adjacency

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Figure 1 GIS Functions and Applications

(from Mennecke, Dangermond, Santoro, Darling, & Crossland, 1995)

models, and material flow models are used with these systems.

The fifth GIS application area is in strategic decision making. Much of what managers do in business relates to planning and making decisions [55; 561. Strategic decision making often involves decisions that are broad in scope, unstructured, and focused on long time frames. Information systems designed for strategic decision making generally provide access to data, analytic and modeling tools, and communication support. Unfortunately, these information systems often inadequately represent spatial data and information [21]. The term spatial decision support system (SDSS) has been advanced to describe systems that incorporate GIS capabilities along with the analytical modeling tools found in DSS [ll; 21; 161. SDSS support the input and output of spatial data, they allow the representation of complex spatial structures, and they include analytical tools for spatial, geographical, and statistical analyses [21]. Both the decision modeling and the design and planning functions are important for strategic decision making. However, of the six applications for GIS, this is the least well developed [14; 281. This is partially due to the fact that strategic decision making often involves long-term time frames and most GIS do not provide sophisticated scheduling, planning, or analysis tools that could be used to support these applications [14; 371. Furthermore, methods for representing temporal attributes in spatial data are still poorly developed [ 11.

The sixth GIS application area is design and planning. Various information systems have been used for engineering, drafting, and design tasks. For example, computer aided design (CAD) systems are routinely used to

develop and archive architectural and other designs. GIS can be used to design plans, layouts, and maps in similar ways to CAD systems. GIS and CAD do differ from one another, however, in that CAD systems have rudimentaty links to databases, they deal with relatively small quantities of data, they often do not allow users to assign symbology automatically based .on user defined criteria, and they have limited analytical capabilities [7]. In spite of this, GIS are quite similar to CAD technologies and are, in a sense, descended from these systems [37]. GIS applications for design and engineering make use of both the imaging and the planning functions of GIS and are used in landscape engineering, environmental restoration, commercial and residential construction and development, and a host of other design and planning activities.

As this review has shown, GIS represents a powerful and versatile tool. The tremendous growth in the GIS market and it’s potential for future diflirsion into the business community highlights the importance of this technology. To date, however, little research has been conducted on GIS by information systems researchers. The next section examines the research opportunities for these researchers by providing a summaty of GIS trends and future directions for research.

GIS Research Opportunities and Trends

Although GIS is a technology that has existed for several decades, many opportunities for research still exist, particularly related to examining issues associated with applying this technology to business applications. One reason for this is that GIS have traditionally been

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Development of GIS

Management & Use of GIS

Impacts of GIS

Figure 2 GIS Research Framework

developed, operated, and researched by people with ties, in one way or another, to geography and computer science. This has naturally lead to a greater research focus on the technical and cartographic principles related to capturing, representing, and displaying spatial data [47]. As GIS have spread into other areas such as biology, forestry, geology, and similar scientific disciplines, research has similarly tended to focus on technical concerns associated with each of these disciplines. Although the literature on GIS from these areas is rich, great potential exists for information systems researchers to contribute to this stream of research. For example, only limited research has been done to understand issues such as how GIS should be managed, the types of business problems it should be used for, how it compares to other types of information systems, and its overall effectiveness as a decision-making tool [l; 151.

To address this, this section presents a discussion of several important areas in which information systems researchers can focus their endeavors. To provide a framework for GIS research, the model shown in Figure 2 is proposed. This model is derived from the model of GIS applications presented earlier (Figure 1). The model has three main components. First, research topics related to adopting and implementing GIS are presented. Next, research associated with managing and using GIS are defined and discussed. Finally, the potential impacts of GIS on the organization and on society as a whole are discussed. Several of the research topics discussed in this section overlap with those promulgated by the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) [see 45, for a complete listing]. The purpose of this discussion is to

suggest areas for information systems researchers to focus their research.

Developing GIS

In many ways, GIS is similar to other types of information systems such as decision support systems and management information systems. As is the case with these other systems, GIS needs to be managed properly to be used effectively. Information systems researchers possess a rich literature that can be applied to studying GIS [43]. For instance, an important concern facing management when adopting a new technology is whether the technology will be accepted and used by members of the organization. Yet, in the context of business, little has been done to examine GIS adoption and diffusion [see 40, for a review of several case studies of GIS adoption in the public sector], the GIS development process [lo], and cost/benefit tradeoffs [53; 571. The research on GE development and implementation published to date has focused primarily on public sector organizations and on technical rather than behavioral factors affecting success [20; 47; 491.

The information systems research community possesses a rich literature documenting experiences with the diffusion and implementation of new innovations that can be applied to GIS research [see 331. For instance, several researchers have examined technological implementation across several organizations using both surveys and anecdotal case studies. In general, a common theme running through several of these studies is the assumption that diffusion occurs as a multistage process [12; 541 and that both behavioral and

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organizational factors are likely to have important impacts on the success of the implementation [32; 33; 35; 36; 62; 631. To date, no systematic study of GIS implementation across multiple business organizations has been published. In particular, after their review of the GIS-related implementation research, Onsrud and Pinto [47] observed that prior research in this area has focused only on single- site, retrospective studies of successful systems. This obviously limits the generalizability of this research stream.

Furthermore, much needs to be learned about how GIS differs from other information technologies in terms of user acceptance. User acceptance, and therefore system success, will likely be influenced by the user’s knowledge of GIS as well as their level of training. GIS differ from other information systems in that the underlying technologies are based on geographic and cartographic principles -- principles which are likely to be foreign to many business users. In general, people tend to mistrust what they do not understand, therefore a lack of knowledge about the underlying principles of cartography could have negative impacts on user acceptance. In some respects, this relationship is similar to the problems faced by users of production and logistics systems in that many end-users often are not equipped to fully understand the principles on which these @terns are based. The solution in many business schools has been to include courses on operations research within the distribution requirements. Thus, an examination of pedagogical issues associated with education in GIS principles in business schools and other academic units are needed [ 1; 531.

Managing and Using GIS

The model of GIS applications proposed by Mennecke et al. [41] suggests four core GIS functions: spatial imaging, database management, decision modeling, and design and planning. Each of these functions suggest four areas in which research on the use of GIS should focus: human factors, GIS technology, decision making and collaboration, and planning systems. Each of these will be discussed below.

GIS and Human Factors. Because GIS is a technology that supports the manipulation and analysis of spatial data, the display characteristics and tools asociated with the user interface are critical in the use and management of GIS. Consequently there is a great need for ongoing research in human factors issues associated with using GIS. There is a rich literature on human factors that can be applied to GIS. Early research about human factors in geographic data analysis studied how humans perceive and mentally process data on maps. Therefore, much of the early research dealt with colors, patterns and representations of various


cartographic features 173. For example, Bertin [6] proposed a taxonomy of graphical representations of data that may be useful for GIS human factors research [ 151. Bertin’s research described the efficiency of human processing associated with over 100 types of graphical displays of tabular information. Many of the graphical constructions described by Bertin were maps and map derivatives. Additionally, early research in information systems which focused on the user interface and graphical displays of early information systems may also be useful for GIS research [e.g., 41.

With the broad scope of applications that GIS may be used for, it is also important to consider task characteristics when studying human factors in GIS [46]. In particular, task characteristics such as task structure, information symmetry, and complexity should be clearly defined in this research [42; 551. In addition, individual cognitive characteristics of subjects in these types of studies should also be considered. For example, Crossland et al. [17] considered spatial cognition and need for cognition as they relate to decision-making performance in spatial problem solving. In addition, Mark 1381 has described human spatial cognition as an important factor in the use of GIS software. Future research is needed to understand how these factors interact and effect how users perceive spatial data and how this relates to decision making effectiveness. In addition, future research is needed to better understand how GIS can be integrated with other information systems and how the user interface of these systems can be adapted and improved for use by users unfamiliar with GIS or with cartographic principles [50].

Data Management and GIS Technology. Considerable attention has been paid to the technological issues in developing and using GIS. Important issues that need additional research attention include database design [30], data acquisition, data communication, 3-D data visualization, and multimedia systems. The spatial data on which GIS are built are much more complicated than the textual/attribute data that database software has traditionally been called on to manage [27]. This has lead to considerable interest in research on database design for GIS [30]. Topics that need to be researched include query language design, database model selection, error detection and quality control, the use of knowledge-based and object- oriented databases, and distributed database designs [30; 37; 531. For instance, Aangeenbrug [l] notes that object- oriented databases have constraints when applied to spatial data because it is not always clear how to define spatial objects. In addition, distributed systems such as those implemented in navigation and IVHS present special problems related to concurrency. control, data distribution and data communications [S].

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Considerable research has been conducted recently in the area of visualization both for geographic data and for other forms of spatial images (e.g., medical imaging, entertainment, chemical engineering). Nevertheless, additional research is needed in this area [51]. For instance, consideration needs to be given to the representation of the output of 3-D objects on 2-D media such as paper and video displays [28; 5 11. Applications for GIS in multimedia systems, including their integration into executive information systems (EIS) and decision support systems (DSS), also need to be examined [34]. In particular, both Antenucci, and colleagues [3] and Rhind et al. [53] suggest that GIS functionality will likely become encompassed into other information systems (e.g., the recent addition of GIS display tools into commercial spreadsheet products represent an example of this phenomenon). Thus, information systems researchers should understand these trends and set about to examine their impacts on organizations and users.

Decision Making and Collaboration. Often GIS are used only as a tool to query a database or as a vehicle for displaying maps and spatial imagery. In this context, GIS represents an important enhancement to traditional database management systems and presentation graphics tools because it provides the decision maker with a powerful way to organize, retrieve, and display data based on it’s spatial characteristics. However, as noted above, GIS can also be employed as a tool to support more sophisticated manipulations and analyses of data. For instance, most current GIS incorporate transformational and statistical functions and thus can be used to manipulate data and develop analyses and projections. Even though GIS provide researchers with capabilities that are not present in other information systems, little has been done to examine the efficacy and efficiency of GIS functionality in supporting decision making. One of the few reported studies of GIS supported decision making did find that GIS enables the decision maker to answer certain kinds of questions more quickly and more accurately compared to decision makers using paper maps [15]. Nevertheless, more needs to be done to precisely evaluate whether and how various GIS functions, tools, and displays influence decision quality, user satisfaction, and other variables related to decision making [17]. For instance, more research is needed to examine the impacts of varying display characteristics, data representations, and map projections on decision making. In addition, research is also needed to examine the use and value of various spatial analysis tools in decision making [48]. Finally, research should examine and identify those types of data and problem situations where GIS is an appropriate decision making tool as well as those situations where other types of tools might be more appropriate.

Furthermore, as is the case with other information systems, many decisions supported by GIS are actually made in or by groups of people working collaboratively. It would therefore be advantageous if GIS were able to function as an integrated part of collaborative information systems. Recent efforts associated with the development of shared drawing tools as an augmentation of computer supported collaborative work (CSCW) systems possibly represents a model for similar GIS tools. One example of such a tool, Graphics COPE, allows groups of users to simultaneously develop a single cognitive map of a particular problem and/or solution [44]. Graphic manipulation tools for GIS that would allow users that are geographically dispersed to share maps, data, and other information would provide a powerful environment for decision making and collaboration. Unfortunately, published research on collaborative GIS (or CGIS) is scarce. However, organizations supporting GIS and spatial data analysis such as the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) clearly have an interest in supporting research into CGIS. For instance, NCGIA recently promulgated a new research initiative in this area [see 45; Initiative #17, ‘Collaborative Spatial Decision Making’]. Clearly CGIS represents an important topic for future research. The literature on group decision support systems (GDSS), CSCW, and decision support systems (DSS) would provide a useful resource for application development and research on this topic.

Planning & Project Management. Of the GIS functions shown in Figure 2, the planning and design function is one of the most well developed and best understood. Thus, the opportunities for research in this area are fewer in scope than those associated with the other GIS functions. Nevertheless, those applications that have yet to be adequately addressed or developed represent promising opportunities for research. For instance, although GIS and CAD systems are important technologies for designing plans, blueprints, and maps, GIS applications associated with project management and planning are less well developed. Part of the reason for this is that it is often difficult to represent temporal data and temporal changes in spatial data [53]. Nevertheless, GIS functionality could be useful in systems that are used to manage and plan a variety of projects. For instance, the applications of GIS for logistical problems associated with the decision modeling function have been highlighted above. Other planning and project management applications for GIS functionality might be examined. For instance, GIS and related technologies might be useful for representing conceptual models of new or revised business or task processes. In addition, many CASE tools use graphical representations of entities and objects that will be incorporated into software or databases. The ability of GIS to represent data in

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multiple layers may be useful in enhancing the capabilities of current CASE technologies. Thus, further research is needed to identify new ways of incorporating GIS capabilities into systems designed for planning and project management.

Organizational Impacts

As GIS are diffused into various or-@zations, they are likely to have significant impacts oil the structure and operation of these organizations. Furthermore, as GIS becomes more pervasive, it is also likely to have greater impacts on the society as a whole. Prior research on various information systems have found that information technology can have important and, in some cases, unanticipated impacts on power, politics, and organizational design. GIS is a tool with the potential to improve activities related to decision making, planning, and information exchange. Information systems that change organizational patterns of information exchange or information availability have the potential to significantly change both the power and political structures within organizations [3 9; 191. GIS is likely to change the information flow within organizations and therefore the distribution of power should be expected to change as well [20; 491. In addition, as information distribution patterns change, so too should the form of the organization [l]. For instance, greater interdepartmental collaboration should be expected as organizational units are, in many cases, required to share data and other GIS resources [20]. Thus, future research should focus on the relationship between collaboration, organizational communication, and GIS adoption.

Societal Impacts

With the arrival of most new technologies also comes the potential for impacts, both positive and negative, on the society in which the technology is used. GIS is no different. For example, GIS has been used for several years in developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom for public policy and political applications. As GIS technology diffuses into a greater number of government and business organizations, increasing societal benefits derived from more efficient and effective decision making and planning should be realized. For instance, one of the authors [BEM] is currently working with the Department of Labor’s Labor Market Information Training Institute to bring GIS into State Employment Security offices. GIS is sought by these agencies to bring improved service to the unemployed and to employers within each state.

Likewise, as GIS diffuses into underdeveloped countries, research should focus on how cultural difference, data

accessibility, user education, and political systems influence GIS use, effectiveness, and diffusion [see 52; 591. Furthermore, as GIS is increasingly used in the public sector, the public should also benefit because of increased access to and availability of data generated through public sector agencies. For example, data generated by the Census Bureau (i.e., the TIGER files) have become the foundation for ,and impetus behind much of the recent growth in GIS use in North America. Future research should focus both on how public sector GIS use and data production influence the private sector and how organizations manage the implementation process.

With increased GIS use and data accessibility comes the potential for negative impacts on society. For instance, issues related to errors and misrepresentation of both spatial data and demographic data can potentially result in legal liability for data purveyors and users [24]. In addition, increased access to data pertaining to private citizens and private sector organizations can also potentially lead to abuse and misrepresentation [2; 531. Future research should examine the legal and privacy GE.

issues associated with

Summary and Conclusions

The purpose for this paper was to describe GIS and explore how information systems researchers can set about j to examine this technology. The paper summarized the main GIS features, functions, and capabilities. In addition, several applications for GIS were discussed. The paper concluded with a discussion of a proposed framework which defines those areas where information systems faculty can focus their research efforts.

GIS is moving quickly into the private sector, yet few members of the information systems research community have actively examined this technology. Many opportunities exist for research. For instance, more information about managing GIS through the implementation and operational phases of its life-cycle is needed. In addition, research needs to examine issues related to organizational impacts of GIS, collaborative issues, decision-making effectiveness, and factors affecting human perception and cognition. Finally, much needs to be done to examine the societal impacts of GIS in both developed and developing countries.

GIS is important because it will likely become an integral part of many information systems. Most business problems include significant spatial components, thus GIS represents a powerful tool that can be used to assist decision makers to ask and answer questions they could not address- previously. As this technology continues to diffuse into the private sector, information systems researchers should be

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ready to contribute their expertise to generating a better understanding this technology.

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