GEOG 101: Day 10Biodiversity and Conservation Biology

Housekeeping Items I will collect your outlines Any thoughts about the field trip? A number of communities in BC have passed resolutions

banning GM foods. These are largely symbolic, but one food activist in Vancouver would like to go further.

Worldbridger is showing the Clean Bin Project tonight at 7 p.m. in 356, Room 109.

If you want a chance to influence the timing of Solutions meetings, go to http://doodle.com/bxcpxxin6t8fk43m

We didn’t get a chance to talk about the “slow food” movement. On the theme of food, here’s a funny cartoon: www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=115522.

Housekeeping Items Community events for October 2 -

October 5:

All week: My Green VIU hosted by VIU Environment and Sustainability, a

contest to demonstrate how you conserve energy on campus. Check it out here: http://sites.viu.ca/sustainability/sustainability-2014/1368-2

Oct 2 - 4 Zero Waste Conference Learn more here: http://

www.zerowastecanada.ca/zero-waste-canada-conference-zwia14

We didn’t get a chance to talk about the “slow food” movement. On the theme of food, here’s a funny cartoon: www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=115522.

Housekeeping Items You are also invited to the Virtual Classroom with

David Suzuki and Friends next Monday, October 6 from 8:30-10 am in the Royal Arbutus Room above the upper cafeteria. This is a FREE event, but due to limited space please indicate your interest to sustainability@viu.ca

The event is described as follows:  VIU is taking part in the Hungry for Change

conversation event being put on by the National Film Board, David Suzuki Foundation and Humber College. The discussion is around the intersection of food and environmental justice.

David Suzuki, food justice expert Utcha Sawyers and J.B. MacKinnon, author of The Once and Future World and co-author of The 100-Mile Diet, will lead the conversation about the impacts of modern food systems and farming practices on our health, land and food security. The event will also feature a special performance by poet Tanya Davis.

For more details please see the following event link: http://sites.viu.ca/sustainability/hungry-for-change-a-canada-wide-conversation

News / Canada

Researcher warns of looming 'catastrophe' for St. Lawrence beluga population

The latest figures come amid a debate over whether to allow exploratory drilling off shore of Cacouna, Que., near the breeding ground at the mouth of the St. Lawrence.                                                                                

October 1st, Toronto Star

JACQUES BOISSINOT / THE CANADIAN PRESS

By: Benjamin Shingler The Canadian Press, Published on Sun Sep 28 2014

MONTREAL—A researcher monitoring belugas in the St. Lawrence estuary is warning of a looming "catastrophe" after another difficult calving season for the endangered whale.The belugas have been in a slow population decline for the past decade, according to Robert Michaud, the scientific director of Quebec's Marine Mammals Research and Education Group.His team has found the carcasses of at least five baby belugas so far during the calving period, which officially ends on Oct. 15. The number of dead beluga calves turning up on the shore has been unusually high since 2008, Michaud said."It's a catastrophic trajectory we're observing, and we don't yet know exactly what are the causes for that," he said."The only way this population can reverse its trajectory would be to increase the survival rate and the birth rate, and what we've been observing for the last years is totally the opposite….

Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to

Characterize the scope and value of biodiversity on Earth

Describe ways to measure biodiversity Evaluate the primary causes of biodiversity loss Specify the benefits and challenges of conserving

habitat and the role of habitat fragmentation Contrast in situ and ex situ conservation approaches Compare and contrast traditional and innovative

conservation efforts Outline reasons for setting aside parks, reserves, and

other protected areas

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Central Case: Saving the Polar Bear: What Will it Take?

“There will be no polar ice by 2060. Somewhere along that path, the polar bear drops out.”

Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) – for political reasons the polar bear was not be listed as a “threatened” species, though in the U.S. they are

Polar bears are coming into contact and interbreeding with other types of bears

Polar bears are appearing more frequently in human settlements

Traditional Inuit hunting practices are being affected by the loss of sea ice, a process for which they are not responsible

What will it take to save the polar bear? 9-9

Our Planet of Life

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Biodiversity encompasses several levels Biodiversity = sum total

of all organisms in an area at whatever scale, including

Ecosystem diversitySpecies diversity Genetic diversity

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Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)

Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region Species richness = the number of species Evenness or relative abundance = extent to

which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed

Speciation generates new species and adds to species richness

Extinction reduces species richness

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Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)

Species DiversityImmigration is the inmigration of a

species to an areaEmigration is the outmigration of a

species from an area Extirpation is the local extinction of a

species

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Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)

Genetic Diversity All species consist of individuals that vary

genetically from one another to some degree (this is as much true for humans as it is for other species)

Encompasses the varieties in DNA among individuals within species and populations

The raw material for adaptation to local conditions, though some species can adapt much more quickly (such as the peppered moth)

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Peppered Moth

Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)

Genetic Diversity Populations with low genetic diversity are

vulnerable Inbreeding depression = genetically similar

parents mate and produce inferior offspring (e.g. certain offspring of overly inbred royal families or of hillbillies)

Genetic bottleneck = limited variety of genetic material is available to be passed along by the small number of surviving individuals to their descendants

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Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)

Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems

Also encompasses differing communities and habitats

Rapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity

Ecotones = where different types of habitats or biomes intermix

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Some groups hold more species than others

Insects predominate over all other life-forms – hence a lack of ‘evenness’ 40% of all insects are

beetles (yeah, yeah, yeah!)

Groups accumulate species by Adaptive radiation Allopatric speciation (from

isolation) Low rates of extinction

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Insects outnumber all other species

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Mammals= 2.7-03%

Measuring biodiversity is not easyPrecise quantitative measurements are

difficultAbout 1.8 million species but likely higher Incomplete for several reasons

Some areas of Earth little explored (new species being discovered all the time in Australia)

Many species are tiny and overlookedMany organisms are difficult to identify

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Biodiversity is unevenly distributed on the planet

Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator

Plant productivity and climate stability play key roles

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Latitudinal gradient has many causes

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Biodiversity Loss and Species Extinction

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Biodiversity loss and species extinction

Canadian Species at Risk Act uses categorizes: Extinction = occurs when the last member of a

species dies and the species ceases to exist Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular

population from a given area, but not the entire species globally

Endangered = species in imminent danger of becoming extirpated or extinct

Threatened = species likely to become endangered in the near future

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Extinction and extirpation occur naturally

Paleontologists estimate that 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct

• Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons• 1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species

would normally go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years or 1 in a 1000 would typically go extinct every year

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Extinction and extirpation occur naturally (cont’d)

Earth has experienced five previous mass extinction episodes

In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species

Today’s mass extinction is caused by humans and humans will suffer as a result of it

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Some species are more vulnerable to extinction than others In general, extinction occurs when environmental

conditions change so severely that a species cannot adapt to the change. What kinds of changes are occurring today that fall into this category?

… …

Vulnerable = species that are of particular concern because of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events. What are some species we can consider ‘vulnerable,’ and due to what?

…. ….

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Humans have started the sixth mass extinction

Extinctions followed human arrival on islands and continents9-28

Humans have started the sixth mass extinction (cont’d)

Global extinction rate is currently 100 to 1000 times greater than background rate

The Red List = an updated list of species facing high risks of extinctions – at least 23% of mammal species 12% of bird species 17% to 75% of all other species

Extinction is only part of the story of biodiversity loss, the larger part of the story is decline in population sizes

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EndangeredSpecies

Humans have started the sixth mass extinction (cont’d)

The Living Planet Index quantifies biological degradation Between 1970

and 2007, the Index fell by 30%

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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss

Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted and factors may interact synergistically

Causes of population decline: Habitat alteration Invasive species Pollution, including pesticides Overharvesting Climate change

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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)

Habitat alteration The greatest cause of biodiversity lossE.g., farming simplifies communitiesGrazing modifies the grassland

structure and species composition Clearing forests removes resources

organisms need Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into

reservoirs upstreamUrbanization and suburban sprawl

reduce natural communitiesA few species (i.e., pigeons, rats)

benefit from changing habitats

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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)

Invasive species Introduction of non-native species to new

environments Accidental: zebra mussels

Deliberate: food crops

Island species are especially vulnerable Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or

parasites Cost billions of dollars in economic damage What are some West Coast invasives?

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Invasive species

Several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)

Pollution Harms organisms in many ways

Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems Water pollution adversely affects fish and

amphibians Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic

species The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are

dramatic and well known

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Several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)

Overharvesting Vulnerable species are large, few in number,

long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species) The Siberian tiger (The 1989 political freedom in

Soviet Union brought the freedom to hunt and poach)

Atlantic gray whale has gone extinct Thousands of sharks killed just for fins Gorillas killed for their meat

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Several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)

Climate change Global impact on habitat and biodiversity Greenhouse gases modifies global weather

patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events

Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges

Most animals and plants will not be able to cope

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Over 2500 amphibian species worldwide are in decline

Some may be lost before they are even discovered Amphibians are regarded as “biological indicators”

(‘canary in the coalmine’ analogy) Habitat loss, especially draining of wetlands, is the

leading threat to amphibians in Canada Pollution, fragmentation are also problems

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Benefits of Biodiversity

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Biodiversity provides ecosystem services Provides food, fuel, and fibre Provides shelter and building materials Purifies air and water Detoxifies and decomposes wastes Stabilizes and moderates Earth’s climate Moderates floods, droughts, wind, and

temperature extremes Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles

nutrients Pollinates plants, including many crops Controls pests and diseases Maintains genetic resources as inputs to crop

varieties, livestock breeds, and medicines Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits Gives us the means to adapt to change

The annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 to 54 trillion per year

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FREE!!

Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem integrity Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of

communities and ecosystems (like rivets in airplane) Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s

ability to function and provide services to our society The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently

If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little difference

Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear

Precautionary principle: “To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” (Aldo Leopold)

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Biodiversity enhances food security

Genetic diversity within crops is enormously valuable California’s barley crops annually receive

$160 million in disease resistance benefits from Ethiopian strains of barley

Wild strains provide disease resistance and have the ability to grow back year after year without being replanted

New potential food crops are waiting to be used Serendipity berry produces a sweetener

3,000 times sweeter than sugar9-46

Biodiversity provides drugs and medicines

Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales

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How Best to Conserve Biodiversity?

Most people view national parks and ecotourism as excellent ways to help keep ecological systems intact. Yet the golden toad went extinct despite living within a reserve established to protect it. Moreover, climate change does not pay attention to park boundaries. What lesson can we learn from this about the conservation of biodiversity?

weighing

the issues

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Biodiversity provides additional economic benefits Ecotourism is particularly beneficial in

developing and developed countries alike Costa Rica: rainforests Australia: Great Barrier Reef Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests

Incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native species

However, too many visitors can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

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People value and seek out connections with nature

Biophilia = connections that humans subconsciously seek with life Our affinity for parks and

wildlife Keeping of pets High value of real estate with

views of natural lands Nature deficit disorder =

alienation from the natural environment May be behind some of the

emotional and physical problems of the young

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See “Biophilic Design” in the VIU Library

Housekeeping Items for Day 11

Did anyone go see “The Clean Bin Project”?

I saw a similar film at the VIFF: “Just Eat It,” a film made by a Vancouver couple about their 6-month experiment to se if they could live on food other people had thrown out. They managed to only spend $200.00 on groceries, and salvaged $20,000 worth of food that otherwise would have gone to the landfill and it all was perfectly good!

Housekeeping Items for Day 11

Interspersed with their experience was some more general analysis of food waste. From production to wholesale distribution to retail to households, 30-50% of all food is wasted.

In U.S. 97% of all waste food is landfilled, thus producing methane, a potent greenhouse gas

The energy used to produce waste food is equivalent to 4% of the entire energy budget of the U.S.; water used could provide for half a billion people. Every hamburger patty uses the equivalent of a 90 minute shower.

Housekeeping Items for Day 11

Did anyone go to the Virtual Classroom on Food Issues with David Suzuki on Monday?

Apparently our class was the only one to challenge another. Shelley put posters on the door of Room 111, and for the first time in several years the room was black when I went by after my last class.

Scholarpedia is a good alternative to Wikipedia: www.scholarpedia.org.

I would like to finish the conservation lecture today.

Approaches to Conservation

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Conservation biology addresses habitat degradation and species loss

Conservation biology = understanding the factors, forces, and processes that influence the loss and protection, and restoration of biological diversity

Conservation biologists choose questions and pursue research with the aim of developing solutions to the problems of habitat degradation and species loss Applied and goal-oriented science, with implicit

values and ethical standards Thus, both descriptive and normative.

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Conservation biology arose in response to biodiversity loss

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Conservation biology addresses habitat degradation and species loss (cont’d)

Uses field data, lab data, theory, and experiments to study impacts of humans on other organisms

Designs, tests, and implements ways to mitigate impacts

Minimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problems

Organisms distributed as a network of subpopulations Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and

need special attention (also applies to indigenous and small ethnic groups in terms of their culture)

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Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation

Equilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains how species come to be distributed among oceanic islands Also applies to “habitat islands” – patches of one

habitat type isolated within a “sea” of others (need to link cores with corridors)

Explains how the number of species on an island results from an equilibrium between immigration and extirpation

Predicts an island’s species richness based on the island’s size and distance from the mainland

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• Species richness results from island size and distance• Fewer species colonize an island far from the mainland• Large islands have higher immigration rates• Large islands have lower extinction rates

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Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation (cont’d)

Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation (cont’d)

Species-area curves Large islands

contain more species than small islandsThey are easier

to find and have lower extinction rates

They possess more habitats

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Island biogeography can helpaddress habitat fragmentation(cont’d)

Habitat fragmentation Forests are fragmented by

roads and logging (and agriculture)

Small forest fragments lose diversity fastest Starting with large species

Fragmentation is one of the prime threats to biodiversity

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Captive breeding and cloning are single-species approaches

Captive breeding – individuals are bred and raised with the intent of reintroducing them into the wild Zoos and botanical gardens

Some reintroductions require international cooperation Whooping cranes in Wood Buffalo Park (Canada)

and Gulf coast of Texas (U.S.) wolves into Yellowstone Park http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysa5OBhXz-Q Some habitat is so fragmented, a species cannot

survive once reintroduced

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Captive breeding and cloning are single-species approaches (cont’d)

Cloning – a technique to create more individuals and save species from extinction Most biologists agree that these efforts are

not adequate to recreate the lost biodiversity

Even if cloning can succeed, ample habitat and protection in the wild are needed to save species

Also: recreating the mastodon of old would be little more than a scientific curiousity 9-63

Some species act as “umbrellas” to protect communities

Conservation biologists use particular umbrella species (e.g. tigers, bears, and elephants) as tools to conserve communities and ecosystems helps protect less-charismatic animals

Flagship species – large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation The World Wildlife Fund’s panda bear or Central

Coast’s ‘spirit bear’; two concepts overlap Some organizations are moving beyond the single

species approach to focus on whole landscapes9-64

This or this….? Which is ‘sexier’?

Conservation efforts are both national and international

2002: Species at Risk Act stresses cooperation with landowners and governments to avoid hostility Some say SARA is too weak

COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) = expert committee that reports the status of species at risk without executive authority

1973: UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) – protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body parts (e.g. ivory) 9-66

Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity

Biodiversity hotspots – prioritizes regions most important globally for biodiversity Support a great number of

endemic species = species found nowhere else in the world

The area must have at least 1500 endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total)

It must have lost 70% of its habitat due to human impact

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There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots2.3% of the planet’s land surface contains 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species

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Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity (cont’d)

Community- based conservation is increasingly popular

Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlifeProtecting land deprives people access to

resourcesCommunity-based conservation gives

people a stake in protection vs. poaching, etc.

Can guarantee that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign corporations and can instead be sustainably managed (http://www.ted.com/talks/john_kasaona_from_poachers_to_caretakers?language=en#).

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Other innovative economic strategies are also being employed

Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing country’s international debt In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside

reserves Fund environmental education, and Better manage protected areas

Conservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources; interesting example in Ecuador that ultimately failed

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Parks and Reserves

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Why do we create parks and reserves?

Enormous, beautiful, or unusual features inspire people to protect them – monumentalism

Protected areas offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters, and others

Protected areas offer utilitarian benefits and ecosystem services (e.g., preserving water quality)

Parks make use of sites lacking economically valuable material resources or that are hard to develop (“rock and ice”?)

However, some countries allow resource exploration or extraction within parks 9-72

Why do we create parks and reserves (cont’d) ?

There are 43 national parks in Canada Many sites in a parks system also serve as

wildlife refuges Some find hunting in parks objectionable or

hunting for rare species objectionable (recent controversy over man in Texas who bid 100s of 1000s of dollars to shoot a black rhino; similar cases in BC) Hunters often in forefront of conservation

(e.g., Ducks Unlimited Canada) There are two kinds of hunting – for food and

for trophies. Do you think hunting is acceptable under some/ any circumstances? 9-73

Why do we create parks and reserves (cont’d) ?

Not everyone supports land set-asides Wise-use movement – dedicated to

protecting private property rights; opposing government regulation; transferring federal lands to state, local, or private hands; promoting motorized recreation on public lands Farmers, ranchers, trappers, mineral

prospectors, as well as groups representing industries that extract timber, mineral, and fossil fuels.

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Parks and reserves are increasing internationally

Many nations have established national park systems and are benefiting from ecotourism

Parks in developing countries do not always receive the funding, legal support, or enforcement support they need to manage resources

Many of the world’s protected areas are merely paper parks Costa Rican parks initially received little

funding, but the country has a high proportion of land in reserves

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Costa Rican Protected Areas

Parks and reserves are increasing internationally (cont’d)

World Heritage Sites – under national sovereignty but are designated or partly managed internationally by the United Nations (no binding protection)

Biosphere reserves – tracts of land with exceptional biodiversity that couple preservation with sustainable development to benefit local people (two on Vancouver Island – Clayoquot and Mount Arrowsmith) Core area Buffer zone Outer transitional one

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ConclusionLoss of biodiversity threatens to result in a

mass extinctionPrimary causes of biodiversity loss are:

Habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate change

Human society cannot function without biodiversity’s pragmatic benefits

Science can help save species, preserve habitats, restore populations, and keep natural ecosystems intact, but more fundamental changes are also needed.

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