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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 1/96
Geoffrey Cohen
Stanford University
High Tech High Graduate School of Education, Oct. 6, 2010
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 2/96
Background
Problem of underperformance
Social psychological perspective
How students are affected when an identity they hold is underthreat in the classroom
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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“I simply decided it would be better not to [mention myJewish background]. There was no obvious reason forbeing cagey. In my short time at the school, I’d seen no
bullying or manifest contempt of that kind, and never did.
“Yet it seemed to me that the Jewish boys, even thepopular ones, even the athletes, had a subtly charged fieldaround them, an air of apartness . . . . [T]his apartness didnot emanate from any quality or wish of their own, but fromthe school—as if some guardian spirit, indifferent to theirpersonal worth, had risen from the fields and walkways andweathered stone and breathed that apartness upon them.”
T. Wolff, Old School
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat
Fear of confirming a negative stereotype
about one’s group
Examples—College transfer student
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat
Fear of confirming a negative stereotype
about one’s group
Examples—College transfer student
Female science student
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat
Fear of confirming a negative stereotype
about one’s group
Examples—College transfer student
Female science student
New teacher
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype threat can cause stress, self-doubt, mistrust
ÆUndermine performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat
May be experienced by African Americans, Latino
Americans, and Native Americans in school.
Can occur regardless of the actual level of
prejudice in the environment.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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“I knew I was just as intelligent as
everyone else . . . . For some reason I
didn’t score well on tests. Maybe I was just nervous. There’s a lot of pressure
on you, knowing that if you fail, you failyour race.”
-Rodney Ellis, African American
State Senator (Texas), 1997
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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0
5
10
15
20
800-849 900-949 1000-1049
1100-1149
1200-1249
1300-1349
1400-1459
1500-1549
1600
White
African American
Combined SAT score by raceCombined SAT score by race
P e r c
e n t a g e
o f A p p l i c a n t s
SAT scores (Bok & Bowen, 1995)
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat Experiment
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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African American students and White students
Completed difficult GRE test
Ability Diagnostic Condition
“Test tells us something
meaningful about
your ability.”
Stereotype Threat Experiment
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat Experiment
African American students and White students
Completed difficult GRE test
Ability Diagnostic Condition
“Test tells us something
meaningful about
your ability.”
Non-Diagnostic Condition
“Test is a just an exercise
to help us.”
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Test Performance
(Number Correct)
2
4
6
8
10
12
"Test is measure
of ability"
"Test unrelated to
ability"
African Americans
Whites
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Test Performance
(Number Correct)
2
4
6
8
10
12
"Test is measure
of ability"
"Test unrelated to
ability"
African Americans
Whites
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Test Performance
(Number Correct)
2
4
6
8
10
12
"Test is measure
of ability"
"Test unrelated to
ability"
African Americans
Whites
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Test Performance
(Number Correct)
2
4
6
8
10
12
"Test is measure
of ability"
"Test unrelated to
ability"
African Americans
Whites
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Performance on “Non-Diagnostic” Test
(Number Correct)
2
4
6
8
10
12
Control Condition Indicate Race
African Americans
Whites
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Performance on “Non-Diagnostic” Test
(Number Correct)
2
4
6
8
10
12
Control Condition Indicate Race
African Americans
Whites
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Test Performance
(Number Correct)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
"Gender Differences" "No Gender Differences"
Men
Women
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Test Performance
(Number Correct)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
"Gender Differences" "No Gender Differences"
Men
Women
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Some Conclusions
(from many studies)
Stereotype threat most affects peoplewho care about performance domain.
It emerges about grade 6.
Need not believe stereotype to experience
stereotype threat.
Subtle events can trigger stereotype threat.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Some Conclusions
(from many studies)
Stereotype threat most affects peoplewho care about performance domain.
Stereotype threat emerges about grade 6.
Need not believe stereotype to experience
stereotype threat.
Subtle events can trigger stereotype threat.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 27/96
Some Conclusions
(from many studies)
Stereotype threat most affects peoplewho care about performance domain.
Stereotype threat emerges about grade 6.
Need not believe stereotype to experience
stereotype threat.
Subtle events can trigger stereotype threat.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 28/96
Some Conclusions
(from many studies)
Stereotype threat most affects peoplewho care about performance domain.
Stereotype threat emerges about grade 6.
Need not believe stereotype to experience
stereotype threat.
Subtle events can trigger stereotype threat.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 29/96
Other Examples of Stereotype Threat
Elderly and memory
White men and math
Whites and sports
Disadvantaged students and test performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Other Examples of Stereotype Threat
Elderly and memory
White men and math
Whites and sports
Disadvantaged students and test performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Other Examples of Stereotype Threat
Elderly and memory
White men and math
Whites and sports
Disadvantaged students and test performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 32/96
Other Examples of Stereotype Threat
Elderly and memory
White men and math
Whites and sports
Disadvantaged students and test performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Lessons
Identity threat can undermine performance,
regardless of actual level of prejudice.
Like any stressor, it makes performance less
reflective of potential.
It can be lessened through sometimes subtle
changes in the educational situation, withsometimes large benefits for performance.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat
Affects test performance
Does it affect feedback interaction?
And, what can be done to lessen it?
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Mentor’s Dilemma
How do we provide critical feedback without
undermining students’ motivation?
This dilemma may be especially acute across
lines of difference.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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How can teachers and mentors provide
effective feedback across racial lines?
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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How can teachers and mentors provide
effective feedback across racial lines?
Intuitive strategies can backfire
Superfluous positive feedback (Lepper)
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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How can teachers and mentors provide
effective feedback across racial lines?
Intuitive strategies can backfire
Superfluous positive feedback (Lepper)
Praising students’ ability (Dweck)
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Successful Mentors and Interventions
Emphasize high standards
Assure students of their capacity to reach those standards
Examples
-Treisman’s Calculus Workshops
-Xavier University
-Kay Toliver
-Jaime Escalante
-Lepper’s Expert Tutors
-Levin’s Accelerated Schools-Georgia Tech’s Engineering Curriculum
-Steele’s 21st Century Program
S d b f i h
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Student essays about favorite teachers suggest
importance of high standards and assurance
“[My teacher] taught me to believe in doing the little thingsright to make something big in the future. A couple of
months ago, I asked him why he did so much for me in highschool, his response was "I always go to bat for the kids Ibelieve in." [My teacher] has always believed in me and taught me to believe in myself.”
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Building trust in the feedback interaction:
Study Procedure
Black college students and White college
students wrote essay.
Photo attached to essay.
Received critical feedback from White professorunder three different conditions.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Perceived Evaluator Bias
1
2
3
4
5
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
Positive Buffer
Criticism +
High Standards
+ Assurance
African American Students
White Students
Scale range: 1-7
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Perceived Evaluator Bias
1
2
3
4
5
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
Positive Buffer
Criticism +
High Standards
+ Assurance
African American Students
White Students
Scale range: 1-7
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Perceived Evaluator Bias
1
2
3
4
5
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
Positive Buffer
Criticism +
High Standards
+ Assurance
African American Students
White Students
Scale range: 1-7
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Perceived Evaluator Bias
1
2
3
4
5
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
Positive Buffer
Criticism +
High Standards
+ Assurance
African American Students
White Students
Scale range: 1-7
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Perceived Evaluator Bias
1
2
3
4
5
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
Positive Buffer
Criticism +
High Standards
+ Assurance
African American Students
White Students
Scale range: 1-7
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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The same processes occur for other
negatively stereotyped groups
Women in science
White men in sports
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Does wise feedback work in an actual classroom?
Field experiment in middle school
We created collaborative curriculum module with teachers.
In class, children discussed meaning of hero Wrote essay about personal hero Received structured critical feedback from their teacher A random half of students received the message of high
standards and assurance All students asked to revise essay
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Study 1 Study 2
Percentage Submitting Revision Quality of Revision
8
10
12
UnbufferedCriticism
Criticism +High Standards
+ Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
High
Standards +Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
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Study 1 Study 2
Percentage Submitting Revision Quality of Revision
8
10
12
UnbufferedCriticism
Criticism +High Standards
+ Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
High
Standards +Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
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Study 1 Study 2
Percentage Submitting Revision Quality of Revision
8
10
12
UnbufferedCriticism
Criticism +High Standards
+ Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
High
Standards +Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Study 1 Study 2
Percentage Submitting Revision Quality of Revision
8
10
12
UnbufferedCriticism Criticism +High Standards +Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Unbuffered
Criticism
Criticism +
High
Standards +Assurance
African American StudentsWhite Students
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Feedback intervention: Summary
Race and gender can create mistrust in teacher-student interaction.
Intuitive strategies can backfire.
Theory-driven strategies can help resolveambiguity and improve motivation.
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Stereotype Threat
Consequences for:
Test performance
Learning from feedback
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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How can we intervene to
lessen
stereotype threat?
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Positive forces in student andacademic environment
School performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Positive forces in student andacademic environment
School performance
Psychological threats
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Positive forces in student andacademic environment
Psychological Threats
School performance
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Positive forces in student andacademic environment
School Performance
Psychological Threats
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
Self-affirmation
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 63/96
Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
Self-affirmation
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 64/96
Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
Self-affirmation
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 65/96
Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
Self-affirmation
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 66/96
Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
Self-affirmation
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 67/96
Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
Values affirmation
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geoff-cohen 68/96
Helping students contend with threat:
Strategies
Wise feedback
Expert tutors
Education about stereotype threat
Teaching people that intelligence is changeable
Buttressing a sense of belonging
*Values affirmation*
Reducing Threat:V l Affi i I i
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Values Affirmation Intervention
Values affirmation
Reminder of source of self-integrity, such as writing
about important value
Values affirmation reduces psychological threat
and stress
Uses expressive writing
Exceptional mentors sometimes encourage
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Exceptional mentors sometimes encourage
students to reflect on important values
Erin Gruwell: Freedom Writers.
Student essays about favorite teachers:“I can remember the first day of practice when [my coach] held up
his
hand, fingers spread wide, and said, ‘I start every season by goingover the list of five.’
This list was not any sort of defensive formation
or practice structure, it was a ranking system he used for his life.
The list of five were God, family/friends, health, academics, andathletics. If any problem or conflict arose, he would simply ask,‘where is it on your list?’”
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Values Affirmation Field Experiment
Middle school sites
Middle school seems to be a developmental forkin the road
African American and Latino American studentsmay be at relatively greater risk partly because
7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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Values Affirmation Field Experiments
Randomized, double-blind experiments
Tailored and personalized structured writing exercises,
integrated into middle-school classroom over 1-2
years. Developed with teachers at school site.
Administered several times, at periods of high stress.
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Values Affirmation Field Experiment
Two experimental conditions
Affirmation conditionStudents wrote about important value
Control conditionStudents wrote about unimportant value or
or neutral topic
[Affirmation Condition Worksheet:]
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[Affirmation Condition Worksheet:]
WHAT ARE YOUR PERSONAL VALUES?
The most important values to me are: (circle two or three)
Athletic Ability
Being Good at Art
Creativity
IndependenceLiving in the Moment
Membership in A Social Group(such as your community, racial group, or school club)
Music
Politics
Relationships with Friends or Family
Religious Values
Sense of Humor
Excerpts from affirmation exercise
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Excerpts from affirmation exercise
“[Art] is important to me because it makes mefeel calm. When I'm very upset, like I'm going
to cry I sit down and start listening to music orstart drawing a picture.”
“If I didn't have creativity, I'd be bored out ofmy mind.”
“If I didn't have my family, I [wouldn’t] be raisedright and if I didn't have my friends I would bea boring person. If I didn't have my religion, I
wouldn't know what to do, I would be lost.
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RESULTS
Official school records: Grade Point Average
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End-of-term course grade
2
2.5
3
3.5
European
Americans
African
Americans
Control
Affirmation
Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006, Science Covariates in analysis of each racialgroup: Prior performance, teacher
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End-of-term course grade
2
2.5
3
3.5
European
Americans
African
Americans
Control
Affirmation
Covariates in analysis of each racialgroup: Prior performance, teacher
Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006, Science
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End-of-term course grade
2
2.5
3
3.5
European
Americans
African
Americans
Control
Affirmation
Covariates in analysis of each racialgroup: Prior performance, teacher
Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006, Science
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Original Study and Two Replications
2
2.5
3
3.5
European
Americans
African Americans
Control
Affirmation
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
African Americans
Control
Treatment
Study 1 Study 2 Study 3
2
2.5
3
3.5
European
Americans
African Americans
Control
Affirmation
Replication with
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p
economically disadvantaged Latino Americans
Cumulative GPA over 2 years
Replication with
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p
economically disadvantaged Latino Americans
Cumulative GPA over 2 years
2
2.5
3
3.5
European
Americans
Latino Americans
ControlAffirmation
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Percentage of students receiving D or below in course:
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Percentage of students receiving D or below in course:
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
White Students African
Americans
Historical Norm
Control
Condition
Affirmation
Condition
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
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Some conclusions (from several studies)Some conclusions (from several studies)
Benefits persist for at least two years.
Benefits concentrated among most marginalized: low-performing
minority students.
Benefits on state achievement test
At other developmental stages, other groups benefit, such as girlsin 6th grade and female students in advanced science courses.
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Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
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So e co c us o s ( o se e a stud es)So e co c us o s ( o se e a stud es)
Benefits persist for at least two years.
Benefits concentrated among most marginalized: low-performing
minority students.
Benefits on state achievement test
At other developmental stages, other groups benefit, such as girlsin 6th grade and female students in advanced science courses.
How does the affirmation work? Through feedback loops
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
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( )( )
Benefits persist for at least two years.
Benefits concentrated among most marginalized: low-performing
minority students.
Benefits on state achievement test
At other developmental stages, other groups benefit, such as girlsin 6th grade and female students in advanced science courses.
How does the affirmation work? Through feedback loops By changing subjective perceptions
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
Values affirmations:Some conclusions (from several studies)
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( )( )
Psychological and structural approaches complementone another
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7/29/2019 Geoff Cohen
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State Achievement Test Performance
3
4
5
N o
A f f i r m a t i o n
A f f i r m a t i o n
N o
A f f i r m a t i o n
A f f i r m a t i o n
White
Students
No test prep Test prep
African American Students
Scale: 1= Below basic; 2 = Basic; 3 =Proficient; 4 = Goal; 5 = Advanced
Covariate in analysis of each racial group:Prior performance
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State Achievement Test Performance
3
4
5
N o
A f f i r m a t i o n
A f f i r m a t i o n
N o
A f f i r m a t i o n
A f f i r m a t i o n
White
Students
No test prep Test prep
African American Students
Scale: 1= Below basic; 2 = Basic; 3 =Proficient; 4 = Goal; 5 = Advanced
Covariate in analysis of each racial group:Prior performance
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State Achievement Test Performance
3
4
5
N o
A f f i r m a t i o n
A f f i r m a t i o n
N o
A f f i r m a t i o n
A f f i r m a t i o n
White
Students
No test prep Test prep
African American Students
Scale: 1= Below basic; 2 = Basic; 3 =Proficient; 4 = Goal; 5 = Advanced
Covariate in analysis of each racial group:Prior performance
Take home messages
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g
¾ Racial inequalities in school performance are due not only to structuralfactors, and are not due to fixed differences between groups, but arise partlyfrom dynamic social-psychological factors.
¾ Stereotype threat can prevent students from performing up to their abilitiesand seizing opportunities. This can occur regardless of the actual level ofprejudice in a classroom
¾ Understanding the effects of threat and stress help explain when and whypeople from “all walks of life” perform below their potential, and how andwhen educators can help.
¾ The interventions may seem brief and easy, but they are not.
¾ Partnerships between practitioners and researchers can help createequitable classrooms that promote the achievement of all students.
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THANK YOU
Research Team, Collaborators, and ContributorsAcknowledgmentsT h d i i t t
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Teachers, administrators,and students at our
school sites
Research CollaboratorsJulio GarciaValerie Purdie-VaughnsGreg WaltonClaude SteeleLee Ross
Research Project TeamNancy ApfelSuzanne Taborsky-BarbaCourtney BearnsNatalie Golaszewski
Sarah TomassettiSarah WertRachel SumnerJonathan CookPatti Brzustoski
Research Assistants
Sara Abiola; Stephanie GrayMichael Gray; Annie HsuLillian Hsu; Alyssa MohammedChristopher Simmons; Eden Davis; James Lanham
Research ConsultantsEdward ZiglerDonald GreenEdmund GordonJoseph Mahoney
Funding SourcesNational Science FoundationSpencer Foundation
W.T. Grant FoundationAmerican Psychological AssociationInstitute for Social and Policy StudiesNational Institute of Mental HealthNellie Mae Education Foundation