Geoarchaeological and bioarchaeological studies at Mira

REVISED DRAFT: 19 May 2013

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Geoarchaeological and bioarchaeological studies at Mira,

an early Upper Paleolithic site in the Lower Dnepr Valley, Ukraine

John F. Hoffeckera*

, Vance T. Hollidayb, Vadim N. Stepanchuk

c, Alexis Brugère

d, Steven L.

Formane, Paul Goldberg

f, Oleg Tubolzev

g, and Igor Pisarev

h

aInstitute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1560 30

th Street,

Boulder, Colorado 80309-0450 USA bDepartments of Anthropology and Geosciences, University of Arizona, PO Box 210030,

Tucson, Arizona 85721-0030 USA cStone Age Department, Institute of Archaeology, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Heroes of

Stalingrad Avenue 12, Kiev 04210, Ukraine dMaison de l’Archéologie et de l’Ethnologie, CNRS UMR 7041 “Archéologies environmentales”

21 allée de l’Université. 92023 Nanterre Cedex - France eLuminescence Dating Research Laboratory, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,

University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 80607-7059 USA fDepartment of Archaeology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215 USA

gNovaya Arkheologicheskaya Shkola, Pr. Metallurov 22/2, Zaporozhye 69006 Ukraine

h38, 2a Gagarin Street, Zaporozhye 69057 Ukraine

Abstract

New geoarchaeological and bioarcheological research was undertaken at the open-air site of

Mira, which is buried in deposits of the Second Terrace (~30 meters) of the Dnepr River, roughly

15 km downstream from the city of Zaporozhiye in Ukraine. Previous excavation of the site

revealed two occupation layers dating to ~32,000 cal BP. The lower layer (II/2) yielded

bladelets similar to those of the early Gravettian, while the upper layer (I) contained traces of a

small artificial shelter and hundreds of bones and teeth of horse (Equus latipes). Mira represents

the only firmly dated early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) site in the Dnepr Basin, and occupies a

unique topographic setting for the EUP near the center of the broad floodplain of the Dnepr

River. The site was visited during a period of floodplain stability, characterized by overbank

deposition and weak soil formation under cool climate conditions. Mira was used as a long-term

camp, but also was the locus of large-mammal carcass-processing associated with a nearby kill

of a group of horses (Layer I).

*Corresponding author: Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado at

Boulder, 1560 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0450 USA. Tel.: 303-735-780; Fax: 303-

492-6388.

E-mail: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


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1. Introduction

Modern humans moved into Europe before 40,000 years ago and possibly as early as 50,000

years ago (Richter et al., 2008; Higham et al., 2011). The archaeological remains that they

deposited between the time of their arrival and roughly 30,000 cal BP may be classified as “early

Upper Paleolithic” (or EUP), including a set of assemblages that are sometimes labeled “Initial

Upper Paleolithic” (Cohen and Stepanchuk, 1999; Kozlowski, 2007; Hoffecker, 2009, 2011).

Both the genetics of living humans and the EUP archaeological record indicate that modern

humans may have entered Europe in the form of two or more population movements or

migrations that originated in Western Asia. At least one of these migrations was directly from

the latter into Eastern Europe via the Caucasus Mountains before 40,000 cal BP (Ahmarian), and

represents a plausible source for the “early Gravettian” industry that is represented at several

sites on the East European Plain that antedate 30,000 cal BP (Prat et al., 2011; Hoffecker, 2012).

The dispersal and settlement of modern humans in Europe must be understood within the

context of their archaeological record, and it is essential to recognize that the EUP archaeological

record of the East European Plain differs from that of Western Europe, especially the Franco-

Cantabrian region. On the central plain of Eastern Europe, natural shelters are almost entirely

absent. As a consequence, Paleolithic sites are more difficult to find, because their location is

less likely to coincide with an identifiable feature of the modern landscape. The overall sample

of sites on the central East European Plain is small in comparison to Franco-Cantabria

(especially in relation to total area). The sample of EUP sites is particularly small (compared

with later Upper Paleolithic sites) and appears to reflect a common pattern of deep burial. Most

EUP occupation levels on the central plain are buried at least several meters below the ground

surface. The richness of the sites, which yield elaborate burials and evidence of large-mammal

mass kills, suggest that low archaeological visibility, not low human population density,

accounts for the small sample.

The lack of natural shelters on the central plain (and their comparatively limited use in

the southwest plain) also influences the archaeological record with respect to site function or

type. For the most part, the natural shelters of the Franco-Cantabrian region yield habitation

sites, and their function is reflected in their contents (e.g., artifacts associated with variety of

activities, ornamentation and visual art, diverse and heavily processed faunal remains). The

central plain of Eastern Europe does not exhibit this bias towards habitation sites for the EUP

and—paradoxically, given the comparatively small sample—offers a wider spectrum of site

types and functions. The sites include examples of kill-butchery events (in the form of large-

mammal bone beds), carcass-processing areas, and other traces of short-term occupation. In

many respects, the EUP record on the central plain resembles the archaeological record of the

North American Plains, where such sites are common (for some periods, in fact, kill sites and

short-term camps dominate the record [e.g., Holliday and Mandel, 2006]).

The discovery and investigation of the Mira site in the Lower Dnepr Valley of south-

central Ukraine added a new dimension to the EUP of Eastern Europe. Mira remains the only

firmly dated EUP site (i.e., Upper Paleolithic site older than 30,000 cal BP) in the Dnepr Basin,

and it fills a major void with respect to EUP geographic distribution (Stepanchuk et al., 2009).

Much of the raw material used for artifacts was imported hundreds of kilometers from the

eastern slope of the Carpathian Mountains, suggesting a link with the southwest plain

(Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 28). Its geomorphic context—buried 10 meters below the surface of the

Second Terrace under a mass of fluvial and eolian deposits—probably indicates why EUP sites

are so scarce in the region. Mira was situated near the center of the wide Dnepr River floodplain,


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which is a unique topographic setting for the EUP. Nevertheless, the site reveals a familiar

pattern of artifacts and faunal remains for EUP sites on the central plain, including evidence for

the butchering of a large group of horses associated with a long-term encampment in Layer I

(and rare evidence for an artificial shelter in the EUP). It also documents the presence of the

early Gravettian (in Layer II/2), which now appears to be an East European counter-part to the

classic Aurignacian of Western Europe.

2. The Mira Site: Location, Research History, and Results of Prior Investigations

The Mira site is located on the Lower Dnepr River in south-central Ukraine at 47°40’ North 34°50’

East (Figure 1). The site is found on the west bank of the river near the village of Kanevskoye,

roughly 15 km south of the city of Zaporozhye (which represents the dividing point between the

middle and lower segments of the Dnepr River). It rests on a low terrace that is ~30 meters above

the river, and is approximately 40 meters above mean sea level (Figure 2).

The Mira site was discovered in 1995 by I. B. Pisarev, who initially investigated the site in

1995–1996. In 1997, a test trench was excavated into the deposits, revealing the stratified layers of

Paleolithic artifacts (Stepanchuk et al., 1998, 2004). Under the direction of V. N. Stepanchuk,

excavations were conducted in 2000, and some additional research on the stratigraphy was

performed in 2001, exposing a total of 60 m2 for the years 1997–2001. Some small-scale

excavations were undertaken in 2004–2005 and 2008–2009, exposing an additional 10 m2. A

stratigraphic profile was recorded by P. Haesaerts and N. Gerasimenko (Stepanchuk et al., 2004;

Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 25, fig. 2).

New field and laboratory research was performed at Mira during 2012. A new stratigraphic

profile was exposed at the site, and approximately 5 m2 of deposits containing the Upper Paleolithic

occupation layers were excavated. New sediment samples were collected and analyzed for OSL

dating and soil micromorphology; charcoal fragments were collected for new radiocarbon dating.

Many of the faunal remains recovered during earlier years were examined by the senior author at

the Institute of Archaeology, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev. The results of the new

research on the geoarchaeology and zooarchaeology of Mira are presented below (following the

description of the occupation layers excavated during 1997–2009).

2.1 Upper Paleolithic Occupation Layers

Excavations at Mira during 1997–2009 yielded two occupation layers that are dated to the later

phase of the EUP (~32,000 cal BP). The upper level (Layer I) yielded more than 50,000 artifacts

and a substantial quantity of associated faunal debris, along with traces of hearths and a former

dwelling structure. The lower occupation level (Layer II/2) produced a comparatively small

quantity of lithics and faunal debris. An intermediate level (Layer II/1) was archaeologically sterile,

but yielded fragments of charred wood. Although isolated lithics were found above Layer I, they

may represent items displaced upward from the main cultural layer (potentially by frost action).

A human tooth fragment was recovered from Layer I in association with traces of a former

structure (see description of features below). The fragment represents a portion of the crown of

either the first or second upper molar, possibly of a young adult, and is assigned to Homo sapiens

(identification by C. G. Turner) (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 28).

2.1.1 Layer I

The artifacts recovered from Layer I are largely composed of dark-colored chert imported from

the Eastern Carpathian Mountains over a distance of > 500 km (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 28). The


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lithic assemblage comprises almost 53,000 items (mostly small flakes or “chips”). Only 2 cores

(and 5 chert fragments) are reported; 94% of the unretouched blanks are flakes (n = 579), but

some blades and bladelets also are present (Stepanchuk, 2005, pp. 29–30).

The most common retouched tools (1.4%) include non-geometric microliths (n = 138),

end-scrapers (n = 36), scaled pieces (n = 20), points (n = 18), side-scrapers (n = 17), points (n =

18), Dufour bladelets (n = 15), combination tools (n = 15), and Mousterian points (n = 13). The

side-scrapers include simple, double, canted, convergent, and double convergent forms. The

Dufour bladelets are characterized as “atypical” (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 34). Also common are

retouched flakes (n = 81), retouched bladelets (n = 50), and retouched blades (n = 45). There are

>400 “atypical bladelets,” which include twisted and curved forms. Less common items include

borers (n = 8), micro-points (n = 7), and burins (n = 5). Among bifacial implements are bifaces

(complete = 4), leaf-shaped points (including tip fragments), and others (Stepanchuk, 2005, 30–

36). The combined presence of Middle and Upper Paleolithic technology and tool types is not

uncommon in the later EUP of the East European Plain, especially among assemblages assigned

to the Gorodtsovan Culture (e.g., Rogachev and Anikovich, 1984, pp. 183–186).

Among the non-stone artifacts are two small point tips (awls?), one of which is of antler

(?), a possible mid-section fragment of a needle (bone), roughly 40 retouchers (bone), 10

perforated carnivore teeth or ornaments, several fragments of amber, and several other items

(Stepanchuk, 2005, pp. 36–37). Features on the Layer I occupation floor include 4 former

hearths, 6 small pits, and an arrangement of 12 paired post-holes that apparently delineate the

boundary of a former artificial shelter (sub-rounded in plan). Traces of the post-holes, which

range 3–16 cm in diameter, extend into the underlying level (Layer II/1). The dwelling is

estimated to have covered an area of 14.4 m2 (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 28) (Figure 3).

2.1.2 Layer II/2

Although excavated over a comparable area to that of Layer I (~60 m2), the lower occupation

layer yielded only roughly 200 stone artifacts. The source area for the raw material lies in

western Ukraine, roughly 300–350 km from Mira (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 27). Retouched pieces

are confined to five complete and several fragmentary backed bladelets, an end-scraper, and two

fragments of flake tools. The backed bladelets are similar to those of the Gravettian

(Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 28).

3. Geoarchaeology

A primary objective of the investigations at Mira in 2012 was to collect and analyze new

information regarding the geoarchaeology, including the chronology, of the Mira site. For the

most part, the new research confirmed earlier observations about the stratigraphy, geomorphic

setting, and dating of the site (see Stepanchuk, 2005, pp. 23–26), and provided some additional

details. Mira was situated on the broad floodplain of the Dnepr River and the archaeological

remains are buried in floodplain alluvium (probably overbank flooding). At the time of

occupation, the floodplain was relatively stable, and there are traces of weak soil formation in the

layers that contain the artifacts, features, and associated debris. Climate conditions were

relatively cool, and the occupations may be correlated with GS 5 (32,000–30,000 cal BP) in the

Greenland ice-core record (e.g., Weninger and Jöris, 2008, pp. 773–776).


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3.1 Stratigraphy

The Mira site is buried in alluvium of the Second Terrace of the Dnepr River along the

uppermost segment of the Lower Dnepr Valley. At the location of the site (~15 km downstream

from Zaporozhye), the Second Terrace is ~30 meters above the river level, which is elevated by

~1 meter as a result of a downstream dam and reservoir. Although the Second Terrace was

assigned to the Middle Pleistocene by Goretskii (1970) and others, it is clear that the alluvial

facies accumulated during the Late Pleistocene (Matoshko et al. 2002, pp. 345–349). The

uppermost portion of the terrace is composed of eolian deposits that apparently date to the Last

Glacial Maximum and Late Glacial (MIS 2 age equivalent) (Figure 4).

The stratigraphic profile section exposed at the Mira site in 2012 consisted of ~11 meters

of alluvium dominated by sand and silt along with several weakly expressed buried soils. The

complete absence of sediments >2 mm in diameter (i.e., larger than sand size) in the section

indicates that the site area was on the floodplain throughout aggradation, from before the time of

Upper Paleolithic occupation until after the incision that left the surface abandoned as a terrace.

The recorded profile is presented in Table 1.

Most of the section, from ~350 cm below the surface to the base of the exposure (at a

depth of 1100 cm) is composed of sand, mostly well-sorted fine sand. This texture suggests

prolonged sedimentation by a river not affected by extreme perturbations in discharge or flow

regime. Evidence of iron oxidation and reduction is common and indicates that the water table

was high, probably immediately below the surface, during much of the aggradation of the lower

part of the section (below ~600 cm in depth). The presence of secondary calcium carbonate in

soils above ~600 cm reveals a deeper water table in the upper portion of the profile, probably due

to rapid accumulation of sediment. Above ~350 cm below the modern surface, more silt is

present in the section. Whether this represents primary airfall loess or silt redeposited from loess

on the uplands is unclear (Figure 5).

Below the modern and buried soils formed in primary or reworked eolian sediments

(0–166 cm), buried soils and pedocomplexes were recorded in the section at depths of: (1) 240–

325 cm (multiple A-Bt and A-Bw profiles); (2) 430–475 cm (multiple Bk horizons); (3) 575–598

cm (multiple A-C profiles); (4) 605–622 cm; and (5) ~958 to 1005 cm (two Ag profiles formed

under high water-table conditions). They represent brief periods of floodplain stability, perhaps

because the stream channel shifted away from the area of the section.

The Upper Paleolithic occupation layers (at ~958 to ~1005 cm below the surface) are

buried within two green/gray clay-rich zones that exhibit traces of soil development (Ag soil

horizons; see soil micromorphology description below). At the time of occupation, these zones

probably were damp, relatively stable surfaces with abundant vegetation that trapped fines

(dust?). The greenish (gleyed) color suggests water-logging, probably due to the presence of a

water table immediately below the surface. This setting would have been attractive to mammals,

which, in turn, have attracted hunters onto the floodplain. This may explain the presence of

evidence for human activity only in these layers (Figure 6).

During 2012, a second stratigraphic profile was recorded from an exposure in a deep

ravine (Glubokii Yar) located ~1 km west of the Mira site, and incised into deposits of the

Second Terrace. The ravine exposure revealed a profile similar to that described at the site, and

suggested that the latter represents a regional alluvial record. The combined profiles provide a

regional picture of alluvial history in the later Pleistocene. Further, the location of the section

more than 1 km from either valley wall or the Third Terrace, shows that the Upper Paleolithic

occupants of Mira were making use of a very broad floodplain.


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3.2 Radiocarbon Dating A total of 14 radiocarbon dates were obtained on samples collected from Mira during earlier

excavations (1997–2001), and the results already have been published (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 26,

table 1). The dates are presented in Table 2 with calibrated ages, and they indicate that, although

divided by a sterile layer (Layer II/1), the two Upper Paleolithic layers (Layers I and II/2) were

occupied at roughly the same time—temporally separated by a few centuries or decades. Both

occupations date to ca. 32,000–31,000 cal BP and may be correlated with the GS 5 cool-climate

period in the Greenland ice-core record (e.g., Weninger and Jöris, 2008, pp. 773–776).

In 2012, new samples (wood charcoal) were collected for radiocarbon dating, and the

results are presented in Table 3. Sample preparation was performed at the INSTAAR

Radiocarbon Laboratory (University of Colorado at Boulder) and the AMS ages were obtained

from the University of California at Irvine (USA) accelerator. Although the date on

archaeologically sterile Layer II/1 is anomalously young and presumably reflects sample

contamination, the dates on the two occupation layers conform well to the dates obtained earlier

from other laboratories, and further strengthen the chronology of the Mira site.

3.3 OSL Dating

During 2012, sediment samples were collected from the exposed stratigraphic profile for Optical

Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating. Samples were taken from both the occupation layers and

at several depths in the overlying deposits of the Second Terrace. The units overlying the

occupation layers were dated by OSL because materials suitable for radiocarbon dating apparently

are absent in these sediments, while OSL dating of the occupation layers was undertaken to

supplement the radiocarbon dating and provide an additional check on the OSL dates from the

younger levels. OSL samples were processed at the Luminescence Dating Research Laboratory,

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago (USA).

From the sediment samples, 150–250 micron quartz grains were extracted. Small aliquots

(200–500 grains/aliquots) were used for dating. OSL ages were determined by the single aliquot

regeneration (SAR) method from analyses of 30 aliquots, and most aliquots were used in the final

age calculation. The data showed high precision with overdispersion (OD) values </= 20% (at two

sigma errors), which indicates a single population of grain ages, best modeled as a log-normal

distribution. One sigma errors are 7–9%, reflecting the error in the moisture content and the number

of aliquots used in the age calculation. (If 60 or 90 aliquots are measured, the error may drop by 2–

3%; the statistically lowest errors possible for OSL ages are about 4–5%.) The environmental dose

rate for the samples was low, ~ 1.6, 1.0 and 0.70 mgrays/year, reflecting low K, U, and Th content.

The cosmic dose is an appreciable component (10–25%) of this quantity, and was calculated from

the latitude and longitude, and the elevation and depth of the sample.

The OSL dating results are presented in Table 4. The two dates from the upper portion of

the stratigraphic profile (collected at ~1 and ~3 meters below the modern surface of the Second

Terrace, respectively) may indicate relatively rapid aggradation of the Dnepr River floodplain

during early and middle MIS 2-age equivalent (Last Glacial Maximum), followed by slower

accumulation of eolian sediment after ~20,000 years ago. The dates from the lower portion of the

profile were obtained on samples from the EUP occupation layers, both of which are ~10 meters

below the surface. The dates (21,990±1925 yr; 27,665±2430 yr) were run with differing estimates

of sediment moisture content and overlap at the two sigma level.


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3.4 Soil Micromorphology.

In order to better understand their depositional setting and immediate environment, the Upper

Paleolithic occupation layers (including intermediate Layer II/1) were sampled for soil

micromorphology analysis (e.g., Courty et al., 1989). Overall, the results indicated a stable

setting characterized by weak soil formation under cool climate conditions. As noted in the

description of the stratigraphy (see above), the water table was close to the surface at the time.

In contrast to the soil micromorphology analyzed for EUP occupations at Kostenki (Holliday et

al., 2007), there was no evidence of spring activity.

Thin sections (50 x 75 mm) were prepared at a commercial laboratory and analyzed at the

Department of Archaeology, Boston University (USA). The thin sections were scanned on a

flat-bed scanner and then examined with binocular and petrographic microscopes at

magnifications ranging from 8x to 15x (binocular microscope), and from 20x to 200x with the

petrographic microscope. The following observations were made on samples from each layer

(nomenclature follows that of Courty et al. [1989] and Stoops [2003]):

3.4.1 Layer I (upper occupation level): The sample consists of compact sandy silty clay with

fragments of charcoal in the lower quarter of the sample. The charcoal tends to occur as

individual, unconnected mm-sized pieces, or as finer, silt-sized remains that are well integrated

into the matrix, suggesting that it has been incorporated into the matrix by small scale

bioturbation (size of earthworms) or weak cryoturbation. There are localized circular to

elongated domains comprising well-sorted, clean quartz sand with no fine interstitial matrix.

Similarly, rounded aggregates of finer silty clay appear to grade into bands of silty clay that at

the mesoscale (i.e., ~10x magnification) are reminiscent of ice-lensing features (see van Vliet-

Lanoe, 1985).

The most interesting aspects of this sample are the presence of charcoal and the sandy

domains. The charcoal tends to occur as isolated distinct mm-sized pieces, as well as silt-sized

charcoal, that are well integrated into the finer silty clay matrix. Both occurrences show that the

charcoal is not intact, but likely has been reworked biologically or by cold phenomena. The

latter is suggested by weak ice lensing, as well as the capping on an elongated fragment of

charcoal. The origin of the sandy domains could also be related to frost affected soils, and

appear to be fissures that were later filled with the sand (Van Vliet-Lanoë, 2010). Finally, the

generally ‘tight’ porosity in all of the samples (a bit less in this sample, which exhibits some

vughy porosity) resembles that found in fragic horizons. This observation also is consistent with

evidence of cold climate conditions (Figure 7).

3.4.2 Layer II/1 (archaeologically sterile): This sample is massive and richer in the finer silty

clay component than the overlying layer. The sand grains occur with porphyric-related

distribution within the matrix, and as above, exhibit mm- to cm-size domains of clear sand. In

addition, mm-size pores display ferruginous hypocoatings, indicating some

gleying/hydromorphism. Along with a greater abundance of fine material, we can also observe

some textural pedofeatures. These are expressed ~5-μm-thick pale yellow limpid clay coatings

around individual sand grains, as well as slightly thicker void coatings formed within the silty

clay matrix. This observation is significant because it shows that clay illuviation took place after

the suggested freeze-thaw events that produced both the weak banded fabric of the fine fraction

and the movement of quartz sand, which (as described for the sample from Layer I) seems to be

genetically associated with cold soil phenomena. Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine


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the horizon from which these clay coatings are derived, only that this horizon overlies that of this

sample; it is interesting to note that the overlying sample did not contain any translocation

features, or any effects of gleying. The fact that the gleying is found also in the underlying

sample (Layer II/2), points to subsurface, groundwater, gleying.

3.4.3 Layer II/2 (lower occupation level): The proportion of quartz sand to the finer silty clay

matrix is similar to that in the above sample. On the other hand, the segregation of the quartz

fraction from the silty clay matrix is striking in this sample, and is exhibited by a near vertical,

roughly cm-wide tongue of clean quartz sand in the center of the thin section. In addition,

secondary iron staining is somewhat less abundant than in the above sample, although it is not

present as hypocoatings around pores, but as impregnations associated with the remains of

charcoal or organic matter. Moreover, translocated clay is more abundant in this sample than

above, and it is somewhat limited to the finer fraction and less so as coatings around coarser

quartz grains. This increased degree of translocation suggests that this sample is more within

what was a weak Bt soil horizon. The clearly defined textural tongue containing clean quartz

sand reflects the position of this sample possibly close to a former surface and is part of a

number of ‘bleached’ areas observed in the field at this position. In any case, it is reasonable to

infer that the formation of the tongues is related to frost-affected soils, whereas the translocation

of the limpid clay—as coatings around quartz grains and void coatings within the matrix—is tied

to more temperate conditions. The presence of ferruginous impregnations is indicative of

groundwater effects that might precede the formation of the tongues, as there is no secondary

iron staining in the tongues.

4. Bioarchaeology Both plant and animal remains were recovered from the Upper Paleolithic occupation layers at

Mira, and their analysis contributes significantly to interpretation of the site. Although sediment

samples collected during the earlier excavations yielded small numbers of pollen grains and

spores, several layers contain plant macro-fossils, including relatively large fragments of burned

wood, which is unusual for Paleolithic sites. The occupation layers, especially Layer I, produced

a large quantity of well-preserved mammalian remains, including a sample of several hundred

bones and teeth of horse. The horse remains from Layer I were another focus of the 2012

research, and their analysis is described below.

4.1 Plant Macro-Fossils

During the earlier excavations (1997–2001), charcoal fragments (identified as Pinus sp. by F.

Damblon) were recovered from Layer II/1 without evidence of human occupation. The macro-

fossils in this level evidently reflect the effects of a wildfire.

Burned wood fragments also were collected from Upper Paleolithic occupation Layer I,

concentrated in two locations of the 5-m2 area excavated during 2012. The fragments included 5

large pieces, the largest of which is approximately 30 cm in diameter, and more than 15 smaller

pieces (each roughly 1–2 cm in diameter and several mm in thickness). The macro-fossils have

not been identified. The two concentrations of wood fragments were found several cm below the

level of bone fragments mapped in these units, and may or may not be associated with human

occupation (Figure 8).


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4.2 Mammal Remains

Several thousand bones and teeth of mammals were recovered from the occupation layers at

Mira, and a list (presence/absence) of species is presented in Table 5. Most remains were found

in Layer I, while less than 40 fragmented bones were found in Layer II/2. The bones and teeth

were identified by O. P. Zhuravlev, P. V. Puchkov, and L. I. Rekovets.

Among medium and large mammals, horse (Equus latipes) predominates, representing

72% of NISP (number of identified specimens) in Layer I, and at least some of the bone

fragments in Layer II/2. Most of the remaining bones and teeth (NISP = 22%) in Layer I are

assigned to arctic fox (Alopex lagopus). Less common taxa include hare (Lepus europaeus),

steppe marmot (Marmota bobac), mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), red deer (Cervus

elaphus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), giant deer (Megaloceros giganteus), and steppe bison

(Bison priscus). In addition to horse, some of the bone fragments in Layer II/2 were identified as

bison.

4.3 Analysis of Horse Remains from Layer I

Among large mammals, only the horse remains from Layer I constitute a sufficiently large

sample for analysis of skeletal-part representation and mortality profile. An analysis of the

taphonomy of the horse remains from Layer I was undertaken by one of us (A. Brugère) as part

of a separate study, and some of the results, supplemented by observations of the senior author,

are presented below.

4.3.1 Weathering, Breakage, and Surficial Damage. The bones are moderately weathered. In

terms of color, a random sample (n = 48) was primarily “brownish yellow (10YR6/6), “very pale

brown” (10YR7/4), and “light yellowish brown” (10YR6/4). A combined sample of femur and

humerus shaft bones (n = 55) were classified according to weathering stages defined by

Behrensmeyer (1978) and Johnson (1985): Stage 1 (0%), Stage 1/2 (49%), Stage 2 (31%), Stage

2/3 (15%), and Stage 3 (5%).

There is evidence of substantial breakage of bones in a fresh or green condition. A

combined sample of femur and humerus fragments (epiphyses and shafts) (n = 81) contained

examples of green (52%), dry (25%), and undetermined (35%) fractures (some bones exhibited

more than one type of break). Green breakage types observed include sawtooth, spiral, V-

shaped, cone fracture, and others (See Figure 9a).

The bones exhibited little evidence of root etching or carnivore gnawing—only isolated

examples of each were observed. Probable tool cut-marks and percussion marks were noted on a

number of bones (n = 16), including fragments of the ribs, humerus, radius, pelvis, femur, tibia,

and metapodials (see Figure 9b).

4.3.2 Skeletal-Part Representation. Most skeletal parts are represented, including a large

quantity of isolated teeth. The distribution of parts (excluding teeth) is shown in Table 6, in

which raw counts of identified bone fragments (NISP) have been converted to minimum number

of animal units (MAU), and the latter have been normalized (by dividing each MAU value by the

greatest MAU value in the assemblage) (e.g., Lyman, 1994, pp. 104–110). Total NISP counts

for some parts were higher than those presented in Table 6, because some fragments (e.g., radius

shaft) could not be assigned to a specific part in the table. The best represented parts of the

skeleton are the proximal femur and distal tibia, while the least well represented parts are some

of the lower limb elements such as the astragalus and metatarsal.


10

For comparative purposes, the skeletal-part distribution for the same taxon in the broadly

contemporaneous occupation at Kostenki 14, Layer II (Hoffecker et al., 2010, p. 1078, table 2)

also is shown in Table 6. Most of the same parts found at Mira are present at Kostenki 14, but

there are significant differences in the proportional representation of specific elements.

Statistical comparison of the two distributions (appendicular parts only) yields a Kolmogorov-

Smirnov value of 1.73, which is significant at the 0.01 level (e.g., Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1984,

pp. 73–74). Mira yielded relatively few bones of the lower extremities, and the contrast with

Kostenki 14 is especially pronounced for the metapodials, larger tarsals, and phalanges. Because

these elements are dense (see Lam et al., 1999, pp. 348–353) and easy to identify (even when

broken), degree of weathering or fragmentation is unlikely to account for the difference. As a

food utility index (FUI) for horse (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998, p. 845, table 6) indicates,

however, they possess low food value in comparison to other elements. The poor representation

of these parts at Mira probably reflects selective retrieval of “meaty” portions of the carcass by

the occupants of the site (Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 26).

4.3.3 Demographic Data. Variations in the presence/absence and eruption and wear of teeth

provide information of the age and sex of the horses represented in Layer I. These data indicate

that both adults and juveniles were present and that females probably were predominant among

the adults. This age/sex distribution is consistent with that of a mare-band among living horses

(e.g., Berger, 1986; Niven, 2007, p. 373).

In a separate study, one of us (A. Brugère) grouped the isolated cheek-teeth into age sets.

Although results varied by tooth, they all indicated a group composed of several adults and

young individuals. For example, the left mandibular teeth yielded the following age distribution:

0–1 years (n = 4), 1–3 years (n = 3), 3–5 years (n = 4), 5–10 years (n = 3), >10 years (n = 2).

Based on data from Zhuravlev and Puchkov, Stepanchuk (2005, p. 28) reported only two canines

among the horse teeth, suggesting most of the adult horses were females (e.g., Turner, 2002, p.

204).

4.3.4 Articulated Skeletal Elements. At several locations within the areas excavated earlier

(2000 and 2008), Stepanchuk (2005, p. 26) encountered two or more horse bones in anatomically

correct order (i.e., not disarticulated). These include the following:

cat. no. unit no. bones elements represented

462/2-3 25ж 2 first phalanx, second phalanx

468a-л 26Е 10 astragalus, tarsals, others

1006-1-11 25Е 11 metacarpal, others

? ? ? vertebrae

The presence of articulated skeletal elements is significant, and indicates that portions of

horse carcasses were transported intact to the occupation area. This, in turn, suggests that the

location of the kill was not remote, but probably within a few thousand meters from the site.

Articulated horse bone sequences (vertebrae and foot bones) were encountered at Kostenki 14,

Layer II (Rogachev, 1957, p. 78), as well as other contemporaneous EUP sites in Europe,

including Kostenki 15 and the Aurignacian units at Solutré (eastern France) (Rogachev and

Sinitsyn, 1982, p. 163; Olsen, 1989, pp. 305–314). Sequences of articulated bone also are

common in sites interpreted as kill-butchery or large-mammal carcass-processing locations in

North America (e.g., Frison, 1974, pp. 64–66; Johnson, 1987, p. 124; Todd, 1987, pp. 140–150).


11

3.4.5 Conclusions. The taphonomic characteristics of the horse remains in Layer I probably

indicate the butchering of a group of horses near the site (Stepanchuk, 2005). This conclusion is

based on the following observations: a) large concentration of bones and teeth representing more

than a dozen individual horses of varying age and sex; (b) virtually all skeletal parts represented

and multiple groups of articulated bones, including vertebrae and lower limb elements; (c) traces

of carnivore damage almost entirely absent; and (d) high proportion of bones fractured when

fresh and some percussion and cut marks (cut marks sometimes observed in anatomically

significant locations), apparently reflecting multiple phases of a butchering process. The

demographic profile of the horses probably reflects a mare-band comprising an adult male,

several adult females, and multiple juveniles (Berger, 1986; Olsen, 1995). The pattern is similar

to that observed at two other late EUP sites on the East European Plain: Kostenki 14, Layer II

and Kostenki 15 (Hoffecker et al., 2010, pp. 1078–1081).

Although there is no direct evidence of hunting (e.g., point embedded in horse bone) as

opposed to scavenging carcasses from a natural catastrophe, the former seems most likely, given

the almost complete absence of carnivore damage to the bones, as well as the lack of features in

the area that are associated with catastrophic death (e.g., box canyon subject to flash floods). In

fact, the topographic setting of the site (i.e., center of wide floodplain) raises questions about

how its occupants were able to trap and kill a large group of horses without some form of barrier

or enclosure.

5. Mira and the EUP of Eastern Europe Mira remains the only dated EUP site in the immense Dnepr Basin, and fills a major void in the

EUP record of the East European Plain. The geomorphic context of the site suggests that the

scarcity of EUP sites in this region—and more generally on the East European Plain—is due not

to sparse settlement, but to deep burial in sediments that are largely inaccessible and rarely

subject to accidental exposure and discovery. There probably are many more sites similar to

Mira buried in the alluvium of the Second Terrace.

The site dates to a late phase of the EUP (35,000–30,000 cal BP) and is broadly

contemporaneous with several other major EUP sites/layers on the East European Plain,

including Molodova V, Layer 10; Kostenki 14, Layer II; Kostenki 15; and Sungir’ (Sinitsyn and

Hoffecker, 2006; Haesaerts et al., 2003, pp. 166–167; Hoffecker et al., 2010, p. 1078; Marom et

al., 2012). Radiocarbon dates on the two occupation layers at Mira cluster tightly around

~32,000 cal BP and correlate with a cold oscillation in the Greenland ice-core record (Greenland

Stadial 5 [GS 5]). The sediments containing the occupation debris exhibit some evidence of cold

climate, and mammal remains associated with the upper layer include arctic fox.

Mira is found in a paleo-topographic setting unique to the EUP of Eastern Europe. The

position of the site in relation to the Third Terrace indicates that it was located near the center of

the broad Dnepr River floodplain—not on a low terrace above the floodplain or along a side-

valley ravine (see Figure 10). The site was occupied during an interval when the floodplain was

relatively stable—subject to periodic overbank deposition—and weak soil formation was

occurring on the surface. No evidence of spring activity was detected in the analysis of the soil

micromorphology (although a modern spring outlet is found ~1 km west of the site in a Holocene

ravine) and it remains unclear what attracted people to this specific area of the floodplain on at

least two occasions.


12

During the second occupation (which took place at least a few decades or possibly

centuries after the first occupation), a group of horses—probably a mare-band—was killed near

the site by its inhabitants. Close proximity to the kill location is suggested by the relatively

complete representation of skeletal elements, and the presence of several articulated bone

sequences. The hunting of mare-bands seems to have been widespread during the later EUP, not

only on the East European Plain (i.e., at Kostenki), but also in Western Europe (at Solutré in

eastern France) (Olsen, 1989; Hoffecker et al., 2010). In contrast to the horse bone assemblage

at Kostenki 14, Layer II, Mira contains few lower limb elements. These bones are comparatively

low in food value, and apparently were abandoned at the kill location—probably indicating that

the later was not as close to the site as at Kostenki 14. Also in contrast to other EUP sites that

yield evidence for the hunting of mare-bands, there was no natural trap or cul-de-sac in the

vicinity of Mira, which lends support to the suggestion (raised at other sites [e.g., Olsen, 1995:

73]), that some form of artificial barrier or enclosure was constructed to trap the horses. The

large wood fragments recovered from Layer I and II/1 indicate that materials were available to

construct a fence or barrier.

Although technically a stratified site, the cultural levels at Mira were occupied in

relatively rapid succession (within a few centuries or less), but the relationship between the two

artifact assemblages remains unclear. Bladelets recovered from the lower occupation level

(Layer II/2) are diagnostic of the early Gravettian (Stepanchuk, 2005, pp. 27–28), which also is

represented at the roughly contemporaneous occupation at Kostenki 8, Layer II (Anikovich et al.,

2007, p. 233–236). New radiocarbon dates from Buran-Kaya III in Crimea suggest that the

Gravettian in Eastern Europe may be almost as early as 40,000 cal BP (Prat et al., 2011). This,

in turn, suggests that it is historically connected to the Ahmarian bladelet industry, now

documented in the northern and southern Caucasus (Adler et al., 2006; Golovanova et al., 2010),

and apparently a proxy for modern human movement directly from the Levant to Eastern Europe

via the Caucasus (Hoffecker, 2012).

The spatial and temporal range of the sites suggests that the early Gravettian industry

occupies a major place in the EUP of Eastern Europe. Its visibility probably is reduced,

however, by two factors that reflect the character of the archaeological record of the East

European Plain (i.e., scarcity of natural shelters): (a) comparatively few known sites due to low

archaeological visibility; and (b) predominance of artifacts (e.g., flake scrapers) related to large-

mammal butchery and carcass-processing that are not diagnostic of specific cultural entities. In

other words, the people who produced the bladelets in Layer II/2 at Mira may have been part of a

widespread cultural phenomenon in Eastern Europe 40,000–30,000 cal BP, but without leaving

an archaeological record comparable to the contemporaneous Aurignacian of Western Europe.

The upper layer at Mira (Layer I) also contains numerous bladelets, but they are not

particularly diagnostic of a specific EUP industry (see Stepanchuk, 2005, 34–34); they might be

connected to several contemporaneous sites/layers in Eastern Europe that contain elements of the

Aurignacian technocomplex (e.g., Kostenki 1, Layer III). The assemblage from Layer I has been

widely assigned to a local East European industry (Gorodtsovan) that exhibits a combination of

typical Middle and Upper Paleolithic technology and tool forms (e.g., Cohen and Stepanchuk,

1999, pp. 298–301; Anikovich et al., 2007, p. 262). An alternative explanation is that the

“Middle Paleolithic” forms, which include side-scrapers and bifaces, represent expedient tools

related to the processing of large-mammal carcasses, and it should be noted that other

“Gorodtsovan” sites (e.g., Kostenki 14, Layer II; Kostenki 15) also yield evidence of horse

carcass-processing (Hoffecker, 2011).


13

Acknowledgments The 2012 Mira project was supported by a general grant from the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation.

The grant was administered by the Illinois State Museum.

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Figure Captions

Figure 1. Map of Eastern Europe, showing the location of Mira and other major EUP sites in the

region.

Figure 2. Satellite image of the Mira site and immediate setting (source: Google Maps).

Figure 3. Occupation floor of EUP Layer I. Key: 1 - 1995–1996 excavations; 2 - features (pits,

postholes, hearths); 3 - charcoal and ash concentration; 4 - bones; 5 - lithics; 6 - wood charcoal

(from V.N. Stepanchuk).

Figure 4. The Second Terrace of the Dnepr River at the location of the Mira site. Numbers refer

to portions of the stratigraphic sequence depicted in specific figures (5a = see Figure 5a; 5b = see

Figure 5b; 6 = see Figure 6) (photograph by JFH, August 2012).

Figure 5. Stratigraphic profile at the Mira site: (a) upper portion of sequence to a depth of 650

cm below modern surface; (b) lower portion of sequence between 650 and 950 cm below modern

surface. Numbers refer to depth in centimeters. Letters refer to soil horizons (e.g., Ab) and

Pedocomplex (PK). OSL ages are given for the upper portion of the sequence on the right of 5a

(photographs by JFH, August 2012).

Figure 6. The Upper Paleolithic occupation layers at Mira. Layer numbers refer to

archaeological, not lithological, units (photograph by VNS, August 2012).

Figure 7. Soil micromorphology of the sediments containing Upper Paleolithic occupation Layer

I at Mira: (a) banded fabric with partially rounded aggregates produced by ice (PPL); (b) band of

charcoal with silty clay capping, also an ice-related feature (PPL) (photographs by PG,

December 2012).

Figure 8. Wood fragments recovered from Layer I (photograph by VNS, August 2012).

Figure 9. Horse remains from Layer I: (a) small bone fragment illustrating ventral surface of

cone fracture; (b) probable stone tool cut marks on a tibia shaft fragment (photographs by JFH,

November 2012).

Figure 10. The Third Terrace of the Dnepr River (west bank), photographed at a location

approximately 5 km southwest of the Mira site on the modern surface of the Second Terrace, to

illustrate the width of the floodplain at the time of occupation (~32,000 cal BP) (photograph by

JFH, August 2012).

1

Table 1. Stratigraphic profile for Mira, recorded in August 2012 (V. T. Holliday)

Depth, cm Bench Soil

Horizon PH

strat Description/comments

0-15 1 A 1 Sandy Loess; 10YR 4/3 slightly moist; very weak subangular

blocky; clear

15-50 1 C 2 Sandy Loess; 10YR 4/4 slightly moist, very weak subangular

blocky; very irregular, mixed boundary (due to bioturbation)

50-68 1 Ab 3 Sandy Loess; 10YR 3/2 slightly moist; very weak subangular

blocky; krotovinas common; very irregular, mixed boundary

68~120 1 -

91cm 2

Cb 4 Sandy Loess; 10YR 4/4 & 3/2 slightly moist; very weak subangular

blocky; mixed; common krotovinas below ~95 cm

~120~148 2 A1b 5 Sandy Loess; 10YR 3/1 slightly moist; very weak subangular

blocky; mixed; common krotovinas; very irregular boundary

~148-166 2 A2b 5 Sandy Loess; 10YR 4/3 slightly moist; very weakly subangular

blocky; some krotovinas; single 1-2mm discontinuous clay band;

irregular boundary

166-240 2 -

185cm 3

Cb 6,7 Sandy Loess; 10YR 4/3 slightly moist, 4/4 dry; massive; wavy 1-

2mm continuous clay band ~200cm; wavy, distinct 2-3mm clay band

~220cm; abrupt, wavy boundary.

Note: PH has lower stratigraphic break at ~200cm and very wavy;

perhaps a clay band?

240-325 3 -

290cm 4

Pedo

complex 8 Four distinct buried soils: A/Bt (240-247); Bt (261-266, 285-

295); Bw (310-325); A = 10YR 5/2.5 dry, sandy clay loam; Bt, Bw

= 5/4 dry, sandy clay loam; C = 10YR 6/3 dry, fine sandy loam;

Bt = fine prismatic & fine subangular blocky; thin clay films on

ped faces; krotovinas common; all boundaries = clear, wavy.

325-350 4 11? Laminated silt; 10YR 7/3, 6/3, 6/4 slightly moist; abrupt

boundary

2

350~385 4 -

352cm 5

13 Massive fine sand; 10YR 6/4 slightly moist; few krotovinas below

350 cm

~385-430 5 13? As above, but large, common krotovinas

430-475 5 Pedo

complex 14,

15? Zones of calcareous & non-calcareous fine sandy loam (dipping to

the east): Bk (430-437 cm, 445-452 cm, 465-475 cm) = 10YR 7/2

dry; weak subangular blocky; common, fine threads & bodies

carbonate; non-calcareous fine sandy loam, 10YR 7/3 dry; clear

boundary

475-535 5 15? Non-calcareous fine sandy loam, 10YR 7/3 dry; thin, weak

carbonate bodies at 503, 509 cm; 2-3 distinct zones of carbonate

on west wall of bench; clear boundary

535-575 5 -

553cm 6

16? Massive, non-calcareous fine sand; 10YR 5.5/3 slightly moist;

clear, smooth boundary

575-598 6 Pedo

complex 16 Multiple (~12) weak A-C soils; A = 10YR 4.5/3 slightly moist; C

= 10YR 5.5/3 slightly moist; abrupt, irregular erosional contact

598-605 6 -

606cm ? Massive fine sand; 10YR 7/2 slightly moist; irregular, mixed

boundary

605-622 7 Ab 17 Fine sand, 10YR 6.5/1 slightly moist; very weak subangular

blocky; irregular, mixed boundary; this soil and overlying white

sand cut out to the east; probably same unconformity noted at

598 cm in main section

622-651 7 Massive fine sand; 10YR 7/2 slightly moist; clear, wavy boundary

651-706 7 Upper Fe-ox zone in olive fine sandy loam matrix; Fe-ox

concretions are vertical, dense, up to 2 cm wide, and up to 5 cm

long; each more or less tapering with depth; clear boundary

706-720 7 Massive fine sand, 10YR 7/2 slightly moist; clear, wavy boundary

~720~770 7 -

731cm Lower Fe-ox zone (same color and morphology as upper Fe-ox zone)

in olive gray fine sandy loam matrix

3

8

~770~785 8 Massive fine sand, 10YR 7/2 slightly moist; clear wavy boundary

~785-881 8 -

791cm 9

Laminated sand, 10YR 8/2 & 7/2 dry; clear, horizontal boundary

881-891 9-

891cm Laminated sand, 2.5Y 7/4 dry; upper boundary cross cuts Fe-ox;

abrupt, horizontal boundary

891-896 10 Two laminae of “green clay” loamy fine sand (fine sand with

silt), 2.5Y 6/2d 4/2 slightly moist; common Fe-ox stains

(following roots?); massive; separated by clean sand, 10YR 8/2 &

7/2 dry; bands are horizontal but somewhat wavy with abrupt,

irregular (bioturbated?) boundaries

896-925 10 Bedded, somewhat wavy fine sand 10YR 8/2 & 7/2 dry, with rare

vertical Fe-ox stains; abrupt, irregular (bioturbated?)

boundary.

925-941 10 Bedded fine sand 10YR 8/2 & 7/2d with six lenses of loamy fine

sand “green clay” 2.5Y 6/2d 4/2 slightly moist, each 3-5 cm

thick; bands are horizontal, but somewhat wavy with abrupt,

irregular (bioturbated?) boundaries, locally bifurcating and

rejoining

945-956 10 Laminated loamy fine sand “green clay” 2.5Y 6/2 dry 4/2 slightly

moist with a few sand lenses; bands are horizontal but somewhat

wavy with abrupt, irregular (bioturbated?) boundaries

956~958 10-

958cm Fine sand, 10YR 7.5/2 dry; discontinuous; thins irregularly to

the northernmost excavation block; locally missing; abrupt,

irregular boundaries (bioturbation?)

~958~973

Agb? Uppermost “gray/green clay” (fine sandy clay); varies 15-18 cm

thick; massive; common irregular, tabular bodies of fine sand

~7.5YR 7/2 dry, with very irregular (mixed?) boundaries

throughout upper half; upper 6-8 cm light gray 2.5Y 6/2 dry;

upper few cm locally darker (mixing from gray clay above? weak A

horizon?); below is a distinct Fe-ox zone ~8 cm thick, but

4

locally as thin as 3 cm, 7.5YR 4/6, 5/6 dry, most pervasive and

distinctive in upper 1-2 cm, most of the rest of the Fe-ox zone

is not as pervasive with gray showing through and mostly 10YR

6/8, 5/8 dry, fading with depth; in plan view, in the south

excavation block exposing the top of the Fe-ox zone, the

distinct 7.5YR zones are localized as isolated bodies or lining

pockets of white sand; most of the Fe-ox is 10YR; in the

northernmost excavation block, the Fe-ox zone is more pervasive,

2.5Y 6/8 moist, with bodies 7.5YR 5/6 4/6 moist; the lower part

of this “gray clay” is lighter gray 10YR 6/1 dry, 5/1 moist;

very irregular, abrupt lower boundary where sand is present

below; otherwise clear, smooth, generally horizontal boundary

with lower clay

Note: isolated flakes in this unit

~973~975 Fine sand, 10YR 7.5/2; up to 8 cm thick (in south excavation

area), thins to north and appears as localized lenses; very

irregular, abrupt upper and lower boundaries (bioturbation?)

~975~1005 Agb? Lower “gray/green clay” (fine sandy clay); mostly 10YR 5/2, 5/3

slightly moist; massive; upper 10 cm has discontinuous, roughly

horizontal Fe-ox zones; common, discontinuous pockets of sand

below occupation Layer II/1, along with some of the Fe-ox;

clear, roughly horizontal, but irregular boundary

Note: Upper Paleolithic occupation Layer I and Layer II/2 in top

and bottom of this lower “gray clay zone,” respectively.

~1005~1023 Pale tan medium sand, 10YR 7/3 slightly moist; massive; gradual

boundary ~1020~1023 cm into underlying sand

~1023~1025 White fine Sand, 10YR 7/2 slightly moist; massive; mixed

boundary

~1025~1030 Bioturbated olive sand, 2.5Y 6/3 slightly moist; mixed boundary

~1030~1048 White fine sand, 10YR 7/2 slightly moist with faint olive zone

2.5Y 6/2 slightly moist, ~1038~1045 cm

5

~1048~1065 White fine sand with distinct Fe-ox zones; horizontally bedded

~1065~1075 Fine sand with pervasive Fe-ox coloration; pale tan sand lenses

become more common with depth; horizontally bedded

~1075~1086 Medium sand with some Fe-ox following bedding and common

irregular Fe-ox bodies; horizontal bedding; gradational boundary

~1085~1110 White medium sand, massive

~1110~1155 White medium sand; massive with few Fe-ox bodies and rare Mn-ox

bodies

Notes:

Depth following a Bench number is the depth of that bench below surface.

Bench 10 is top of narrow excavation block running N-S along W wall of North Block excavations.

PH strat = stratigraphic units defined by Paul Haesaerts and N. Gerasimenko (see Stepanchuk, 2005, fig. 2)

Fe-ox = iron oxides; Mn-ox = manganese oxides.

6

Table 2. Radiocarbon dates from Mira: 1997–2001 excavations (adapted from Stepanchuk, 2005, p. 26, Table 1).

__________________________________________________________________________________

Lab No. Layer Material 14

C age calibrated age1

__________________________________________________________________________________

Ki-8152 Layer I wood charcoal 27,600 ± 370 yrs BP 32,262 ± 365 calBP

Ki-8153a Layer I wood charcoal 27,200 ± 380 yrs BP 31,904 ± 290 calBP


Ki-8158 Layer I bone 27,050 ± 350 yrs BP 31,752 ± 273 calBP

Ki-10283 Layer I bone 26,610 ± 400 yrs BP 31,288 ± 441 calBP


Ki-8381 Layer I soil organics 28,450 ± 1100 yrs BP 32,978 ± 909 calBP

GrA-20019 Layer I wood charcoal 26,590 ± 490/460 yrs BP 31,266 ± 481 calBP

Ki-8155 Layer II/1 wood charcoal 26,800 ± 390 yrs BP 31,425 ± 430 calBP


GrA-20020 Layer II/1 wood charcoal 27,830 ± 580/540 yrs BP 32,485 ± 519 calBP

Ki-8156 Layer II/2 wood charcoal 27,200 ± 360 yrs BP 31,903 ± 270 cal BP


GrA-20033 Layer II/2 wood charcoal 27,750 ± 590/550 yrs BP 32,429 ± 519 calBP

______________________ 1CalPal online quickcal2007 ver 1.5

7

Table 3. Radiocarbon dates from Mira: 2012 (INSTAAR Radiocarbon Laboratory)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Lab No. Layer Material graphite ∂

13 C wrt PDB fraction

14C age calibrated age

1

used modern

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

CURL-15810 Layer I charcoal 0.56 mg -23.2‰ 0.0379±.001 26,290 ± 220 yrs BP 31,127 ± 367 calBP

CURL-15800 Layer I charcoal 0.63 mg -24.7‰ 0.0324±.001 27,540 ± 260 yrs BP 32,167 ± 280 calBP

CURL-15808 Layer II/1 charcoal 0.37 mg -23.6‰ 0.1791±.0011 13,815 ± 50 yrs BP 17,011 ± 155 calBP



__________________________ 1CalPal online quickcal2007 ver 1.5

8

Table 4. Optically stimulated luminescence ages on quartz grains (150–250 micron) for sediments from Mira (S. L. Forman)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Lab No. DEPTH Aliquotsa Over- equivalent U Th K H2O Cosmic Dose rate OSL age

Dispersionb dose (Gray)c (ppm)d (ppm)d (%)d (%) dose (yr)f

(%) (mGray/yr)e (mGray/yr)

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UIC3344 1 m 28/30 16±2 18.60±0.83 1.2±0.1 4.6±0.1 1.11±0.01 15±5 0.19±0.02 1.59±0.08 11,710±1000

UIC3342 3 m 28/30 25±4 14.10±0.82 0.5±0.1 1.8±0.1 0.44±0.01 15±5 0.15±0.02 0.70±0.04 20,120±1945

UIC3338 10 m 29/30 19±3 19.16±0.97 0.8±0.1 3.2±0.1 0.71±0.01 15±5 0.08±0.01 0.88±0.04 21,990±1925

UIC3339 10 m 30/30 17±2 23.31±1.05 0.7±0.1 2.6±0.1 0.56±0.01 30±5 0.10±0.01 0.84±0.04 27,665±2430

________________________________________________ aAliquots used in equivalent dose calculations versus original aliquots measured.

bValue reflects precision beyond instrumental errors; value of ≤ 20% (at 2 sigma limits) indicate low dispersion in equivalent dose values and an unimodal

distribution. cEquivalent dose calculated on a pure quartz fraction with about 200-500 grains/aliquot (~2 mm plate area) and analyzed under blue-light excitation.

(470 ± 20 nm) by single aliquot regeneration protocols (Murray and Wintle, 2003). Equivalent dose calculated using the Central Age Model (Galbraith et al,

1999). dU, Th, and K content analyzed by inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometry analyzed by Activation Laboratory LTD, Ontario, Canada.

eCosmic dose rate calculated from parameters in Prescott and Hutton (1994).

fSystematic and random errors are included and reported errors are at one sigma; reference year for ages is AD 2000.

9

Table 5. Vertebrate Remains from Mira (O. P. Zhuravlev, P. V. Puchkov, and L. I. Rekovets)

_________________________________________________________________________

Species Layer I Layer II/2 Layer II/2

_________________________________________________________________________

Lepus cf. europaeus (hare) + - -

Ochotona cf. pusilla (pika) + - -

Marmota bobac (marmot) + - -

Myospalax sp. + - -

Lagurus lagurus + - -

Eolagurus luteus + - -

Clethrionomys sp. + - -

Microtus gregalis - - +

Microtus cf. socialis + - -

Microtus oeconomus + - -

Microtus arvalis-socialis + - -

Alopex lagopus + - -

Vulpes vulpes + - -

Vulpes corsac + - -

Meles meles + - -

Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoth) + - -

Equus latipes (broad-toed horse) + ? +

Cervus elaphus (red deer) + - -

Megaloceros giganteus (giant Irish elk) + - -

Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) + - -

Bison priscus (steppe bison) + - +

10

Table 6. Comparative Representation of Skeletal Parts for Equus latipes (broad-toed horse) at Mira,

Layer I and Kostenki 14, Layer II (Hoffecker et al., 2010: 1078, table 2).

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Mira-Layer I Kostenki 14-Layer II Skeletal Part NISP MAU %MAU NISP MAU %MAU FUI

cranium 14 ? ? ? ? 8.0

maxilla 12 ? ? ---

mandible 44 2.0 36 44 6.5 46.4 3.3

hyoid 1 0.5 9 1 1.0 0.7 ---

atlas 2 2.0 36 ? --- axis 0 0.0 0 ? ---

vertebrae 7 ? ? ? ? ---

ribs 37 ? ? ~250 ? ---

lumbar vertebrae 0 0.0 0 ? ? ---

caudal vertebrae 2 1.0 18 ? ? --- scapula 7 2.5 45.5 51 11.5 82.1 6.7

humerus-proximal 5 2.5 45.5 12 3.0 21.4 6.7

humerus-distal 2 1.0 18 27 11.0 78.6 6.3

radius-proximal 8 4.0 72.7 22 8.5 60.7 3.9

radius-distal 2 1.0 18 21 10.0 71.4 2.7

ulna 4 2.0 36 16 7.5 53.6 3.9 carpals 14 1.5 27 111 -- -- 1.4

metacarpal-proximal 2 1.0 18 18 8.5 60.7 0.7

metacarpal-distal 4 2.0 36 17 8.5 60.7 0.3

innominate 8 1.0 18 14 2.5 17.9 23.7

femur-proximal 11 5.5 100 12 4.5 32.1 20.3 femur-distal 6 3.0 54.5 11 5.0 35.7 20.3

patella 3 1.5 27 21 10.5 75.0 ---

tibia-proximal 3 1.5 27 5 2.5 17.9 11.3

tibia-distal 11 5.5 100 28 14.0 100.0 6.8

calcaneus 1 0.5 9 20 10.0 71.4 3.4

astragalus 1 0.5 9 20 10.0 71.4 3.4 tarsals 9 0.5 9 87 -- -- 3.4

metatarsal-proximal 1 0.5 9 26 10.0 71.4 1.7

metatarsal-distal 2 1.0 18 17 8.5 60.7 0.8

phalanx 1 6 1.25 22.7 39 9.8 70.0 0.4

phalanx 2 7 1.5 27 44 11.0 78.6 0.4

phalanx 3 4 1.0 18 37 9.3 66.4 0.4 sesamoid 1 -- -- ? --- NISP = Number of Identified Specimens; MAU = Minimum Animal Units

%MAU = percentage of largest MAU value in assemblage; FUI = Food Utility Index (see Outram and Rowley-Conway 1998: 845, table 6)

Mira

Kostenki

Sungir’

Molodova

Buran-Kaya III

Mezmaiskaya

Cave

Biryuch’ya

balka

Caucasus Mtns

BLACK SEA

EAST EUROPEAN PLAIN

Figure 1

SITE

Second Terrace First Terrace

Glubokii Yar

DNEPR RIVER

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5a Figure 5b

11,710 ± 1000 yr

OSL age

20,120 ± 1945 yr

STRATIGRAPHY STRATIGRAPHY

Figure 6

Layer I

Layer II/2

Figure 7a Figure 7b

Figure 8

a

b

Figure 9a Figure 9b

Figure 10

Documents

Geoarchaeological and bioarchaeological studies at Mira