Genitourinary Alterations

NUR 264 – PediatricsAngela Jackson, RN, MSN

Developmental Differences

Kidney development begins in the first weeks of embryo development

Primary function of the kidney prior to birth is to maintain adequate amniotic fluid levels

The newborn is unable to dispose of excess water & solutes rapidly or efficiently, which makes them prone to fluid volume excess

Loop of Henle is short in newborns, reducing their ability to reabsorb sodium & water resulting in very dilute urine

Urea synthesis and excretion are slower in newborn, which decreases concentration ability

Developmental Differences

Newborns retain large quantities of nitrogen and essential electrolytes to meet growth needs in first few weeks which decrease concentration ability

Hydrogen ion excretion, acid secretion and sodium bicarbonate levels are decrease during the first year of life. Severe metabolic acidosis develops more rapidly

Sodium excretion is decreased and kidneys are less able to adapt to sodium deficiency or excess. Inadequate sodium reabsorption from tubules result in increased sodium losses in diarrhea and vomiting

Developmental Differences

Newborn’s bladder lies in the abdomen. The bladder is in the pelvis by puberty

Control of detrusor & urethral sphincter function to control process of urination by 4 years old

Shorter urethra in children contributes to urinary infections

The kidneys are less protected in the child compared with the adult because of unossified ribs, less fat padding, and the larger size of the kidney proportional to the abdomen.

Bladder capacity increases with age from 20-50 ml at birth to 700 ml by adulthood

Reproductive system is functionally immature until puberty

Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) Backflow of urine from the bladder up the ureter

to the kidney Occurs when the site where the ureter enters

the bladder fails to maintain a unidirectional flow Most common anatomic disorder affecting the

genitourinary tract Familial reflux is common

Reflux is present in one-third of siblings who have an affected brother or sister

Also a high incidence of transmission from parent to child

VUR: Pathophysiology In normal anatomy the ureter extends

from the kidney to the bladder. It then passes through the bladder wall for a distance that enables the ureter to act as a sphincter. The ureter at this point functions as a one-way valve to prevent the backflow of urine

With VUR, the ureter is not long enough to perform these functions and reflux occurs

VUR: Clinical Manifestations

May be asymptomatic Persistent and repeated urinary

tract infections Enuresis Flank pain Abdominal pain

VUR: Diagnosis

Cystogram Voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) Reflux is graded on a scale of I to

V, with I being the least severe and V the most severe

VUR: Treatment The goals of medical management

are : Prevention of UTIs Prevention of kidney damage

Treatment includes: Surveillance Antibiotics

Surgical management may be necessary if medical management fails

VUR: Nursing Management

Education Importance of strict adherence to

medical regimen Proper hygiene Preparation for diagnostic studies

Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) Disorder of the kidney characterized by

altered glomeruli permeability, resulting in massive loss of protein in the urine

Primary, or idiopathic, is the most common type of nephrotic syndrome in children

NS affects boys more often than girls (2:1) NS usually occurs between ages 2 and 6,

peaking at age 2-3 years

NS: Pathophysiology Primary NS is thought to be an autoimmune

response resulting from an antigen-antibody reaction

Glomeruli become increasingly permeable to plasma protein, allowing massive urinary protein loss

Fluids shift from the intravascular to the interstitial space, resulting in edema

Hypoalbuminemia results from urinary loss of protein

Lipoprotein production increases, resulting in a rise in cholesterol and triglyceride levels

NS: Clinical Manifestations Proteinuria Weight gain Shifting edema

(morning Periorbital edema shifting to generalized edema throughout the day)

Oliguria

Dark, frothy urine Pallor Irritability Fatigue Normal B/P Anorexia Abdominal pain

NS: Diagnosis

Urinalysis reveals massive proteinuria (3+ to 4+)

Hypoalbuminemia (serum albumin <2.5gm / dl)

Hyperlipidemia

NS: Treatment

Corticosteroids Diuretics when severe edema is

present Albumin Dietary restrictions Immunosuppressant medications

are used when steroid therapy fails

NS: Nursing Management Strict I & O, closely monitor VS, daily weight Reposition frequently Measure abdominal girth Monitor serum and urine electrolytes and

protein as ordered Assess for edema and dehydration Monitor skin integrity Monitor for signs and symptoms of infection Administration of medication as ordered Teach parents to test urine for protein with

dipstick

Acute Glomerulonephritis (AGN)

Acute inflammation of the glomeruli within the kidney

Results in acute renal failure Incidence peaks at seven years of

age, is unusual in children younger than three

Occurs more often in males

AGN: Pathophysiology Usually caused by a bacterial infection of

the throat or skin. The most common organism is streptococcus (group A beta)

Immune system responds to the bacteria by producing antibodies. The antibody/antigen reaction within the glomeruli forms immune complexes and inflammation occurs, damaging the glomeruli

AGN: Clinical Manifestations Gross hematuria Proteinuria Oliguria Periorbital edema Edema of face,

abdomen Pallor, lethargy,

irritability, headache

Abdominal pain, anorexia, vomiting

Dysuria Cloudy, brown

colored urine Fatigue Elevated blood

pressure ranging from mild to moderate

AGN: Diagnosis Urinalysis shows hematuria, proteinuria

and increased specific gravity Elevated blood urea nitrogen and

creatinine may be present Electrolytes are normal unless renal

failure is present Anemia is present as a result of

hemodilution Streptozyme test is positive Urine cultures are negative

AGN: Treatment

Goals of treatment are: Identification and treatment of the

source of the inflammation Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte

balance Maintenance of blood pressure within

the normal range

AGN: Treatment (cont.)

If child has normal B/P and urine output, may be managed at home

Children with generalized edema, oliguria, hypertension, and gross hematuria need to be admitted to the hospital

AGN: Treatment (cont.)

Treatment of the hospitalized child includes: Diuretics Antihypertensives Dietary restrictions Antibiotic therapy for treatment of

streptococcal infection

AGN: Nursing Management

Close monitoring of B/P Strict Intake and Output Daily weights Administration of medications as

ordered

Questions??