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GENETICS
Fertilization
• Fertilization (syngamy) is the _______ of two haploid
gametes (the sperm and the egg) to form a
_________(2n) zygote.
• Since human males produce X-bearing and Y-
bearing sperm, and human females produce only
X-bearing eggs, the gametes combine
___________according to the following table:
fusion
diploid
randomly
• The male (XY) and female (XX) offspring in the above
table are in a________ ratio with an _______number of
boys and girls. Therefore, the chance of having a boy is
1/2 or ______and the chance of a girl is also 1/2 or _____
Gametes X-bearing
sperm
Y-bearing
sperm
X-bearing egg
X-bearing egg
XY
XX XY
XX
50-50 equal
50% 50%.
Meiosis vs. Mitosis• __________is the division of a haploid (n) or diploid
(2n) cell into _____duplicate ____________ cells. In a strict definition, mitosis (karyokinesis) refers to the division of a nucleus into two duplicate nuclei, each with____________ sets of chromosomes.
• __________is a special kind of cell division in which the chromosome number is______________ in half. This is how the chromosome number in a life cycle changes from__________ (2n) to _________(n). In humans, the only cells that undergo meiosis are ______ cells in the ovaries and _________cells in the testes.
Mitosistwo daughter
identical
Meiosisreduced
diploid haploid
egg sperm
• Meiosis is used in____________ reproduction of
organisms to combine male and female, through
the sperm and egg, to create a new, __________
biological organism.
• Mitosis is used by ___________________organisms to
reproduce asexually, or in the organic __________of
tissues, fibers, and membranes. __________versions of
cells can be created to form tissues through Mitosis.
sexual
single
single-celled
growth
Identical
Haploid vs. DiploidDiploid cells contain ___________________________ of chromosomes.
Haploid cells have _________________________________
as diploid i.e. a haploid cell contains only
___________________________________________
two complete sets (2n)
half the number of chromosomes (n)
one complete set of chromosomes
A Diagram Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
Complete table of missing information p. 6
somatic Gametes/ sex cells
1 2
2
1 1
4
Create gametesCreate identical cells
2n (46) 2n(46)
1n (23)2n (46)
2n (46)
Body cells Sex cells
Mendel’s Principles
The story of Gregor Mendel and his work provides a
fascinating glimpse into the nature of science.
Mendel was born in 1822 and as a young man
attended the University of Vienna. There he studied
chemistry, biology, and physics, but left before
graduating, probably for health reasons. He entered
the Augustinian monastery in Brno, and with the
support of the abbot, began his investigation of the
inheritance of certain traits in pea plants (Pisum
sativum). His choice of pea plants as the
experimental subject was excellent as peas grow and
reproduce quickly, their mating can be controlled,
and the plants have a number of distinct traits thatare readily observed.
Over the course of the next 8 years,
Mendel conducted experiments and
maintained detailed records of his results.
His university training led him to design
simple experiments that permitted him to
observe the inheritance of one trait at a
time. His use of mathematics allowed him
to formulate conclusions based on his
results. These conclusions are known as
Mendel’s Laws or Principles.
The Different traits Mendel Studied:
In 1865, Mendel presented his findings in a
paper entitled “Experiments in Plant
Hybridization” at a meeting of the Association
for Natural Research in Brno. The paper was
published in the Proceedings of the Brno
Society of Natural Science in 1866. Mendel’s
work was ground breaking, not only for his
discoveries in genetics, but also for his use of
mathematical and statistical analysis as a
means for interpreting his results.
The scientific community of the time did not seem to grasp
the significance of Mendel’s work. As a result, it was largely
ignored. Mendel abandoned his research upon his
election as abbot in 1868, due in part to his heavy
workload, as well as the lack of recognition for his
research. Gregor Mendel died in 1884 never knowing if the
world would acknowledge the importance of his work. In
1900, three scientists working independently rediscovered
and confirmed Mendel’s laws of heredity. Hugo de Vries,
Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg gave
credit to Gregor Mendel in the publications of their papers,
thereby giving him the recognition he long deserved.
Mendel’s Principles of Inheritance
1. Inherited traits are transmitted by genes which
occur in alternate forms called alleles i.e. genes
come in pairs.
2. Principle of Dominance – when 2 forms of the same
gene are present the dominant allele is expressed. A
heterozygous genotype will express the dominant
allele. For example, Pp will express purple flowers
because P is dominant to p.
3. Principle of Segregation – in meiosis two alleles
separate so that each gamete receives only one form
of that gene.
4. Principle of Independent Assortment – separate
genes for separate traits are passed independently of
one another from parents to offspring.
Genetics
______________all the characters transmitted from
parent to offspring. ____________is the study of
heredity. A __________________ (or trait) any aspect
of an individual that can be described.
ex:
Heredity
Genetics
characteristic
Curly hair
Short
Blue eyes
All individuals of the same species have in
common a number of characteristics. For
mankind these characteristics are:
There are individual characteristics that come
from parents
ex:
Walking upright
Opposable thumb
Complex brains
Curly hair
Brown eyes
Genetics• Children inherit genes
that control specific
traits from their parents.
We now know that
genes are parts of a
______________and that
DNA is package in
____________________
DNA molecule
chromosomes
Genetics• Therefore, when we talk about genes being
inherited from one generation to the next, we are
really talking about how the gene-carrying
chromosomes behave during ____________and
________________.
Question: Based on your understanding of meiosis, fertilization and mitosis, explain why each cell in a
person has two copies of each gene, one copy from
his or her mother and one copy from his or her father
meiosis
fertilization
• To understand how specific genetic traits are
inherited, we will consider the example of the gene
which controls whether the bottom of the earlobe
hangs free or the bottom of the earlobe is attacheddirectly to the head.
• First, look at your classmates to see whether you
can find examples of attached earlobes and
earlobes which hang free.
• There are two different ________________ for this
gene. The allele which codes for earlobes which
hang free is symbolized by ____, and the allele
which codes for attached earlobes is symbolized by
____. We’ll analyze inheritance for the case where
each parent has one E allele and one e allele (i.e.
both parents are Ee). What combinations of E
and/or e alleles would you expect to observe in the
children of these parents?
alleles
E
e
Biologists use the _______________________(shown
below) to answer this type of question. This Punnett
Square shows that, as a result of meiosis _________ of
the father’s sperm will have a chromosome which
carries the E allele, and _________ will have the
chromosome with the e allele. Similarly, ________ of the
mother’s eggs will have an E allele and ____________ will
have an e allele.
Punnett Square
halfhalf
half
half
• The _______smaller squares within the larger Punnett
Square show the possible genetic combinations
resulting from fertilization of the two different types
of_________ by the two different types of_________
E e
E
e
sperm
eggs
four
eggs sperm.
EE
Ee
Ee
ee
1. What proportion of this couple’s children would you
expect to be EE?
2. What proportion of this couple’s children would you
expect to be ee?
3. What proportion of this couple’s children would you
expect to be Ee?
4. Will EE children have earlobes which hang free or are
attached? What about ee? What about Ee?
1/4
1/2
1/4
Genetics• Homozygous:_____________________________________
• __________
• Heterozygous:____________________________________
• _____
When there are 2 identical alleles
for a trait.
When there are 2 different alleles for a
trait.
Genetics• Often, one allele in a heterozygous pair of alleles is
______________and the other is___________. This
means that the dominant allele __________________
__________________________________________________
• ___________
• Typically, the dominant allele is symbolized by a
___________letter (E) and the recessive allele is
symbolized by a_________________ letter (e).
dominant recessive
determines the
observable characteristic of the heterozygous
individual.
capitallower-case
• Each human inherits ______________________________
(x-somes) from each parent, for a total of _______
chromosomes.
• Each chromosome has many ___________ (sections of
DNA that code for specific proteins).
• You inherit 2 genes for every trait you have, one
gene from each parent.
E.g. Trait → tongue rolling
R – roller gene
r – non-rolling gene
23 chromosomes
46
genes
Genetics• Each member of this gene pair is called an________.
• R – is called the_______________ allele as it will express
its trait whenever it appears.
• r – is called the ____________allele and it can only
express its trait when no other genes are present
except its own kind.
allele
dominant
recessive
• PHENOTYPE
• Term given to the
expression of the genes
• i.e. what it makes you
look like
• Roller or non-roller
• GENOTYPE
• Term given to the 3
combinations the 2
different genes can
occur in.
• i.e. either homozygous
dominant,
heterozygous or
homozygous recessive
• E.g. RR, Rr, rr
• __________________– Is what you use to__________
the outcome of crossing various genotypes. If you
know the genotypes of the parents, you can use a
Punnett square to predict the possible genotypes of
their offspring.
Punnett Square predict
Do general questions p.17.
Mendel’s Monohybrid Crosses
• A____________ is the offspring of parents that have
______________forms of a trait, such as tall and short
height. A monohybrid cross means “______” and the
two parents differed from each other by a single–
______________height.
hybrid
different
one
gene (allele)
Mendel’s Monohybrid Crosses
Pure bred parents
• Each parent has two ____________alleles for a single
trait.
• E.g.
Hybrid Parents
• Each parent has two ___________alleles for a single
trait.
• E.g
identical
PP or pp
different
Pp
F1 generation
• First generation following the breeding of oppositely pure bred parents
• Results in offspring that are all ______________
F2 generation
• Second generation following initial breeding of pure bred parents
• Offspring are from __________________hybrid F1 generation
• Results in a ________ ratio of phenotypes
• Do Matching Definitions p. 19
hybrid
inter-breeding
3:1
• Do matching definitions
• Do Monohybrid Problems 1 p. 22-23
• Do Monohybrid Problems 2 p. 23-24
Test Cross• Breeding of an organism of ____________genotype
with a homozygous _____________individual to
determine the unknown genotype.
• E.g.
unknownrecessive
P = purple, p = white
F1 generation = all purple. What is the
unknown genotype of the purple
parent?
Dihybrid Cross• A breeding experiment in which parental varieties
differing in _______traits are mated.
• E.g. ___________________________________________________
BbSs x BbSs
• Do large Punnett Square on the whiteboard →
Method 1
• Example on p. 25-26 → Method 2
• Do Dihybrid Cross Worksheet p. 27
twoBlack, short fur guinea pig x black, short fur pig
Co-Dominance
• Both alleles are _________expressed in the phenotype.
The “co” in co-dominance means “______________”
• Both alleles are ____________dominant
• F2 genotype and phenotype ratios are _________
• Analogy on whiteboard
clearlytogether
equally
1:2:1
• Example: M, N and MN blood groups in humans.
• People in M group have one type of molecule on
their red blood cells.
• People in N group have a different type of
molecule on their red blood cells.
• People in MN group have both M and N
molecules on their red blood cells.
Genotype Phenotype
LMLM M
LMLN MN
LNLN N
ROAN COW (RW)
Do Co-Dominance
Practice Problems p.32
Incomplete Dominance• F1 hybrids have an appearance that is __________
between the phenotypes of the parental varieties.
• Neither allele is _____________
• F2 phenotypic and genotypic ratios are ______
• There are 2 ways to recognize incomplete
dominance:
o Notice that the offspring is showing a _______
phenotype. The parents each have one, and the
offspring are different from the parents.
o Notice that the trait in the offspring is a ________
(mix) of the parental traits.
blended
dominant
1:2:1
3rd
blend
• Example: Snapdragon flower color
ww (white) rw (PINK)!! rr (Red)
Do Incomplete Dominance Practice Problems p. 34
(rr) (ww)
(rw)
(rw) (rw)
1 (rr): 2(rw): 1(ww)
1 red: 2 pink: 1 white
Lethal Genes• The offspring that receive _________________________
alleles are unable to sustain life.
• E.g. Tay-Sachs Disease
homozygous recessive
What have you learned so far? Entrance Slip
1. What did you find most interesting last unit?
2. How does Genetics apply to the real world?
Human Genome Project?
1. What are the implications of having your genome
mapped out?o Screen for gene(s) that cause disease
o Create your “ideal” baby
o Carry your sequenced genome on a chip with you that everyone
(doctors, employers, insurance agencies) has access to
2. Would you sequence YOUR genome? Why?
Multiple Alleles
• Genes that can exist in populations in _______than two
_______________
• E.g. ABO blood groups in human.
o There are_____possible phenotypes: ____________
o There are ___different alleles for one gene_________
o There _____are genotypes possible.
o Both A and B are dominant to the O allele.
alleles
4 A, B, AB, O
3 A, B, O
6
more
o AA has blood type ____.
o AO has blood type ____.
o BB has blood type ____.
o BO has blood type ____.
o AB has blood type ____ (co-dominant).
o OO has blood type ____.O
B
A
A
B
AB
IA and IB alleles are co-dominant only io io genotype gives
the O blood type. O group is the lack of A or B.
The blood type can be used to help determine paternity,
but we cannot be certain.
eg. A male type B may be the father of a child of O
blood type (genotype of would be IBio), but if the male is
type AB, he cannot possibly be the father.
The Rh factor is transmitted separately for
types A, B, AB or O. It is Rh + (Rh positive) if
the Rh factor is present on the red blood cells
and Rh- if the factor if is absent.
Were the babies switched?
Is it possible for Michael and Danielle to have a child who has type O blood?
How do you know this?
Was a switch made at the hospital?
Do Blood type problems p.5
**NOT IN
NOTES **
Epistasis
• One locus_________ the phenotypic _______________
at a second locus.
• E.g. coat colour in Labrador Retrievers.
o Black coat is dominant to brown coat which is
represented by ______.
o To have a brown coat the dog must be _______
o A second gene locus determines whether hair
pigment is deposited at all.
alters expression
B, b.
bb
o Colour (EE or Ee) is ______________ and no pigment
(ee) is __________________.
o If the dog is homozygous recessive for coat
colour, ee, then the coat is yellow regardless of
genotype at the black/brown locus.
o _____________in humans or in other animals is
another example. If an individual inherits aa alleles
that cause albinism (inability to produce the
pigment melanin), whatever the genotype
responsible for eye color or hair color, because it
can only be expressed if the individual is an
albino.
dominant
recessive
Albinism
NOT IN NOTES
Modifier Gene
A ________________ can intervene in the phenotypicexpression of an allele on a different locus. In theHolstein breed (like cow) the distribution of the spotsare due to a single pair of alleles but the relative amountof black and white spots is controlled by modifier genes.
modifier gene
Polygenic Inheritance
• An _____________ effect of two or more genes on a single
phenotypic character.
• E.g. skin pigment in humans.
• It is controlled by three separately inherited genes (A, B,
C).
o Each A, B, C contribute one “unit” of darkness to the
phenotype and are incompletely dominant to a, b, c.
o _____________person would be very dark.
o _____________person would be very light.
o _____________person would be an intermediate.
o Alleles have a cumulative effect; genotypes AaBbCc
and AABbcc would make the same darkness.
additive
AABBCC
aabbcc
AaBbCc
Linkage• Genes located on the same chromosomes tend
to be inherited _______________ because the
chromosome is passed along as a _________.
• These genes are said to be _________.
• E.g. wing colour and wing size in fruit flies.
• E.g. hair color and freckles
together
unit
linked
Crossing-over• When two homologous chromosomes pair during
meiosis, the chromatids can ______________________.
This is a random phenomenon that can occur
anywhere along the chromosome except almost
near the centromere. This means that a crossover is
more likely to occur between genes distant from
each other on a chromosome than between
closely spaced genes.
exchange fragments
Sex Determination
• Henry VIII of England
married six times in an
attempt to have a
legitimate male heir to the
English throne. Recalling
your knowledge of Grade 9
Science, do you think Henry
was correct in blaming his
wives for their inability to
produce a son? (Henry did
eventually have one son,
who inherited the throne
after his father’s death.)
Sex-Linked Genes
Autosomes: ____________________________________________
_______________
Sex Chromosomes: _______________________________
The human has 46 chromosomes divided into 23 pairs including 22
homologous pairs, the 23rd pair determines sex.
Chromosome X or Y
All the chromosomes (1-22) except the sex
chromosomes
Sex Determination
• Female _______, Male ________
• Sex chromosomes segregate during meiosis, and
each gamete receives one
o Each ovum contains 1 ____ chromosome.
o ½ the sperm cells contain an ____ and ½ contain
a ____ chromosome
• Sex determination is a matter of chance, __________
• SRY gene (located on the Y chromosome) is
required for the development of ___________. In its
absence, the gonads develop into _______________.
XX XY
X
X
Y50/50
testes
ovaries
Sex Determination
• Sex-Linked Genes: ________________________________
__________________________________
• Fathers pass X-linked alleles to all of their
_________________, but none of their ____________.
• Mothers can pass sex-linked alleles to _________ sons
and daughters.
• Carrier: ___________________________________________
__________________________________________
____________________________________
• A carrier is normal but can pass on the harmful allele
to the offspring.
a gene that is located on the X or
Y chromosome. Most are on the X
daughters sons
both
An individual who is heterozygous at a
given locus, with one normal and one
potentially harmful recessive allele
Boys will have a 50% chance of
inheriting the disorder. None of their girls
will have it, but half of them are likely to
be carriers.
Examples
Female Carrier x Normal Male
All of their girls will be carriers. None of
their boys will inherit the harmful
allele. Only girls receive X
chromosomes from their fathers.
2. Normal Female x Male with X-linked recessive
disorder
Sex-Linked Gene Examples• Muscular dystrophy
o Duchenne MD
o Becker MD
o Emery-Dreifuss MD
o Other forms that are autosomal instead of X-linked
• Hairy ears: The gene for hairy ears is found only on the Y
chromosome (Y-linked). Therefore, males are the only ones to have
this sex-linked gene.
• Color-blindness: The gene for color blindness is X-linked and is recessive. This means that it affects
more males than females.
Hemophilia: Hemophilia is a rare bleeding disorder in which the blood doesn’t clot normally. Like color-
blindness, the gene for hemophilia is recessive and is X-
linked. This means that males are more likely to be
affected than females.
*The effect of Hemophilia on Queen Victoria and her
family*
** Some genes located on autosomes are expressed differently
from one sex to another, probably because of hormonal
differences. For example baldness in humans. **
Do example on
board and sex-
linked problems
p.15
Pedigree AnalysisIntroduction
A ______________ is a diagram of family relationships that
uses symbols to represent people and lines to represent
genetic relationships. Its purpose is to analyze the pattern
of inheritance of a particular trait.
These diagrams make it easier to visualize ____________
within families, particularly large extended families.
Pedigrees are often used to determine the mode of
___________________ (dominant, recessive, etc.) of genetic
diseases. A sample pedigree is below.
pedigree
relationships
transmission
To facilitate comparison between family trees, geneticists
employ several symbols when they make a family tree.
In the exercises below, assume that the trait in
question is a genetic disease or abnormality. We
will learn patterns of inheritance that have the
following modes of inheritance:
• Autosomal dominant
• Autosomal recessive
• Sex-linked recessive
Autosomal Dominant
A?
aa aa
aa
Aa
Aaaa
aa
aa
Aa Aa
AA or Aa
Autosomal Recessive
aa → Not Possible!!!
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa aa aa
aa
Aa Aa
AA or Aa
aa Aa most likely
Aa Aa Aa Aa or AA
Aa Aa AA or Aa
aa AA or Aa aa AA or Aa
X-Linked RecessiveXaXa
XAY
XaY → Not Possible!!!
XaXa
XaY
XAY
XaXaXAY
XAXa
XaXa XAY
XaXa→ Not possible!!!
XAXa XaY
XaY
XaXa XaY
XaXa→ Not Possible!!!
Interpreting a Pedigree1. Is it Autosomal or X-linked?
• If most of the males in the pedigree are affected → X-linked
• If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and women→ autosomal
2. Is it Dominant or Recessive?
• If dominant – one of the parents must
have the disorder
• If recessive – neither parent has to
have the disorder because they can
be heterozygous
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2
I
1 2 3 4 5 6
II
III
Dominant Autosomal Pedigree
Recessive Autosomal Pedigree
Do Application of Pedigree analysis p.28-29
Examples of Autosomal Dominant Disorders• Dwarfism
• Polydactyly and Syndactyly
• Hypertension
• Hereditary Edema
• Chronic Simple Glaucoma – Drainage system for fluid in the eye does not work and pressure builds up, leading to damage of the optic nerve which can result in blindness.
• Huntington’s Disease – Nervous system degeneration resulting in certain and early death. Onset in middle age.
• Neurofibromatosis – Benign tumors in skin or deeper
• Familial Hypercholesterolemia – High blood cholesterol and propensity for heart disease
• Progeria – Drastic premature aging, rare, die by age 13. Symptoms include limited growth, alopecia, small face and jaw, wrinkled skin, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular problems but mental development not affected.
Examples of Autosomal Recessive Disorders
• Congenital Deafness
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Sickle Cell anemia
• Albinism
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) – Inability to break down the amino acid phenylalanine. Requires elimination of this amino acid from the diet or results in serious mental retardation.
• Galactosemia – enlarged liver, kidney failure, brain and eye damage because can’t digest milk sugar
Examples of Autosomal Recessive Disorders
• Cystic Fibrosis – affects mucus and sweat glands, thick mucus in lungs and digestive tract that interferes with gas exchange, lethal.
• Tay Sachs Disease – Nervous system destruction due to lack of enzyme needed to break down lipids necessary for normal brain function. Early onset and common in Ashkenazi Jews; results in blindness, seizures, paralysis, and early death.
Examples of Sex-Linked Recessive Disorders
• Red/Green Colorblindness – Difficulty perceiving differences between colors (red or green, blue or yellow).
• Hemophilia – Absence of one or more proteins necessary for normal blood clotting.
• Deafness
• Cataracts – opacity in the lens that can lead to blindness
• Night blindness – (Nyctalopia) rods do not work so that can not see in the dark
• Glaucoma – pressure in the eye that can lead to optic nerve damage and blindness
• Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy – progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles that control movement due to absence of dystrophin (protein that maintains muscle integrity). Mainly in boys, onset 3-5 yrs, by 12 years can’t walk, and later needs respirator.
Genetic Testing – Ethical Issues
Recent advances in genetics have raised ethical
questions regarding the screening of individuals for
inherited conditions and disorders. DNA screening,
biochemical tests, amniocentesis, and family pedigree
analysis are all tools that genetic counselors use. Some
tests may be performed on individuals and others on
fetuses.
These tools are used by genetic counselors to analyze
the risk to individuals for developing a disorder, or the risk
of passing on a known inherited disorder or condition to
offspring. Genetic counselors can present options to
parents so that potential risks can be avoided or
reduced.
• There are many issues to be considered in genetic
testing. Are tests equally available to all
Manitobans, or only to those with the money to pay
for the tests, or to those who live in larger urban
centers? Should genetic testing for a disorder be
performed on individuals for whom there is no
available treatment (e.g. Huntington disease)? Do
third parties (e.g. insurance companies, employers)
have the right to genetic test results?
• Question:
• You know that an inherited genetic condition runs in
your family. Given the opportunity, would you be
tested to determine whether you carry the gene?
•
Chromosomal Mutations• _________________ – A section of a chromosome breaks
away and then flips over or inverts before it reattaches.
• __________________ – A section of a chromosome breaks
away and then reattaches to another chromosome.
• __________________ - A section of a chromosome breaks
away and then simply disappears.
• ____________________- The section of chromosome that
breaks away, reattaches to the homologous
chromosome.
• ** All four of these mutations can cause abnormalities in
the individual.
Inversion
Translocation
Deletion
Duplication
• ______________– This is a condition in which the cells of
the individual contain extra sets of chromosomes. This is
very common in plants.
• _________________– absence of a chromosome or the
presence of an extra chromosome caused by non-
disjunction.
Individual with Down syndrome - trisonomy 2n +1
Individual monosomic – monosomy 2n -1
Non-disjunction, giving too much or not enough chromosomes to gametes may occur during
A) anaphase I or B) anaphase II.
•
Polyploidy
Aneuploidy
Several Common Syndromes are
caused by Nondisjunction• Down syndrome: present in about 1 in 800 children
born in Canada. All persons with Down syndrome
have _______genetic material associated with the
_______chromosome________________.
• Turner syndrome: present in about 1 in every 2500 _______ born in Canada. All girls with Turner
syndrome are __________or have a _______________
• _______________(XO).
• Klinefelter syndrome: present in about 1 in every
1000 _______born in Canada. All boys with Klinefelter
syndrome carry an __________________________
extra21st (trisomy 21)
girls
missing damaged X
boys
extra chromosome (XXY).
chromosome
Tests to Examine Chromosomes
Amniocentesis - a needle is used to withdraw fluid from the uterus which contains fetal cells
Chorionic Villi Sampling - a suction tube inserted into the vagina removes fetal cells
*Tests are not usually performed due to risk of
spontaneous abortion*.
Karyotyping_____________- A picture of a person's chromosomes,
arranged by size and grouped into homologous pairs.Karyotype