Genetics & Heredity Genetics & Heredity

Studying genes and how traits are passed from parent to offspring.

Studying genes and how traits are passed from parent to offspring.

History History In the pasts, scientists argued about how

genetic information was passed down and cause traits.

Some scientists believed in “___________” - that the traits of two parents are mixed. This doesn’t work when a white flower and a purple flowered plant have a white flowered offspring.

Some scientists also believed that ________ were responsible for passing on traits, rather than DNA, because DNA molecules are so ________ compared to proteins.

In the pasts, scientists argued about how genetic information was passed down and cause traits.

Some scientists believed in “___________” - that the traits of two parents are mixed. This doesn’t work when a white flower and a purple flowered plant have a white flowered offspring.

Some scientists also believed that ________ were responsible for passing on traits, rather than DNA, because DNA molecules are so ________ compared to proteins.

Experiments that led to our current

understandings about genetics

Experiments that led to our current

understandings about genetics ____________________ took bacteria that were

pathogenic (cause disease) and killed them with heat. Then mixed the dead bacteria with harmless bacteria. The harmless bacteria took up something from the dead, harmful bacteria. When they were injected into mice, it killed the mice. Something was being passed from the dead bacteria to the living ones to “____________” them into harmful bacteria.

___________________- radioactively labeled DNA and proteins in viruses. They allowed the viruses to infect cells and waited to see whether it was the DNA or the protein that entered the cells to infect them. It was the _________!

____________________ took bacteria that were pathogenic (cause disease) and killed them with heat. Then mixed the dead bacteria with harmless bacteria. The harmless bacteria took up something from the dead, harmful bacteria. When they were injected into mice, it killed the mice. Something was being passed from the dead bacteria to the living ones to “____________” them into harmful bacteria.

___________________- radioactively labeled DNA and proteins in viruses. They allowed the viruses to infect cells and waited to see whether it was the DNA or the protein that entered the cells to infect them. It was the _________!

Experiments that led to our current understandings about genetics

Experiments that led to our current understandings about genetics

___________ Identified that in each DNA molecule Adenine=Thymine and Guanine= Cytosine (“Chargaff’s rule”).

__________________ took the first picture of a DNA molecule using a technique called x-ray crystallography

___________________- used Rosalind’s picture to determine the structure of DNA.

___________ Identified that in each DNA molecule Adenine=Thymine and Guanine= Cytosine (“Chargaff’s rule”).

__________________ took the first picture of a DNA molecule using a technique called x-ray crystallography

___________________- used Rosalind’s picture to determine the structure of DNA.

What is DNA? What is DNA? DNA is a molecule made of _________________. Each strand is composed of a string of subunits called

__________________. The nucleotides are bound to each other by covalent bonds.

Each nucleotide has three parts- a sugar (called _____________), a ___________, and a _________ (either adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine).

The two strands are wound together into a shape called a ___________________.

Along the outsides of the helix are repeating sugars and phospates- the sugar-phospate __________________.

In the center of the molecule, the bases are bound together using weak ___________ bonds. Adenine always bind with thymine and guanine always binds with cytosine.

DNA is a molecule made of _________________. Each strand is composed of a string of subunits called

__________________. The nucleotides are bound to each other by covalent bonds.

Each nucleotide has three parts- a sugar (called _____________), a ___________, and a _________ (either adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine).

The two strands are wound together into a shape called a ___________________.

Along the outsides of the helix are repeating sugars and phospates- the sugar-phospate __________________.

In the center of the molecule, the bases are bound together using weak ___________ bonds. Adenine always bind with thymine and guanine always binds with cytosine.

What is DNA?What is DNA?

What is DNA? What is DNA? In a cell, DNA is arranged into structures called

______________________. A segment of a chromosome (DNA) that codes for a

specific trait is called a ___________. When a cell gets ready to make a new cell (through

mitosis or meiosis) the cell must copy or _______________ its DNA so that the new cell has its own instructions.

DNA also has a “________________” to it. One end of each strand is called the 3’ (prime) end and the other end is called the 5’ (prime) end

The ends of a chromosome are _____________. They are repeated sequences that do not code for proteins. They protect the genes in the center of a chromosome.

In a cell, DNA is arranged into structures called ______________________.

A segment of a chromosome (DNA) that codes for a specific trait is called a ___________.

When a cell gets ready to make a new cell (through mitosis or meiosis) the cell must copy or _______________ its DNA so that the new cell has its own instructions.

DNA also has a “________________” to it. One end of each strand is called the 3’ (prime) end and the other end is called the 5’ (prime) end

The ends of a chromosome are _____________. They are repeated sequences that do not code for proteins. They protect the genes in the center of a chromosome.

DNA OrganizationDNA OrganizationDNA is packaged with proteins to form a

matrix called ___________________. The DNA is coiled around proteins called

___________ like beads on a string. ______________ describes areas in

chromosomes that are loosely opened when it’s being copied into a protein.

______________________ describes when areas of the chromosome that are tightly compacted and not being used.

Some areas of DNA are even able to move to new location in the chromsome- these are called _________________ or jumping genes.

DNA is packaged with proteins to form a matrix called ___________________.

The DNA is coiled around proteins called ___________ like beads on a string.

______________ describes areas in chromosomes that are loosely opened when it’s being copied into a protein.

______________________ describes when areas of the chromosome that are tightly compacted and not being used.

Some areas of DNA are even able to move to new location in the chromsome- these are called _________________ or jumping genes.

How DNA replicatesHow DNA replicates An enzyme called _________________ comes in and

breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands of DNA together. This creates a replication _________ where the DNA opens up. _________________ binding protein holds the strands apart while they replicate.

The enzyme ____________ lays down a short primer of another molecule, RNA, to signal where to begin. The primer is later replaced by DNA.

The enzyme ___________________ adds new nucleotides to build the growing strands. It adds them in a ________________ fashion (A=T and C=G)

An enzyme called _________________ comes in and breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands of DNA together. This creates a replication _________ where the DNA opens up. _________________ binding protein holds the strands apart while they replicate.

The enzyme ____________ lays down a short primer of another molecule, RNA, to signal where to begin. The primer is later replaced by DNA.

The enzyme ___________________ adds new nucleotides to build the growing strands. It adds them in a ________________ fashion (A=T and C=G)

How DNA replicatesHow DNA replicates DNA polymerase is only able to add new nucleotides in the

___________ direction. This creates problems that are fixed by copying the two strands of DNA slightly differently.

One of the strands of DNA is called the ____________ strand because it’s made ________________. The enzyme DNA polymerase comes in and add new bases to build a new strand that is complementary to the template of the leading strand (A binding with T and G binding with C).

The other strand of DNA is called the _________ strand because it is made _______________. The enzyme DNA polymerase still copies the DNA, but it does it in small chunks called ___________ fragments. These fragments are then joined together into one continuous strand by the enzyme ___________.

DNA polymerase is only able to add new nucleotides in the ___________ direction. This creates problems that are fixed by copying the two strands of DNA slightly differently.

One of the strands of DNA is called the ____________ strand because it’s made ________________. The enzyme DNA polymerase comes in and add new bases to build a new strand that is complementary to the template of the leading strand (A binding with T and G binding with C).

The other strand of DNA is called the _________ strand because it is made _______________. The enzyme DNA polymerase still copies the DNA, but it does it in small chunks called ___________ fragments. These fragments are then joined together into one continuous strand by the enzyme ___________.

How DNA replicatesHow DNA replicates

How DNA replicatesHow DNA replicates After DNA polymerase has built the

two new strands, enzymes called _____________ come in to check that the copies are correct. If there is a mistake, called a ___________, the enzymes will usually cut out the mistake and fix it.

When the process of replication is complete, one of the old template strands stays with one of the newly made strands and the other other strand goes with the other new strand. This is called __________________ replication.

After DNA polymerase has built the two new strands, enzymes called _____________ come in to check that the copies are correct. If there is a mistake, called a ___________, the enzymes will usually cut out the mistake and fix it.

When the process of replication is complete, one of the old template strands stays with one of the newly made strands and the other other strand goes with the other new strand. This is called __________________ replication.

How DNA replicatesHow DNA replicates

When DNA replicatesWhen DNA replicates The process of DNA replication happens before a

cell goes through mitosis or meiosis during a phase of the cell cycle called “S phase.” The “S” stands

for synthesis of DNA.

The process of DNA replication happens before a cell goes through mitosis or meiosis during a phase of the cell cycle called “S phase.” The “S” stands

for synthesis of DNA. G1 and G2 are phases when the cell is ______________. Interphase Is the term for G1, S, and G2 phases- when the cell is preparing to divide during mitosis or meiosis.

How does DNA give us our traits?

How does DNA give us our traits?

DNA gives us our traits by coding for the ______________ that give us our outward appearances. For example, DNA determines the color of the protein pigment made in your eyes and the amount of melanin pigment made in your skin that gives you your skin color.

The process by which a protein is made from DNA is called protein synthesis.

It requires help from another type of molecule called _________.

DNA gives us our traits by coding for the ______________ that give us our outward appearances. For example, DNA determines the color of the protein pigment made in your eyes and the amount of melanin pigment made in your skin that gives you your skin color.

The process by which a protein is made from DNA is called protein synthesis.

It requires help from another type of molecule called _________.

RNA RNA RNA is similar to DNA; they are both

molecules called _____________, but RNA has some differences: RNA is ___________ stranded. RNA has no thymine, instead it has a base called

____________ that takes its place. RNA isn’t in a double helix shape.

There are three kinds of RNA: _________ takes DNA’s message from the nucleus

of the cell to the ribosome. _________ transfers amino acids to the ribosome_________ is what ribosomes are made of.

RNA is similar to DNA; they are both molecules called _____________, but RNA has some differences: RNA is ___________ stranded. RNA has no thymine, instead it has a base called

____________ that takes its place. RNA isn’t in a double helix shape.

There are three kinds of RNA: _________ takes DNA’s message from the nucleus

of the cell to the ribosome. _________ transfers amino acids to the ribosome_________ is what ribosomes are made of.

Protein SynthesisProtein SynthesisThe process is broken down into two basic

steps. The first step is _______________ and it occurs

in the ______________ of the cell. This is when DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase.

The second step is called __________________ and it occurs at the _______________. The mRNA goes to the ribsome to give instructions on how to make the protein and tRNA molecules carry in amino acids to build the protein.

The process is broken down into two basic steps.

The first step is _______________ and it occurs in the ______________ of the cell. This is when DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase.

The second step is called __________________ and it occurs at the _______________. The mRNA goes to the ribsome to give instructions on how to make the protein and tRNA molecules carry in amino acids to build the protein.

TranscriptionTranscription During transcription the enzyme ________________

attaches to _________________ regions (TATA box) and begins to build the new mRNA strand in a complementary fashion. Remember that A=U (no T’s in RNA) and C=G in a 5’ to 3’ direction. When it gets to the end of the gene it’s copying there is a ________________ region that usually contains AAAAAAAA that signals to stop transcription.

Every three “letters” of mRNA is called a _________. Each codon codes for one amino acid in the protein that will eventually be made.

Example: DNA: AAA TTT CCC GGG mRNA: UUU AAA GGG CCC

During transcription the enzyme ________________ attaches to _________________ regions (TATA box) and begins to build the new mRNA strand in a complementary fashion. Remember that A=U (no T’s in RNA) and C=G in a 5’ to 3’ direction. When it gets to the end of the gene it’s copying there is a ________________ region that usually contains AAAAAAAA that signals to stop transcription.

Every three “letters” of mRNA is called a _________. Each codon codes for one amino acid in the protein that will eventually be made.

Example: DNA: AAA TTT CCC GGG mRNA: UUU AAA GGG CCC

mRNA processingmRNA processing

After the mRNA molecule is built during transcription, it has to be ________________ in several ways before it leaves the nucleus: First, It receives a _________ made of Guanine nucleotides on

one end and a __________ on the other end. These protect the molecule and control its transport.

Next, pieces of mRNA segments are removed. Those segments that are moved are called _________(they stay in the nucleus) and the segments that leave and are attached back together are called _________ (they exit the nucleus). The introns are cut out and exons glued back togther by molecules called ________ (small nuclear ribonucleoproteins).This processing allows several proteins to be made from the same gene.

After the mRNA molecule is built during transcription, it has to be ________________ in several ways before it leaves the nucleus: First, It receives a _________ made of Guanine nucleotides on

one end and a __________ on the other end. These protect the molecule and control its transport.

Next, pieces of mRNA segments are removed. Those segments that are moved are called _________(they stay in the nucleus) and the segments that leave and are attached back together are called _________ (they exit the nucleus). The introns are cut out and exons glued back togther by molecules called ________ (small nuclear ribonucleoproteins).This processing allows several proteins to be made from the same gene.

TranslationTranslation After the mRNA has been

processed, it moves from the nucleus of the cell to the ribsome.

The mRNA moves through the ribsome and every three bases/letters- a codon- tells which amino acid to add next.

tRNA molecules carry in the ______________ and drop them off to build the protein. The tRNA knows which amino acid to drop off because it has a three letter sequence called an ________________ that matches in a complementary fashion to the codon of mRNA.

After the mRNA has been processed, it moves from the nucleus of the cell to the ribsome.

The mRNA moves through the ribsome and every three bases/letters- a codon- tells which amino acid to add next.

tRNA molecules carry in the ______________ and drop them off to build the protein. The tRNA knows which amino acid to drop off because it has a three letter sequence called an ________________ that matches in a complementary fashion to the codon of mRNA.

TranslationTranslationThe ribsome has

three sites where translation takes place: The A site: where the

tRNA is ________________.

The P site: where the _________________ (protein) is built

The E Site: where the tRNA ___________ the ribosome

The ribsome has three sites where translation takes place: The A site: where the

tRNA is ________________.

The P site: where the _________________ (protein) is built

The E Site: where the tRNA ___________ the ribosome

A summary of protein synthesis

A summary of protein synthesis

Codon Table Codon Table

You can look the mRNA made from a gene on a codon table to figure out what the protein is

that will be built.

You can look the mRNA made from a gene on a codon table to figure out what the protein is

that will be built.

Bacterial Genetics Bacterial Genetics Bacteria are __________________ and don’t

have a nucleus or organelles. They do have ribosomes.

Bacteria reproduce by a process called _________________ - it is asexual reproduction.

Bacteria have only _____________ main chromosome. It is a _________ chromosome, rather than linear as chromosomes are in eukaryotes.

Bacteria also have small, extra pieces of circular DNA called _______________ that they are able to swap with other bacteria.

Bacteria are __________________ and don’t have a nucleus or organelles. They do have ribosomes.

Bacteria reproduce by a process called _________________ - it is asexual reproduction.

Bacteria have only _____________ main chromosome. It is a _________ chromosome, rather than linear as chromosomes are in eukaryotes.

Bacteria also have small, extra pieces of circular DNA called _______________ that they are able to swap with other bacteria.

How bacteria get new genes

How bacteria get new genes

There are three ways that bacteria swap DNA: ______________- two bacteria join with a

tube called a pillus that allows them to swap plasmids.

______________- when a bacteria gets new DNA from a virus that infects it.

_________________- when a bacteria picks up a piece of DNA from the environment.

There are three ways that bacteria swap DNA: ______________- two bacteria join with a

tube called a pillus that allows them to swap plasmids.

______________- when a bacteria gets new DNA from a virus that infects it.

_________________- when a bacteria picks up a piece of DNA from the environment.

Viral GeneticsViral Genetics Viruses are ____________

of cells. Viruses are specific to

specific types of cells they parasitize. For example, _______________ or phages for short, only attack bacteria.

Viruses have a _______________ (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a ___________. Some virsuses also have an _____________ that helps them to penetrate hosts cells- it’s made of phospholipids and proteins.

Viruses are ____________ of cells.

Viruses are specific to specific types of cells they parasitize. For example, _______________ or phages for short, only attack bacteria.

Viruses have a _______________ (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a ___________. Some virsuses also have an _____________ that helps them to penetrate hosts cells- it’s made of phospholipids and proteins.

Viral ReproductionViral ReproductionThere are two basic cycles that viruses follow:

__________ cycle- the virus gets into the host cell and integrates itself into the host DNA. The host cell makes copies of the virus and the viruses erupt from the cell, killing the cell in the process. The new virsuses then go infect other cells and repeat this process.

_______________ cycle- the virus incorporates its DNA into the host DNA but then sits dormant. The dormant virus is called a provirus. IT remains inactive until some trigger, usually from the environment, causes the virus to begin the lytic cycle again.

There are two basic cycles that viruses follow: __________ cycle- the virus gets into the host cell and

integrates itself into the host DNA. The host cell makes copies of the virus and the viruses erupt from the cell, killing the cell in the process. The new virsuses then go infect other cells and repeat this process.

_______________ cycle- the virus incorporates its DNA into the host DNA but then sits dormant. The dormant virus is called a provirus. IT remains inactive until some trigger, usually from the environment, causes the virus to begin the lytic cycle again.

Viral ReproductionViral Reproduction

RetrovirusesRetroviruses Some viruses use _______ to carry their genetic

information instead of DNA. They are called retroviruses.

They contain an enzyme called _______________ ______________ that will copy their RNA into DNA. This DNA can then be integrated into the host cells DNA and the lysogenic cycle can proceed.

__________ is an example of a retrovirus.

Some viruses use _______ to carry their genetic information instead of DNA. They are called retroviruses.

They contain an enzyme called _______________ ______________ that will copy their RNA into DNA. This DNA can then be integrated into the host cells DNA and the lysogenic cycle can proceed.

__________ is an example of a retrovirus.

Gene RegulationGene RegulationEvery cell in your body contains the

______ DNA, but some genes are shut off. For example, your eyeball cells don’t

need the same proteins as your liver cells.

In humans these genes can be shut off by _______________ them. There are also regulatory genes that can promote or inhibit the transcription of certain genes.

Every cell in your body contains the ______ DNA, but some genes are shut off.

For example, your eyeball cells don’t need the same proteins as your liver cells.

In humans these genes can be shut off by _______________ them. There are also regulatory genes that can promote or inhibit the transcription of certain genes.

Gene Regulation in BacteriaGene Regulation in Bacteria Gene regulation has been studied the most in bacteria. Bacteria have sequences called __________ that control

gene regulation.

Gene regulation has been studied the most in bacteria. Bacteria have sequences called __________ that control

gene regulation. An operon contains 4 components:

_______________ gene- produces a _________ protein that will block RNA polymerase from making mRNA. ___________ region- a sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase attaches to start transcription___________ region- where the repressor protein can bind____________ genes- the genes that are being controlled

Heredity BackgroundHeredity Background A ________ is a segment of DNA that codes for a trait. An _________ is a version of a gene. For example, there

is an allele for purple flowers (P) and an allele for white flowers (p) in pea plants.

To talk about alleles we use letters. We usually use the first letter of the dominant trait to represent the gene and the lower case version to represent the recessive gene.

A ______ is the location of a gene on a chromosome. In a diploid organism all cells contain two copies of

every chromosome, one they have inherited from their mother and one they have inherited from their father. These are called _____________ chromosomes. These two chromosomes have genes for traits in the same locus, but the alleles may be different.

A ________ is a segment of DNA that codes for a trait. An _________ is a version of a gene. For example, there

is an allele for purple flowers (P) and an allele for white flowers (p) in pea plants.

To talk about alleles we use letters. We usually use the first letter of the dominant trait to represent the gene and the lower case version to represent the recessive gene.

A ______ is the location of a gene on a chromosome. In a diploid organism all cells contain two copies of

every chromosome, one they have inherited from their mother and one they have inherited from their father. These are called _____________ chromosomes. These two chromosomes have genes for traits in the same locus, but the alleles may be different.

Heredity Background Heredity Background The alleles are referred to as being either

dominant or recessive. The dominant gene will _____________ the effect of the recessive gene.

The genes that an individual has are its ____________. The appearance it has is its _____________.

There are three possible genotypes: _______________ -having one dominant and one

recessive allele (Pp) - the phenotype will be dominant____________________- having two copies of the dominant

gene (PP)- the phenotype will be dominant____________________- having two copies of the same

recessive gene (pp)- the phenotype will be recessive

The alleles are referred to as being either dominant or recessive. The dominant gene will _____________ the effect of the recessive gene.

The genes that an individual has are its ____________. The appearance it has is its _____________.

There are three possible genotypes: _______________ -having one dominant and one

recessive allele (Pp) - the phenotype will be dominant____________________- having two copies of the dominant

gene (PP)- the phenotype will be dominant____________________- having two copies of the same

recessive gene (pp)- the phenotype will be recessive

Mendel & His Pea PlantsMendel & His Pea Plants Gregor Mendel was the first person to realize that traits

are inherited in a predictable way. He didn’t know about DNA.

Mendel made what he called “__________________” pea plants- meaning that they always produced offspring that looked like themselves (they were actually ____________________).

He crossed a true breeding purple pea plant with a true breeding white pea plant and realized that it always produced all ____________ pea plants.

He repeated this experiment looking at other traits- flower position (axial or terminal), height (tall or short), pea color (green or yellow), and pea texture (round or wrinkled) and every time _______% of the offspring showed only one of the traits.

He called the trait that showed up ___________.

Gregor Mendel was the first person to realize that traits are inherited in a predictable way. He didn’t know about DNA.

Mendel made what he called “__________________” pea plants- meaning that they always produced offspring that looked like themselves (they were actually ____________________).

He crossed a true breeding purple pea plant with a true breeding white pea plant and realized that it always produced all ____________ pea plants.

He repeated this experiment looking at other traits- flower position (axial or terminal), height (tall or short), pea color (green or yellow), and pea texture (round or wrinkled) and every time _______% of the offspring showed only one of the traits.

He called the trait that showed up ___________.

Mendel & His Pea PlantsMendel & His Pea PlantsMendel then took the experiment a step

farther. He crossed two of the offspring from his first

cross. He always saw a ______ ratio of dominant:

recessive. So, for example, he saw 3 purple pea plants for every 1 white pea plant.

He called the trait that came back the _____________ trait.

We can now explain the results of Mendels experiments using a tool called a ____________ ___________. His experimental results can also be replicated in other organisms.

Mendel then took the experiment a step farther.

He crossed two of the offspring from his first cross.

He always saw a ______ ratio of dominant: recessive. So, for example, he saw 3 purple pea plants for every 1 white pea plant.

He called the trait that came back the _____________ trait.

We can now explain the results of Mendels experiments using a tool called a ____________ ___________. His experimental results can also be replicated in other organisms.

Punnett SquaresPunnett SquaresA cross looking at only

one trait (flower color) is called a ______________ cross and requires a box with four squares.

The mother’s gametes (eggs) are put on one side and the father’s gametes (sperm) on the other side. Each box represents a possible __________________.

A cross looking at only one trait (flower color) is called a ______________ cross and requires a box with four squares.

The mother’s gametes (eggs) are put on one side and the father’s gametes (sperm) on the other side. Each box represents a possible __________________.

Punnett Squares Punnett Squares

A ______________ cross looks at two traits. For example, pea color and pea shape. It requires a punnett square with 16 boxes.

When two double heterozygous individuals are crossed, it will always produce a ____________ ratio.

A ______________ cross looks at two traits. For example, pea color and pea shape. It requires a punnett square with 16 boxes.

When two double heterozygous individuals are crossed, it will always produce a ____________ ratio.

A Test CrossA Test Cross A ________________ is a

special type of monohybrid cross used when you don’t know the genotype of an organism with a ____________ phenotype. For example if you have a purple flowered pea plant it could be PP or Pp. To figure out which it is you would cross the plant with a homozygous recessive individual.

A ________________ is a special type of monohybrid cross used when you don’t know the genotype of an organism with a ____________ phenotype. For example if you have a purple flowered pea plant it could be PP or Pp. To figure out which it is you would cross the plant with a homozygous recessive individual.

Incomplete DominanceIncomplete Dominance This is a special type

of inheritance where the dominant allele is not completely dominant over the recessive allele. This produces a ______________ appearance. For example, if you cross a red snapdragon (RR) with a white snap dragon (rr) the heterozygous offspring (Rr) are pink.

This is a special type of inheritance where the dominant allele is not completely dominant over the recessive allele. This produces a ______________ appearance. For example, if you cross a red snapdragon (RR) with a white snap dragon (rr) the heterozygous offspring (Rr) are pink.

CodominanceCodominance

In codominance, there is more than one dominant allele. If a person has both of them they will ____________ them both. For example, in human red blood cells there are several genes (multiple alleles) for blood type: A, B, and O. A and B are codominant.

In codominance, there is more than one dominant allele. If a person has both of them they will ____________ them both. For example, in human red blood cells there are several genes (multiple alleles) for blood type: A, B, and O. A and B are codominant.

Epistasis Epistasis This occurs when one gene affects

the _______________ expression of another gene. IT occurs in fur in mice. One gene codes for the presence or absence of pigmentation. The other gene determines the color of the pigmentation, if it’s present.

In Labrador retriever dogs, the dominant gene C determines if the pigment will be deposited in the hair. C=pigment c=no pigment. The different colors of labs are: black (BB or Bb), chocolate (bb) or yellow (cc) regaredless of the other genes (B, b).

What is the coat color? CCBB= Ccbb=

ccBB=

This occurs when one gene affects the _______________ expression of another gene. IT occurs in fur in mice. One gene codes for the presence or absence of pigmentation. The other gene determines the color of the pigmentation, if it’s present.

In Labrador retriever dogs, the dominant gene C determines if the pigment will be deposited in the hair. C=pigment c=no pigment. The different colors of labs are: black (BB or Bb), chocolate (bb) or yellow (cc) regaredless of the other genes (B, b).

What is the coat color? CCBB= Ccbb=

ccBB=

PleitropyPleitropy

When a single gene has __________ than one effect on an organisms phenotype. For example, the gene for sick cell anemia causes: an abnormally shaped red blood cell, poor circulation, damage to the heart, kidneys, brain, and other organs, anemia, pneumonia, heart and kidney failure, bone abnormalities, etc.

When a single gene has __________ than one effect on an organisms phenotype. For example, the gene for sick cell anemia causes: an abnormally shaped red blood cell, poor circulation, damage to the heart, kidneys, brain, and other organs, anemia, pneumonia, heart and kidney failure, bone abnormalities, etc.

Polygenic InheritancePolygenic Inheritance This is when ________ genes

contribute to a phenotype. For example, human height and skin color are controlled by many genes. This causes phenotypes that are not just short or tall, but rather a continuous variation.

The height of a plant is a result of polygenic inheritance involving 4 genes, each of which adds 2 cm. to the base height of the plant. The base height of the plant is 6 cm.

If a tall plant (AABBCCDD) is crossed with a base height plant (aabbccdd) what is the

height of the F1 plants?

This is when ________ genes contribute to a phenotype. For example, human height and skin color are controlled by many genes. This causes phenotypes that are not just short or tall, but rather a continuous variation.

The height of a plant is a result of polygenic inheritance involving 4 genes, each of which adds 2 cm. to the base height of the plant. The base height of the plant is 6 cm.

If a tall plant (AABBCCDD) is crossed with a base height plant (aabbccdd) what is the

height of the F1 plants?

When Punnett Squares Don’t Work When Punnett Squares Don’t Work Punnett square can correctly

predict inheritance when two genes are on _____________ chromosomes and separate independently into gametes.

When two genes are on the same chromosome we say they are ___________. Linked genes do not separate independently into gametes- so they are more likely to be inherited together. If two traits are linked, the offspring will look more like the parents, rather than the way you would predict using a punnett square.

Punnett square can correctly predict inheritance when two genes are on _____________ chromosomes and separate independently into gametes.

When two genes are on the same chromosome we say they are ___________. Linked genes do not separate independently into gametes- so they are more likely to be inherited together. If two traits are linked, the offspring will look more like the parents, rather than the way you would predict using a punnett square.

Sex Linked InheritanceSex Linked Inheritance

Humans and many other animals have an X and a Y chromsomethat determine their gender (XX- __________, XY- _________). All other chromosomes are called ________________. When a gene is located on a sex chromosome,

certain genders are more likely to inherit that gene. We can still predict inheritance using a punnett square, we just figure in sex.

Red-green color blindness and baldness are both sex linked traits.

Humans and many other animals have an X and a Y chromsomethat determine their gender (XX- __________, XY- _________). All other chromosomes are called ________________. When a gene is located on a sex chromosome,

certain genders are more likely to inherit that gene. We can still predict inheritance using a punnett square, we just figure in sex.

Red-green color blindness and baldness are both sex linked traits.

X InactivationX Inactivation In females, one of the X chromosomes in every cell

in the body is randomly shut down into a compact structure called a _________________- it no longer codes for proteins.

A very visible example of this is in calico cats. Their yellow and black colors

are caused by a gene on one x chromsome (the white color is on

an autosome).

In females, one of the X chromosomes in every cell in the body is randomly shut down into a compact structure called a _________________- it no longer codes for proteins.

A very visible example of this is in calico cats. Their yellow and black colors

are caused by a gene on one x chromsome (the white color is on

an autosome).

PedigreesPedigrees A pedigree is a family tree that shows the inheritance of

a trait. A square represents a male and a circle represents a female. A shaded individual has the trait in question. It is often possible from the pedigree to determine the genotype of individuals and to determine whether a trait is dominant or recessive. _______________ traits can skip generations, ___________ traits show up in every generation.

A pedigree is a family tree that shows the inheritance of a trait. A square represents a male and a circle represents a female. A shaded individual has the trait in question. It is often possible from the pedigree to determine the genotype of individuals and to determine whether a trait is dominant or recessive. _______________ traits can skip generations, ___________ traits show up in every generation.

KaryotypesKaryotypes A karyotype is a picture of all of thechromosomes in a cell from an organism. It is made by adding a chemical during _______________ that breaks down the spindle fibers in a cell. The cell is then squished and a picture of the chromosomes is taken. The chromosomes are then lined up from largest

to smallest. This allows geneticists to see if a person has an extra, missing or

abnormal chromosome.

A karyotype is a picture of all of thechromosomes in a cell from an organism. It is made by adding a chemical during _______________ that breaks down the spindle fibers in a cell. The cell is then squished and a picture of the chromosomes is taken. The chromosomes are then lined up from largest

to smallest. This allows geneticists to see if a person has an extra, missing or

abnormal chromosome.

MutationsMutations A mutation is a _____________ in DNA. It can be caused by

environmental factors, such as chemicals or sunlight, or can be caused by an error during replication. There are many types or mutations: A point mutation- impacts only one base (this is the

most common type of mutation)An insertion- a new base is inserted A deletion- a base is removedA duplication- a base is copied A translocation- a segment of DNA is moved from one

chromosome to another chromosomeAn inversion- a segment is flippedA nonsense mutation- inserts a stop codon that prevents

a protein from being madeA missense mutation- changes the protein being made

A mutation is a _____________ in DNA. It can be caused by environmental factors, such as chemicals or sunlight, or can be caused by an error during replication. There are many types or mutations: A point mutation- impacts only one base (this is the

most common type of mutation)An insertion- a new base is inserted A deletion- a base is removedA duplication- a base is copied A translocation- a segment of DNA is moved from one

chromosome to another chromosomeAn inversion- a segment is flippedA nonsense mutation- inserts a stop codon that prevents

a protein from being madeA missense mutation- changes the protein being made

MutationsMutations Mutations are usually neutral or have no affect.

There are two reasons for this: 1. Mutations that occur in introns will not be

expressed in the protein being made. 2. Mutations that affect the third letter in a codon

often don’t change the amino acid that gets added due to redundancy in the genetic code. This is known as the wobble effect.

Mutations can also be harmful or even beneficial if they make a protein work more efficiently.

Mutations are an important source of new genetic variety. This is where new traits come from.

Mutations are usually neutral or have no affect. There are two reasons for this:

1. Mutations that occur in introns will not be expressed in the protein being made.

2. Mutations that affect the third letter in a codon often don’t change the amino acid that gets added due to redundancy in the genetic code. This is known as the wobble effect.

Mutations can also be harmful or even beneficial if they make a protein work more efficiently.

Mutations are an important source of new genetic variety. This is where new traits come from.

DNA TechnologyDNA TechnologyBiologist have utilized their knowledge of

genetics, inheritance and DNA to manipulate it for useful purposes.

Because the DNA in every individual is different, DNA can be used to identify individuals or to compare species.

This information can tell us about how different species have evolved and their genes have changed over time. It can tell us if an individual’s DNA was found at a crime scene. It can also tell us who a person’s parents are.

Biologist have utilized their knowledge of genetics, inheritance and DNA to manipulate it for useful purposes.

Because the DNA in every individual is different, DNA can be used to identify individuals or to compare species.

This information can tell us about how different species have evolved and their genes have changed over time. It can tell us if an individual’s DNA was found at a crime scene. It can also tell us who a person’s parents are.

Gel Electrophoresis Gel Electrophoresis Gel electrophoresis is a process that allows us to identify individuals

for crime or paternity cases, among other uses. To create a __________________ using gel electrophoresis the DNA

must first be chopped up into pieces. Enzymes called _________________ are added to chop up the DNA. These enzyme cut the DNA at predictable locations, but the locations vary from person to person. The variation in sizes of the fragments from each person are called restriction fragment length polymorphisms or _________.

After the DNA is chopped up it is placed in an agarose gel which is covered in a buffer. Electricity is then applied. This causes the ____________________ of DNA to move farther towards the positive end of the gel (DNA is _____________ charged).

The DNA is then stained so that the unique bands can be observed and compared.

Gel electrophoresis is a process that allows us to identify individuals for crime or paternity cases, among other uses.

To create a __________________ using gel electrophoresis the DNA must first be chopped up into pieces. Enzymes called _________________ are added to chop up the DNA. These enzyme cut the DNA at predictable locations, but the locations vary from person to person. The variation in sizes of the fragments from each person are called restriction fragment length polymorphisms or _________.

After the DNA is chopped up it is placed in an agarose gel which is covered in a buffer. Electricity is then applied. This causes the ____________________ of DNA to move farther towards the positive end of the gel (DNA is _____________ charged).

The DNA is then stained so that the unique bands can be observed and compared.

Gel Electrophoresis

Gel Electrophoresis

PCRPCR Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is

a machine that is capable of making many ___________ of DNA in a short period of time. This is very useful if only a tiny amount of DNA is found at a crime scene. The process is very similar to DNA replication in a cell.

First, the strand of DNA to be copied is placed in a test tube with the following: primers to signal where to start copying, nucleotides to be used to build the new DNA strands, and Taq polymerase (a DNA polymerase that is stable at high temperatures).

The machine then heats up to separate the DNA strands (instead of helicase doing this) and the DNA is copied. The machine cools down and then heats back up again, allowing an ______________ amount of DNA to be made.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a machine that is capable of making many ___________ of DNA in a short period of time. This is very useful if only a tiny amount of DNA is found at a crime scene. The process is very similar to DNA replication in a cell.

First, the strand of DNA to be copied is placed in a test tube with the following: primers to signal where to start copying, nucleotides to be used to build the new DNA strands, and Taq polymerase (a DNA polymerase that is stable at high temperatures).

The machine then heats up to separate the DNA strands (instead of helicase doing this) and the DNA is copied. The machine cools down and then heats back up again, allowing an ______________ amount of DNA to be made.

Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA refers to DNA from two organisms

that has been _____________. Scientists have inserted animal DNA into other animals, animal DNA into plants, animal DNA into bacteria and animal DNA into viruses.

This has allowed us to make genetically modified foods that possess traits, such

as a longer shelf life or new vitamins. It has also allowed us to make bacteria that will produce human proteins, such as growth hormone or insulin.

Recombinant DNA refers to DNA from two organisms that has been _____________. Scientists have inserted animal DNA into other animals, animal DNA into plants, animal DNA into bacteria and animal DNA into viruses.

This has allowed us to make genetically modified foods that possess traits, such

as a longer shelf life or new vitamins. It has also allowed us to make bacteria that will produce human proteins, such as growth hormone or insulin.

How to make a recombinant bacteriaHow to make a recombinant bacteria First the “____________________” is cut out using restriction

enzymes. Then the plasmid from the bacteria is also cut open using the restriction enzyme. This produces ______________- single strand ends of DNA that will bind with each other. The plamid that’s used also has a gene for ______________________ on it.

The gene of interest and the plasmid are mixed. The enzyme ________ will permanently bind the sticky ends to each other.

Next the bacteria is tricked into taking up the plasmid (transformation) from the environment. The bacteria will now express the protein. The bacteria that are recombinant can be selected for by growing the bacteria on _______ dishes with antibiotics.

Recall that human DNA has __________, which bacteria don’t have. Because of this we must use processed mRNA from humans and then make DNA from it using the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This copy of the human DNA (lacking the introns) is called ___________.

First the “____________________” is cut out using restriction enzymes. Then the plasmid from the bacteria is also cut open using the restriction enzyme. This produces ______________- single strand ends of DNA that will bind with each other. The plamid that’s used also has a gene for ______________________ on it.

The gene of interest and the plasmid are mixed. The enzyme ________ will permanently bind the sticky ends to each other.

Next the bacteria is tricked into taking up the plasmid (transformation) from the environment. The bacteria will now express the protein. The bacteria that are recombinant can be selected for by growing the bacteria on _______ dishes with antibiotics.

Recall that human DNA has __________, which bacteria don’t have. Because of this we must use processed mRNA from humans and then make DNA from it using the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This copy of the human DNA (lacking the introns) is called ___________.

How to make a recombinant bacteriaHow to make a recombinant bacteria

Gene TherapyGene TherapyGene therapy is an attempt to

change the DNA in a human to “correct” it.

Scientists have attempted to do this by creating a recombinant virus capable of changing the DNA in specific human cells.

The first trials with gene therapy involved children with SCID-1 (boy in bubble).

4 of the 9 children cured developed leukemia.

Gene therapy is an attempt to change the DNA in a human to “correct” it.

Scientists have attempted to do this by creating a recombinant virus capable of changing the DNA in specific human cells.

The first trials with gene therapy involved children with SCID-1 (boy in bubble).

4 of the 9 children cured developed leukemia.

DNA SequencingDNA SequencingMachines are capable of automated DNA

sequencing.They are loaded with four nucleotides (A,T,C, G) that flouresce when they bind with a complementary base. The DNA being sequenced is fed through the machine and the machine reads the glowing bases in order. The human genome and the genomes of many other organisms have been sequenced in this way.

Machines are capable of automated DNA sequencing.They are loaded with four nucleotides (A,T,C, G) that flouresce when they bind with a complementary base. The DNA being sequenced is fed through the machine and the machine reads the glowing bases in order. The human genome and the genomes of many other organisms have been sequenced in this way.