Chapter 1: What is Psychology?

1-1 Define psychologyPsychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.

1-2 Describe the various fields of psychologyPsychologists are found in a number of specialties. Clinical psychologists help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life. Counseling psychologists typically see clients with adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders. School psychologists help school systems identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning. Educational psychologists research theoretical issues related to learning, measurement, and child development. Developmental psychologists study the changes-physical, cognitive, social, and emotional-that occur throughout the life span. Personality psychologists identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behaviour. Social psychologists are concerned with the nature and causes of individuals thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in social situations Environmental psychologists study the ways that people and the environment influence one another. Experimental psychologists specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. Industrial psychologists focus on the relationships between people and work. Organizational psychologists study the behaviour of people in organizations such as business. Human factors psychologists make technical system more user-friendly. Consumer psychologists study the behaviour of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behaviour. Health psychologists study the effects of stress on health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Forensic psychologists apply principles of psychology to the criminal justice system. Sport psychologists help people improve their performance in sports.

1-3 Describe the origins of psychology and identify people who made significant contributions to the field Aristotle argued that human behaviour, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. Today, as then, the subject matter of the study of human behaviour includes the study of personality sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory.The following is a list of the historic schools of psychology and the major proponent(s) of each: Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt Functionalism: William James Behaviourism: John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner Gestalt Psychology: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Khler Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Erik Erikson

1-4 Identify the theoretical perspectives from which todays psychologists view behaviour and mental processes Biological perspective to understand the relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution, on the one hand, and behaviour, and mental processes, on the other. Cognitive perspective investigate how we perceive and mentally represent the world by learning, memory, planning, problem solving, decision making, and language. Humanistic-Existential perspective cognitive in flavour, yet emphasizes more the role of subjective (personal) experience. Psychodynamic perspective focus less on the unconscious-as was done in Freuds day-and more on conscious choice and self-direction. Sociocultural perspective studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behaviour and mental processes.

1-5 Explain how psychologists study behaviour and mental processes, focusing on critical thinking, research methods, and ethical considerationsPsychologists must use careful means to observe and measure behaviour and the factors that influence behaviour. Psychologists use evidence and critical thinking-the process of thoughtfully analyzing and probing the questions, statements, and arguments of others. The scientific method is a systematic way of organizing and expanding scientific knowledge. Daily experiences, common beliefs, and scientific observations all contribute to the development of theories. Psychological theories explain observations and lead to hypotheses about behaviour and mental processes. Observations can then confirm the theory or lead to its refinement of abandonment. Many factors-such as the nature of the research sample-must be considered in interpreting the accuracy of the results of scientific research. Psychologists must also adhere to a number of ethical standards that are intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare, and scientific integrity. The standards are also intended to ensure that psychologists do not engage in harmful research methods or treatments.

Chapter 2: Biology and Psychology

2-1 Describe the nervous system, including neurons, neural impulses, and neurotransmittersThe nervous system regulates the body and is involved in thought processes, emotional responses, heartbeat, and motor activity. The central nervous system contains the brain and the spinal cord. The somatic nervous system transmits sensory information about skeletal muscles, skin, and joints and controls skeletal muscular activity. The autonomic nervous system regulates glands and activities like digestion. Neurons transmit information through electrochemical neural impulses. Their dendrites receive messages and their axons conduct messages, transmitting them to other cells via neurotransmitters. The autonomic nervous system also has two branches, or divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic. Sympathetic branch most active during activities that expend energy. Parasympathetic branch acts to replenish stores of energy in the body.

2-2 List the structures of the brain and their functions Thalamus serves as a relay station for sensory stimulation Hypothalamus regulates body temperature and influences motivation Cerebrum handles critical thinking and language; prefrontal area contains executive center of brain Pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate many body functions, including secretion of hormones from other glands; sometimes referred to as the master gland Corpus callosum thick bundle of axons that serves as a bridge between th two cerebral hemispheres Cerebellum essential to balance and coordination Reticular formation involved in regulation of sleep and waking; stimulation of reticular formation increases arousal Pons involved in regulation of movement, sleep and arousal, respiration Medulla involved in regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, circulation

2-3 Explain the role of the endocrine system and list the endocrine glandsThe glands of endocrine system secrete hormones regulating development and activity. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone, prolactin, and oxytocin. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle and may affect the onset of puberty. The thyroid regulates metabolism. The adrenal cortex produces steroids. The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine, which increases the metabolic rate and stimulates general emotional arousal. The sex hormones are responsible for sexual differentiation and regulate the menstrual cycle in females.

2-4 Describe evolutionary psychology and the connections between heredity, behaviour, and mental processesEvolutionary psychology studies the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behaviour. One of the concepts of evolutionary is that not only physical traits but also many patterns of behaviour, including social behaviour, evolve and can be transmitted to the next generation. Such behaviours are believed to include aggression, strategies of mate selection, even altruism.Heredity defines ones nature, which is based on biological structures and processes. Heredity refers to the biological transmission of traits that have evolved from generation to generation. The subfield of biology that studies heredity is called genetics.Genes are the most basic building blocks of heredity. Genes regulate the development of specific traits and are segments of chromosomes. That is, chromosomes are made up of strings of genes. Each cell in the body contains 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Chromosomes are large complex molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which has several chemical components.

Chapter 3: The Voyage Through the Life Span

9-1 Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones playThe fetal stage lasts from the beginning of the third month until birth. By the end of the third month, the major organ systems and the fingers and toes have formed. In the middle of the fourth month, the mother usually detects the first fetal movements. By the end of the sixth month, the fetus moves its limbs so vigorously that mothers often feel that they are being kicked. The fetus opens and shuts its eyes, sucks its thumb, alternates between periods of being awake and sleeping, and responds to light. It also turns somersaults, which can be perceived by the mother. During the three months prior to birth, the organ systems of the fetus continue to mature. The heart and lungs become increasingly capable of sustaining independent life. The fetus gains 5 1/2 pounds and doubles in length. Newborn boys average about 7 1/2 pounds and newborn girls about 7 pounds.

9-2 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of childrenPhysical development is advances in physical abilities. A newborn cannot change position, but a two-year-old can run. Many individual developmental steps make this change possible. Random movements of the newborns legs and arms add strength. The infant eventually becomes strong enough to roll over. Crawling follows. Next, the baby learns to stand upright and finally takes a few steps. It takes months of walking practice for steadiness and coordination to improve, and then running is possible. Cognitive development is the way people change and improve in their ability to think and learn throughout life. You sense what is happening around you. You memorize facts for a test and try to recall them during a test. You organize your thoughts to write a paragraph. Moral development is the Decisions about what is right or wrong depend on whether you will be punished or rewarded for your behaviour. Social-emotional development includes the areas of relationships and feelings. Individuals must learn social skills and how to care about others. They must develop both self-confidence and self-esteem. For example, learning self-control is an important skill for kindergarteners. Students learn to wait their turn, form a line, and listen while the teacher gives instructions.

9-3 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adolescentsOne of the most noticeable physical developments of adolescence is a growth spurt that lasts two or three years and ends the gradual changes in height and weight that characterize most of childhood. In cognitive development they undergo to cognitive maturity and involve classification, logical thought, and the ability to hypothesize. In moral development, Kohlbergs research around the levels of moral reasoning found postconventional moral judgments were absent until about age 16, when stage 5 reasoning is shown by about 20% of adolescents. According to Erik Eriksons eight stages of psychosocial development, the fifth stage-ego identify versus role diffusion-occurs in adolescence.

9-4 Explain the features of emerging adulthoodDuring the ages of 18-25, it is the age of identity explorations, of trying out various possibilities, especially in love and work. It is the age of instability. It is the most self-focused age of life. It is the age of feeling in-between, in transition, neither adolescent nor adult. It is the age of possibilities, when hopes flourish, when people have an unparalleled opportunity to transform their lives.

9-5 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adults A number of physical changes is the reason for aging, however, are not yet completely understood. People are at the height of their cognitive powers during early adulthood. Cognitive development in adulthood has many aspects-creativity, memory functioning, and intelligence. Changes in social and emotional development are probably the most elastic or fluid. The challenge for the late adulthood is to maintain ones sense of identity despite physical deterioration.