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Gender Stratification

I. Define: Unequal access to power, prestige, (social) and property (economic) on the basis of gender

II. Concepts:

A. Sex: biological characteristics that

distinguish males and females B. Gender: are social characteristics assigned

by society on the basis of sex

1. Sex is biological 2. Gender is socially constructed 3. Gender is a social control mechanism 4. Homophobia (dislike or hatred of

homosexuals) is a gender social control mechanism

That is “so gay” Don’t be such a “little bitch” Men tend to be more homophobic than

women Men with the highest levels of

homophobia have the most traditional roles

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Men who gay bash report “gender deviance” as the motivator

Men have less leeway then women in gender role performance

III. Nature vs Nurture: Does biology or environment

influence behavior?

A. Biological determinism (essentialism): explains human behavior and differences between men and women as the result of physical differences (hormones, genetics, physical characteristics).

Modest correlation between testosterone and male aggression Some evidence that there is a “male” and “female” brain Differences between genders (or sexes) are less than within a gender group

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B. Social Constructionist: Human behavior and

gender differences are the result of environmental influences including culture and gender socialization.

Gender socialization teaches cultural expectations about gender roles or the expectations assigned to being male or female. Variety of institutions impact gender socialization

C. Sociologist’s POV:

1. Tend to take the nurture or social constructionist side

2. Society makes meaning out of physical differences by sex

3. Social differences come to be seen as “natural” or “divine”

4. Ideas of gender vary from culture to culture

D. New Research

1. Some behavior that we thought was due entirely to socialization has

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biological factors (John/Joan – Brenda/Steve case study)

2. Some behavior that is motivated by biological factors is modified by social factors (Vietnam study and aggression in men)

IV. Women as a minority

A. Not numbers but access to power B. Huber: Women’s subordinate role due to

their role in childbearing C. Patriarchy (male dominance of a society) is

due to a variety of factors that are historically and culturally specific but gender “differences” are seen as natural

D. Society has acted to reinforce patriarchy with gendered institutions

E. Egalitarian Societies

Work of women is central to the economy Female access to education Support for gender inequality is weak Men contribute to household work Low work sex segregation Access to formal power and decision-making

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V. Gender Inequality in the United States

A. Gender Inequality in Education

1. Gender tracking: women follow traditional fields

2. Proportion of women decreases in graduate school

3. More women are receiving advanced degrees but they still lag behind men

B. Gender Inequality in Health Care:

1. Women’s symptoms not taken as seriously

2. Medical research has traditionally used male subjects

3. Profit-making on removing “unnecessary” organs

C. Gender Inequality in the Workplace

1. Substantial increase in the number of women in the paid labor force

a. Poor, minority women have always

worked b. Increase in white working women with

children under the age of six

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c. Minority and white women’s labor force participation rates have converged

d. Regional differences

2. Pay Gap

a. Women who work full-time average 76% of what men are paid

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b. Historical Data

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c. Pay gap differs by country

d. Pay gap exists despite increasing

education

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Average Full-Time Wage & Salary Worker Earnings, 2001.

Occupational Category

Male Female Female as a % of Male

Managerial 53,976 38,064 71% Technical, Sales, Admin

34,864 24,596 71%

Service 22,776 17,420 76% Precision Production 33,696 24,908 74% Operators 26,052 19,136 74% Farming 19,032 16,016 84%

Note: Hispanics can be from any race group, Original data weekly average. Estimated annual salary

Table no. 613, Pg. 403. 2002 National Data Book.

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Average Earnings (in dollars) of Year-Round, Full-time Workers by Educational Attainment, 1999.

Education Male Female Female % of Male Earnings

Less than 9th Grade 18,743 12,392 66%

No High School Diploma

18,903 12,057 64%

High School Diploma

30,144 18,092 60%

Some College 33,614 20,241 60% Associates Degree 40,047 25,079 63% Bachelor’s or more 66,810 36,755 55%

Table no. 677, Pg. 441. Statistical Abstract of the United States, National Data Book.

2001.

3. Comparative Worth: paying men and

women equivalent wages for jobs that require a comparable degree of skill and training

Different from “equal pay for equal

work” When implemented, women’s wages

improve 4. Glass Ceiling

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a. Tendency for women to be in positions that do not provide adequate experience for promotion

b. Human resources and public relations are not as valued as sales, marketing, or production

c. Women lack mentors d. Women who are executives often have

supportive husbands e. Men in traditional women’s jobs

benefit from the glass escalator

5. Sexual Harassment

a. Unwanted sexual attention b. Not about attraction but abuse of

power c. Two Types

• Quid pro Quo • Chilly Climate

d. Women more likely to be the victim e. Contra power harassment targets

women with power IV. Theories of Pay Gap Inequality

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A. Human Capital: Differences are the result of individual characteristics that people bring to the job

The economic system is fair and competitive Age, prior experience, child-bearing, education,

etc. are variables that explain discrepancies Critics: Pay gap due to career choices (50%)

other half due to gender discrimination

B. Dual Labor Market Theory: Pay gap due to gender segregation and segmented labor markets

1. Men more concentrated in the primary

market 2. Women more in the secondary market

or the less prestigious tier of the primary market

3. Women’s work is devalued When an occupation becomes

female-dominated wages decline Use-value vs exchange value

labor 4. Women that move into male-

dominated fields face barriers Labeling: Gender deviants Sexual harassment

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VII: Feminist Movement: Advocating a more just society for women

A. Two “waves” of feminism

1. First: Suffragists (1920s) 2. Second: 1960s

B. Types of Feminism

1. Liberal • Longest history • Application of the policy that

women are equal to men • Reform working within the

system

2. Radical Celebration of women and

women’s activities Women’s oppression is

fundamental (occurred first, needs to be dealt with first)

Women who are “male-identified” give men power

3. Socialist Capitalism maintains sex or gender

stratification Need to replace capitalism

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Emphasize need for structural change

4. Multiracial feminism: race, class, and gender intersect

multiple jeopardy Women of color become agents of

change through their alliance with other groups