International Journal of Traffic and Transportation Psychology

Volume 1, ISSUE 2 – www.ijttp.ro

46

GENDER DIFERENCES IN ABSTRRACT FIGURE SHORT

TERM MEMORY AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING-A PILOT

STUDY

MIHAELA CHRAIF *a

, GABRIEL MANEAb

a,b University of Bucharest,

Department of Psychology

Abstract

This pilot study is focused on highlighting possible gender differences in abstract

figures retrieval process and deductive reasoning at young undergraduate students at

psychology. Method: The participants were a number of 53 undergraduate students at

Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, age

between 19 and 24 years old (M=20.56; S.D.=1.56), 25 male and 28 female, rural and

urban areas, from Romania. Instruments were the 2D visualization and NVLT

psychological tests (Vienna Tests System, 2012). Results: According to the results there is

no statistically significant difference between correct responses (p> 0.05) and incorrect

responses (p> 0.05) in the tests that measures abstract figures retrieval according to

gender. Also, there is a statistically significant difference between correct and incorrect

responses to the test that measures visual perception by gender (p> 0.05). Conclusions:

These findings are supported by previous research in visual-spatial perception and

research on nonverbal learning and memory skills.

Keywords: experimental design, abstract figures retrieval process, short term

memory, deductive reasoning.

Cuvinte cheie: design experimental,recunoaştere figurilor concrete, memorie pe

termen scurt, raţionament deductiv.

Corresponding author: Mihaela Chraif

Email: mihaelapopa14@yahoo.com

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1. INTRODUCTION

The concept of short-term memory was proposed by William James in the late

19th century, which distinguishes between primary memory that is associated with

awareness and secondary memory which refers to storing things long term. In the

early 1950s, short-term memory referred to tasks in which memory was very little

involved in short intervals, in contrast to long-term memory involving tasks with

intervals of a few seconds. It was later clarified that short term memory is not so

purely reflected, but one thing was certain, it greatly influences long-term memory

(Baddeley, 2000).

The classical paradigm was postulated by Peterson & Peterson (1959) when,

during an experiment, they presented three consonants and they asked subjects to

memorize them in periods between 0 and 18 seconds. The findings of this study

were that short-term memory declines after 5 seconds and long-term memory

increases discriminating previous items, the results of proactive interference

(Keppel & Underwood, 1962) The study of short-term memory has been

extensively studied, and literature is strong in this area. Short-term memory was a

major component in the development of cognitive psychology in the early 1960s.

Wanting to develop a model of information processing for short-term memory

many controversies were born (Baddeley, 2000).

Crowder (1982), says that because of insufficient methods of the 1960s to

demonstrate the influence of short-term memory on other psychological

mechanisms, interest in this study had a significant decline.

The researchers din not leave the subject all together, and included short-term

memory in complex concepts easier to measure, such as working memory, which

in turn is an old but much more complex concept, being defined as a system that

uses memory storage bag, helping complex cognitive tasks such as learning,

understanding, and reasoning (reasoning) (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974).

Interest in working memory is considerable even nowadays, short-term

memory being a part of this very complex concept, registering mixed results in

Europe and the United States. In the 1990s, the concept began to be studied

extensively, this whole area of cognitive processes was further stimulated by

imagery technique where working memory as a main component experienced a

level of abstraction and complexity that has not been studied due to brain scanning

techniques (Baddeley, 2000).

Research in this area started to be very productive with measuring

instruments, now linking cognitive psychology and neuropsychology, which

develops hypothesis in the research part of the brain that is involved in certain

tasks, thus linking cognitive psychology to neuro-anatomy, to provide a coherent

psychology framework (Baddeley, 2000). As a result of the many developments

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experienced by short-term memory and working memory, researchers use this

concept in other areas of research (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974).

Deductive reasoning is the ability to apply general rules to specific cases to

arrive at logical answers involves deciding whether an answer makes sense (ex the

ability to respond appropriately to other members of the healthcare team requests)

(Chraif & Anitei, 2013).

One of the theories that underlies deductive reasoning is transitive inference

which is the form of relational reasoning in which objects are arranged on a single

dimension (ex A is ahead of B, B is ahead of C, then A must be ahead of C). We

use many comparisons of this kind in our everyday language daily, transmitting its’

transitivity property. The most popular model of transitive inference of deductive

reasoning in psychology is linear syllogism (Mary is taller than Susan, Susan is

taller than John, Mary is taller than John) (Shaeken et. al., 1999). This theory was

popular in the 1960-1970 and has been relatively neglected in recent literature

(Shaeken et. al., 1999). Literature is dominated by two theories, the theory of

mental imagery (De Soto, London & Handel 1965 Huttenlocher, 1968 cited

Shaeken et. al., 1999) and the linguistic theory of Clark (1969) as cited Shaeken et.

al. (1999).

According the theory of imagery, people solve problems by building visual

images in which objects are placed one above the other. Such a premise as "Mary

is taller than Susan" is determined by a space series, and the image can be

inspected to answer questions like: Who is less tall?. This theory has had a great

success, leading to predictions about the difficulty of the problem based on

principles, for example, the preferred direction of work (Schaeken et. al., 1999).

Clark's theory on the other hand, assumes that the information was linguistic coded

and integrated only when put into practice in the form of questions. This theory

also goes on the principle of lexical marking and matching: the processing of

unmarked comparative adjectives.

2. OBJECTIVE AND HYPOTHESES

2.1. OBJECTIVE

Highlighting the possible gender differences in the retrieval of abstract figures

at young undergraduate psychology students;

Highlighting possible gender differences in the process of deductive

reasoning at young undergraduate psychology students;

2.2. HYPOTHESES

There are statistically significant gender differences in deductive reasoning at

young undergraduate students at psychology,

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There are statistically significant gender differences in abstract forms memory

retrieval processes at young undergraduate students at psychology.

3. METHOD

3.1. PARTICIPANTS

At this study the participants were a number of 53 undergraduate students at

Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of

Bucharest, age between 19 and 24 years old (M=20.56; S.D.=1.56), 25 male and 28

female, rural and urban areas, from Romania.

3.2. INSTRUMENTS

2D visualization test (Vienna Test System, 2012), is a non-verbal test

designed to assess the ability of mental visualization and the ability to

apply transformations of objects in three-dimensional space, suitable

for use with subjects older than 15.

Figure 1. Item sample from 2D visualization test

The test (Figure 1) has a single form with 22 items with different degrees of

difficulty.

Time necessary for the test in itself is 6 minutes plus another 2-3 minutes

needed for instruction and exercises.

NVLT - Non-verbal Learning Test (Vienna test System, 2012).

Evaluation of non-verbal learning: graphic material that is difficult to

verbalize, consisting partly of geometric and partly irregular shapes are presented

for memorization.

Some figures (in both types of cell) repeatedly appear during the test.

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Figure 2. Item sample from NVLT abstract figure retrieval process

For the NVLT test, the material stored is recalled from using the updating

memory method through the presenting of the recognizable stimulus. The NVLT

test results (Figure 2) provide information about the coding capacity of the subject.

The test has 22 items. For the first eight items only one segment is required to

complete the given figure, for the next 8 items two segments are required, and the

last six require three segments.

Number of items correctly worked is taken as a measure of visual space.

3.3. PROCEDURE Individuals participating in the study were explained what each test consists

of. For the 2 D test- Visualizations a figure must be completed. The starting point

is a segment with a segment missing; in every element the missing part is of a

different shape. At the bottom of the given figure there are 16 different segments,

which are also of various forms. For each item there must be selected one, two or

three of these fragments to fill the gap so as to complete the item above. During the

test, eight of the forms presented are repeated seven times in a long form (seven

blocks of elements), and five times in the short form. For each form the respondent

must decide whether he\she has seen it before or if it is presented for the first time.

Respondent must press one of two buttons assigned corresponding to the two

possible answers, depending on the decision.

The NVLT test focuses on the completion of the missing figure from a model.

Thus, subjects have to choose the missing of figure or figures as shown in Figure 1

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3.4. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Independent variables are the followings: Participants’ gender: male and

female.

Dependent variable: number of correct solved items (correct score 2D) and

number of items solved incorrectly (incorrect score) after application of 2D test.

For the NVLT test the dependent variables are: Difference between correct and

incorrect scores NVLT, NVLT Correct score, score Incorrect NVLT

Figure 3 Experimental design for testing research hypotheses on gender differences

4. RESULTS

. The results obtained from 2 D Vizualization and NVLT tests were managed

and calculated using SPSS 15.

Table 1. Means, standard deviations and distribution shape indicator values for all study variables

Statistic

Std.

Error Statistic

Std.

Error

N Mean

Std.

Deviation Skewness Kurtosis

Age 53 20.5660 1.56290 .831 .327 -.479 .644

Difference between correct and incorrect scores NVLT

53 7.8679 9.41774 .249 .327 -.120 .644

Correct score NVLT 53 31.7358 5.50228 -.523 .327 -.166 .644

Incorrect score NVLT 53 23.8679 9.89763 -.341 .327 -.569 .644

Correct Score 2D 53 8.5660 4.46141 .669 .327 -.296 .644

Incorrect Score 2D 53 8.9057 5.37896 .025 .327 -1.367 .644

Experimental group 1

25 female participants

Colecting data with 2D visualization

test and NVLT test (Vienna Tests

System) experimental group 1

Experimental group 2

28 male participants

Colecting data with 2D visualization

test and NVLT test (Vienna Tests

System) experimental group 2

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In Table 1 means, standard deviations and values of the indicators symmetry

can be observed. Thus, we can see that skewness and kurtosis indicator values lie

between the normal range, indicating a symmetrical distribution of the variables.

Non-parametric test results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov can be seen on table 2.

Table 2 shows the test results of non-parametric Kolmogorov - Smirnov. This

test was performed to check the normality of the distributions of the variables of

the study. Thus, it can be seen that all the variables are normally distributed (p>

0.05), which enables the use of parametric tests for the testing of hypotheses.

However, fot the hypothesis testing nonparametric tests will be used given the size

of participants sample.

Table 3. Means and Sum of Ranks

Gen N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Difference between correct

and incorrect scores NVLT Correct score NVLT

Incorrect score NVLT

male 25 27.72 693.00

female 28 26.36 738.00

Total 53

Correct Score 2D Difference between correct

and incorrect scores NVLT

male 25 29.40 735.00

female 28 24.86 696.00

Total 53

Correct score NVLT Incorrect score NVLT

Correct Score 2D

male 25 28.82 720.50

female 28 25.38 710.50

Total 53

Incorrect Score 2D Difference between correct

and incorrect scores NVLT

Correct score NVLT

male 25 27.60 690.00

female 28 26.46 741.00 Total 53

Incorrect score NVLT male 25 26.58 664.50

female 28 27.38 766.50 Total 53

Table 2. One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Age

Difference between

correct and incorrect

scores NVLT

Correct score

NVLT

Incorrect score

NVLT

Correct Score

2D

Incorrect Score

2D

20.5660 7.8679 31.7358 23.8679 8.5660 8.9057

1.56290 9.41774 5.50228 9.89763 4.46141 5.37896 .264 .122 .104 .067 .141 .151

.264 .122 .067 .054 .141 .147

-.158 -.097 -.104 -.067 -.071 -.151 1.922 .885 .757 .485 1.023 1.102

.001 .413 .615 .973 .246 .176

a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data.

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In table 3, after application of nonparametric test for the difference between

ranks there can be observed the average and rank sums for all study variables.

Table 4 Nonparametric Test Statisticsa

Difference

between

correct and

incorrect

scores NVLT

Correct

score NVLT

Incorrect score

NVLT Correct Score 2D

Incorrect

Score 2D

Mann-Whitney U 332.000 290.000 304.500 335.000 339.500 Wilcoxon W 738.000 696.000 710.500 741.000 664.500

Z -.322 -1.072 -.812 -.268 -.188

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .748 .284 .417 .788 .851

a. Grouping Variable: Gen

Table 4 shows the observed results of the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-

test according to gender. Thus, it can be seen that there is a statistically significant

difference (U = 290,> 0.05) between the correct answers to tests that abstract

figures retrieval process by gender .

Also, there is no statistically significant difference (U = 304.50, p> 0.05)

between the incorrect answers to the test that measures abstract figures retrieval

process by gender. There is no statistically significant difference between correct

answers to the test that measure visual perception by gender (U = 335, p> .05).

Finally, there is no statistically significant difference (U = 339.50, p> 0.05)

between the incorrect answers on the test that measures visual perception according

to gender.

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Figure 1. The difference between correct and incorrect NVLT test scores by gender

In Figure 1 there can be seen the differences between correct and incorrect

NVLT test scores by gender.

Figure 2. Correct answers to the NVLT test by gender

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In figure 2 we can observe correct answers to the NVLT test by gender.

Figure 3. Histogram chart with incorrect NVLT test answers according to gender

In Figure 3. There can be observed the incorrect answers to the NVLT test

according to gender.

Figure 4. Histogram chart with correct answers to the 2D test according to gender

In Figure 4 there can be observed correct answers to the 2D test according to

gender.

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Figure 5. Incorrect 2D test answers according to gender

In Figure 5 there can be observed the incorrect responses to the 2D test according

to gender.

5. CONCLUSIONS

This research aimed to study gender differences regarding visual perception

and nonverbal learning in students of psychology. 2D Visualization and NVLT test

results conclude that there are no gender differences in visual perception and

nonverbal learning. So the first hypothesis "there are statistically significant

differences in visual perception by gender" and the second hypothesis "there are

statistically significant differences in nonverbal learning by gender" are not

confirmed.

The fact that there are no statistically significant differences between men and

women is supported by previous research in visual-spatial perception and research

on nonverbal learning and memory skills. The results can be explained in terms of

the small size of the sample chosen for conducting the research.

Received at: 23.09. 2013, Accepted for publication on: 10.10.2013

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REFERENCES

Anitei, M., & Chraif, M., (2013). Psihologia in transporturi. Bucuresti: Universitara.

Crowder, R.G. (1982). The demise of short-term memory. Acta Psychologica, 50, 291-

323.

Baddely, A.D., (1999). Essentials of Human Memory. New Zeeland: Psychology Press.

Baddely, A.D., & Hitch, G.J. (1974). Working memory in G.A. Bower (ed), The

psychology of learning and motivation , New York: Academic Press.

Keppel, G., & Underwood, B.J. (1962). Proactive inhibition in short-term retention of

single items. Journal of verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 153-161.

Peterson, L.R., & Peterson, M.J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal

items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193-198.

Schaeken, W., De Vooght, G., Vandierendonck, A., D’Yewalle, G. & D’Yewalle, G.

(1999). Deductive Reasoning and strategies Routledge. London : L.E.A.

Vienna Test System (2012) 2D visualization, NVLT software

SUMMARY

Acest studiu pilot se concentrează pe evidenţierea posibilelor diferenţe de gen ce pot

exista cu privire la memoria de scurta durată prin recunoaşterea figurilor abstracte şi

completarea părţilor lipsa dintr-un model geometric cu diferite posibile forme. Metoda:

Participanţii au fost un număr de 53 studenţi la psihologie, Facultatea de Psihologie şi

Ştiinţele Educaţiei, Universitatea din Bucureşti cu vârsta cuprinsă între 19 şi 24 de ani

(M=20.56; S.D.=1.56), un număr de 25 bărbaţi şi 28 femei din mediul rural şi urban.

Instrumentele sunt două teste psihologice în variant software: 2D visualization şi NVLT

(Vienna Tests System, 2012). Rezultate: conform rezultatelor obţinute nu există o diferență

semnificativă statistic între răspunsurile corecte (p>0.05) şi cele incorecte (p>0.05) la

testul care măsoară recunoaşterea figurilor concrete ca şi procese de memorare şi

reactualizare în funcție de gen. De asemenea, nu există o diferență semnificativă statistic

între răspunsurile incorecte şi corecte la testul care măsoară percepţia vizuală în funcție

de gen (p>0.05). Concluzii: aceste rezultate sunt fundamentate de cercetări anterioare în

domeniul percepției vizual-spațiale cât și de cercetările cu privire la aptitudinile memoriei

și de învățare nonverbală.