Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries

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Gender Database forAgriculture and

Resource ManagementPolicies in PacificIsland Countries

RAP Publication: 1999/7

By Heather Booth

Demography Programme

Research School of Social Sciences

Australian National University, Canberra

FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific

39 Phra Atit Road

Bangkok 10200, Thailand

ISBN: 974-86644-2-2

Editorial support:

Dr. Revathi Balakrishnan, Regional Rural

Sociologist and

Women in Development Officer

Ms. Marlynne E. Hopper, Consultant

For copies write to:

Regional Rural Sociologist and Women in

Development Officer

FAO Regional Office for Asia and the

Pacific

39 Phra Atit Road

Bangkok 10200, Thailand

The designations and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression ofny opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United

Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or

oncerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author alone and do not imply any opinion

whatsoever on the part of FAO.

Table of Contents


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Foreword

Acknowledgements

Summary

Tables

Abbreviations

1. Introduction

2. Policies Relating to Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Natural Resource Management

and Rural Enterprise Development

2.1 Fiji

2.1.1 Agriculture

2.1.2 Fisheries

2.1.3 Forestry

2.1.4 Natural Resource Management

2.1.5 Rural Development

2.2 Vanuatu

2.2.1 Agriculture

2.2.2 Fisheries

2.2.3 Forestry



2.3 Samoa
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2.3.1 Agriculture

2.3.2 Fisheries

2.3.3 Forestry



3. The Impact of Policies on Household Livelihood and Food Security

3.1 Fiji

3.2 Vanuatu

3.3 Samoa

4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs to Address Policy

4.1 Data Availability and Unavailability

5. Capacity Building in Gender-Disaggregated Database Development

Bibliography

Annex 1: Statistical Sources and Planned Activities

Annex 2: Persons Consulted
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Foreword

Women in development activities in the Pacific Region should bebuilt on solid foundations of good data and area specific

information on gender roles in local production. Policies andprogrammes in such sectors as agriculture, ecological resourcemanagement and rural production should reflect the realities ofcountry specific gender roles in these sectors. Though in recentyears the development agenda has addressed gender concerns,we still have not achieved the goals set by various UNconferences on women since 1985. In Pacific Island countries, a

major barrier to full integration is a lack of current information onthe status of women in agriculture, natural resource managementand rural enterprises. FAO, as the lead technical organization inthe UN system, has a special interest in developing appropriatedatabases on women's participation in agriculture and associatedsectors that determine household food security. In reflection ofsuch commitment, the FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific has produced this document on "Gender Database

Development for Agriculture and Resource Management Policiesin Pacific Island Countries."

The document presents an overview of the policies related toagriculture, fisheries, forestry, natural resource management andrural enterprise development, and examines the current status ofgender integration in these policies. The focus of the analysis ison the current integration and potential for these policies withgender considerations to achieve sustained household foodsecurity in the selected Pacific Island countries. Drawing fromsuch a review, the document provides detailed guidelines on datarequirements relating to gender dimensions in agriculture, naturalresource management and rural development in Pacific Islandcountries. We hope this document will be of value to theMinistries and other interested groups who aim to improve the

integration of women in development and country specific gender-disaggregated databases among Pacific Region countries.


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Prem NathAssistant Director Generaland Regional Representativefor Asia and the PacificBangkok, ThailandJanuary 1999
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Acknowledgements

This document is an outcome of various missions undertaken byHeather Booth, a demographer and social statistician with

extensive experience in the Pacific Island region. The report wasprepared under a consultancy agreement with the Women inDevelopment Programme of the FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific. Visits were made in April-May 1997 to the threePacific Island countries covered in the report, namely Fiji,Vanuatu and Samoa, in order to collect information and interviewkey people. A list of the individuals consulted appears as part of

the report. Each one of them is gratefully acknowledged for theirassistance which enabled FAO/RAP to prepare this report. Dr.Vili A. Fuavao, FAO Sub-Regional Representative for the PacificIslands, is sincerely thanked for his support to this mission.

The report provides an analysis of the current status of genderand women's concerns in policies concerning natural resourcemanagement, agriculture and rural enterprise development in

relation to food security. It also addresses data needs in order toaddress the gender aspects of these policies. Although thereport is developed based on field visits to three island countriesin the Pacific Region, we hope that the database framework thatforms part of the document will provide guidelines for gendersensitive database development for other island countries in theregion.

Women in Development ServiceSustainable Development Department Group (RAPS)FAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, ThailandJanuary 1999
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Summary

Women in Pacific Island countries play an important role inagricultural and natural resource management and in

contributing to food and livelihood security. Yet, programmes andpolicies related to agriculture, fisheries, forestry, natural resourcemanagement and rural enterprises do not always take women'sroles sufficiently into account given the scarcity of relevantgender-differentiated and sex-segregated information. In order tobetter address food security issues, it is therefore necessary tounderstand the status of women as compared to men and to

strengthen women's roles in agriculture and natural resourcemanagement. This requires the availability of relevantinformation.

This report examines existing policies in the areas of agriculture,natural resource management, fisheries, forestry and ruralenterprises in three Pacific Island countries, namely Fiji, Vanuatuand Samoa. The focus is on their relevance to women and their

impact on food and livelihood security as a means to analyse thecurrent status of gender integration in these policies. On thebasis of this review and analysis of existing policies, the reportidentifies relevant sex-disaggregated data needs at both thenational and community level, as well as appropriate sourcesand data availability. Strategies for capacity building in theidentification, collection and tabulation of sex-disaggregated data

are subsequently discussed as a means of enhancing databasedevelopment in agriculture, natural resource management andrural enterprise development.

While acknowledging the importance and complementarity ofqualitative data, such as detailed studies of gender roles orgender sensitive case studies of farming systems, the focus ofthe report is on the quantitative data required to understand the

roles of women in agriculture, rural development and foodsecurity. Sex-disaggregated data are a crucial prerequisite to theformulation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
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programmes aimed at enhancing the role of women inagriculture, natural resource management and ruraldevelopment. However statistical data of this nature are notreadily available in Pacific Island countries. In this context, thereport identifies data needs as well as appropriate data sourcesfor the three countries in the study. Data needs are grouped into

seven broad areas: i) economic activities; ii) access to means ofproduction; iii) time use and productivity; iv) decision making; v)income and expenditure; vi) food security; and vii) education andtraining. Within each area, a range of data requirements at thecommunity and/or national level are defined, data availability orunavailability is discussed, and sources or proposed sources areidentified.

The report is cognisant of the importance of databasedevelopment as a means to strengthen policy formulation andplanning in the areas of agriculture, natural resourcemanagement, forestry, fisheries and rural enterprisedevelopment. It discusses how database development involvesdefining data needs, collecting and tabulating required data andorganizing data such that they are available to users. In addition,

it recognises the need to foster effective communicationchannels between data users and data producers.

On the basis of the analysis of existing policies related toagriculture and natural resource management in Fiji, Vanuatuand Samoa, the report reiterates the absolute necessity ofaccording full attention to gender-disaggregated and sex-

segregated information in database development. In this context,four strategies for capacity building in gender-disaggregateddatabase development are identified and discussed. Firstly, theneed to increase gender awareness among both users andproducers of databases in order to enhance recognition anddefinition of data needs, and to improve communicationsbetween them. The second strategy recommends capacitybuilding in gender-disaggregated database development for

users in order to increase their statistical awareness given thetendency for users concerned with women in developmentissues to be unfamiliar with data collection. The third strategy


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focuses on the need to increase skills in farming systemsdatabase development, not currently well developed in thePacific Region, given their appropriateness for gatheringcommunity level information. For instance, in many cases muchof the data required at the community level could be bestobtained through research and extension activities carried out

within communities. Finally, the fourth strategy advocates theneed to enhance skills in computer-based data compilation,through training in database management and software use,given the great benefits and potential of electronic technologiesfor database development.

The report illustrates the value and potential of gender-

disaggregated database development as a tool for the effectiveformulation and monitoring of agriculture and natural resourcepolicies. Although the focus of this report is on three PacificIsland countries, Fiji, Vanuatu and Samoa, it neverthelessprovides a guide to strengthen database development in othercountries in the region.
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Tables

Table 1: Daily per Capita Food Availability in Kilocalories as aPercentage of Requirements (1990-92)

Table 2: Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions inAgriculture, Natural Resource Management and RuralDevelopment in the Pacific
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Abbreviations

ADBAsian Development Bank

AusAIDAustralian Agency for International Development

DP3 Third National Development Plan (1992-1996),Vanuatu

EEZExclusive Economic Zone

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations

GATTGeneral Agreement on Trade and Tariffs

GDPGross Domestic Product

ILOInternational Labour Organization

ISCO-88 International Standard Classification ofOccupations 1988

ISICInternational Standard Industrial Classification

MAFFM Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery andMeteorology, Samoa

MAFFMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests, Fiji

MWAMinistry for Women's Affairs, Samoa

NANot available

NGONon-governmental Organization

RAPFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

SPCSouth Pacific Commission
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SPREPSouth Pacific Regional Environment Programme

UNDPUnited Nations Development Programme

UNFPAUnited Nations Population Fund

UNICEFUnited Nations International Childrens Fund

UNIFEMUnited Nations Development Fund for Women

VRDTCA Vanuatu Rural Development and TrainingCentres' Association
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1. Introduction

Pacific Island economies are based primarily on agriculture andrelated activities. For many years, the traditional subsistence

economy has coexisted with cash cropping of coconut andintroduced crops. This ensured a continuation of self-sufficiencyin food and traditional materials whilst at the same time providingcash for essential expenses. Until relatively recently, theagricultural sector received considerable public support andprotectionist policies served to ensure food security.

The globalisation of world trade and, in particular, the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) are however producingsignificant changes in world commodity markets withrepercussions for agriculture in the Pacific. Under the Agreementon Agriculture of the Uruguay Round, policies must have minimaldistortionary effects on trade or production. Pacific Islandeconomies have had to adapt to this new environment. Theresponse has generally been a greater emphasis on the

expansion of the private sector with exports as the key toeconomic growth.

Under this new approach to economic development, foodproduction and food security are in danger of receiving lessattention than they deserve. Since women contributeconsiderably to food production, especially in Melanesia,

women's roles are in similar danger. This only adds to the lowstatus that women in general and women's role in agriculturealready suffer. The issue of women's role in agriculture (andconcomitant role in natural resource management) is thus closelylinked to the issue of food security. Indeed, to some extent, it hasbeen possible to de-emphasise the importance of foodproduction and food security simply because these are women'sconcerns.

In order to address food security issues therefore, it is necessaryto address and strengthen women's role in agriculture and
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natural resource management. This requires the availability ofinformation. In this context, this report seeks to make relevantdata available for three Pacific Island countries, namely Fiji,

Vanuatu and Samoa1. An important part of the report focuses ondata requirements to inform and strengthen policy andprogramme planning in agriculture and natural resource

management with respect to women's roles in food productionand food security. Additionally, the report includes a discussionof data needs to address policy in rural enterprise developmentgiven its close links to agriculture.

The improved availability of sex-disaggregated data on humanresources in agriculture, natural resource management and rural

enterprise development will also permit monitoring of thechanges in women's and men's roles which will undoubtedlycome about as a result of the policies being put in place.

A first requirement for determining data needs to address policyis to examine that policy. The report therefore examines currentpolicies, including strategies and plans of action, in the areas ofagriculture (including fishing and forestry) and natural resource

management as well as rural enterprise development. The focusis on those areas that are relevant to women and on the impactof policies on food security and livelihood concerns. The reportthen identifies relevant sex-disaggregated data needs at thenational and community level, as well as appropriate sourcesand data availability. Strategies for capacity building in theidentification, collection and tabulation of sex-disaggregated data

are then discussed as a means to enhance databasedevelopment in human resources with regard to agriculture,natural resource management and rural enterprise development.

This report forms part of activities carried out under the globalFAO Plan of Action for Women in Development 1996-2001. Thepurposes of this plan are threefold. Firstly, to ensure an evolvingand dynamic understanding of the situation of rural women

including their contributions to, and constraints in, agriculture,forestry, fisheries and rural development. Secondly, to establishstrategies and instruments with reachable targets to address
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gender concerns in technical areas. Thirdly, to thereby enhancethe benefits that rural women derive from their contributions tosustainable agriculture, forestry, fisheries and rural development,as well as strengthen their capacities to contribute to nationaldevelopment in each of these sectors.

1 Visits were made to these countries in April-May 1997.
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2. Policies Relating to Agriculture,Fisheries, Forestry, Natural ResourceManagement and Rural Enterprise

Development

This section discusses current policies related to agriculture,fisheries, forestry, natural resource management and rural

enterprise development. In order to place these policies incontext, some brief background information is also presented.

2.1 Fiji

Policies relating to economic and social development in Fiji were

formulated in the early 1990s (Government of the Republic of Fiji,1993) and remain current after review in 1995 (Fiji Ministry of

Finance and Economic Planning, 1995). The overall aims areaccelerated economic growth through private sector initiatives

with an emphasis on exports. The private sector, operating in theopen market, is recognised as providing the essential drivingforce of the economy, employment, rising real incomes and

revenue.

Women have been entering the labour force in increasing

numbers in line with the rapid expansion of the manufacturingsector, in particular, the garment export industry. In addition, an

increasing number of women are self-employed in income-generating activities such as farming, market-gardening, fishingand reef-gleaning, craft production, retail outlets and food

vending. Many of these women are self-made, having receivedno capital or training assistance. Policies are intended to involve

women as equal partners in development, to train women toimprove their employment opportunities, to strengthen

information on gender and co-ordination of activities, and toexamine legislation with respect to gender (Government of Fiji,1993). Gender issues in agriculture have recently been

addressed by the UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP Mainstreaming
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Project2. Gender sensitisation training has been carried out andgender is now incorporated into mainstream policies and

activities.

2.1.1 Agriculture

In the early 1990s in Fiji, agriculture contributed about a fifth of

GDP and almost half of total employment (women's informalsector employment is under reported). Sugar is the majoragricultural export crop, accounting for some 40 percent of total

exports in the early 1990s and employing almost exclusivelymen. Copra is also important. More recently introduced crops

have included ginger, cocoa and rice. Dalo, duruka and yaqona

are also exported. Beef, dairy, poultry and pork production meetmost of the needs of the local market.

The 1993 Policy3 (Government of Fiji, 1993) aimed to guide the

agricultural sector towards a more competitive and marketoriented approach to production, and to use this approach inadapting to market changes. Such market changes include:

deregulation; export promotion; improved productivity and cost

effectiveness; private sector investment; reorientation towardsfinancial performance and price effectiveness; and quality andprivatisation. The Government continues to provide essentialsupport services, such as extension, research, marketing,

planning, regulatory and infrastructure development, and toenforce measures for sustainability.

Under the current refocusing, this policy continues to pursue acorporate thrust, promoting increased co-operation with the

private sector and export growth. A Corporate Plan (1997-2000)has been submitted to the Government for approval. Export-led

policy aims to provide income-generating opportunities and, atthe same time, improve food accessibility and affordabilitythrough consistency and quality of supply. It promotes traditional

crops and seeks to identify niche markets (in USA, Canada, New

Zealand, Australia and Japan) for crops such as fresh mango,pawpaw, taro and traditional vegetables. The European market isan important market for processed fruit puree. The emphasis on
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an expanded export market is expected to generate a surplus for

the domestic market. The surplus for the domestic market isintended to absorb lower quality produce and provide economic

viability. Most of the produce exported is grown by smallholderswith 1-10 acres of land. There is a mix of smallholdings andlarger mechanised farms, always with mixed cropping.

Constraints to agricultural development include: inadequate

extension services; land tenure; water resources; insufficientappropriate technologies; irregularity of supply; undevelopedlocal and export markets; and a lack of many of the facilities

essential for efficient production including infrastructure, capital,cold-storage and freezing capacity (for marine produce), fuel

supplies for fishing boats, marketing facilities, quality control, andadequate air freight capacity (Fiji Ministry of Finance andEconomic Planning, 1995).

2.1.2 Fisheries

Although the fisheries sector contributes only 1.6 percent ofGDP, it has important potential. Subsistence fisheries are

important in themselves and as a source of income. Beche-de-mer are processed and dried. Trochus shells are collected for the

pearl button industry. Women are involved in subsistencefisheries related to gathering from the reef. Women are alsosuccessfully involved in freshwater mussel fisheries. A fish

cannery employs rural women.

The 1993 Policy aims to: expand tuna and deep-sea fisheries;improve efficiency and quality in small-scale commercialfisheries; assist rural fishermen in the transition from subsistence

to small-scale commercial fishing; develop aquaculture (e.g. giantclam, seaweed, prawn and crab); improve quality and added

value of exports; regulate for optimum utilisation andsustainability; and improve business management and fishhandling and processing. At present, however, there is no

strategy for inshore fisheries and no assessment of stock levels.

2.1.3 Forestry


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The forestry sector contributed 1.9 percent of GDP in 1994(AusAID, 1995). Forestry provides rural income through

plantation ownership and timber processing. Forest exports arean important component of total exports. Women are involved in

community forestry. In response to a request from women, the

Forestry Department began to promote the identification andawareness of traditional medicinal plants. A non-governmental

organization (NGO), Wainimate, also promotes traditionalmedicinal plants.

The 1993 Policy aims to: encourage private sector involvement;ensure landowner participation; strengthen training; prepare a

forest inventory; promote the 1990 logging code; promote

conservation, protection, rehabilitation and reserves; andencourage forest development so as to generate employmentand export income.


The 1993 Policy seeks to ensure sustainable development

through protection of the environment against activities thatthreaten long-term productive potential. This includes sustainableuse of renewable resources, integrating environmentalmanagement in planning and development, strengthening

institutional capacity for sound environmental management,environmental impact studies for new projects, and prioritising

environmental expenditure according to its contribution to socio-economic development. Conservation and protection measures

are to include community education. In addition, the activeparticipation of rural people is to be encouraged in precautionaryenvironment conservation and management measures.


Some two-thirds of Fiji's population is rural (Government of Fiji,

1986 Census). In line with national development policies, theprivate sector is seen as the key to rural development throughemployment creation and the retention of young people in ruralareas. The main areas identified for development are agriculture


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(including timber) and tourism. Policies and strategies for rural

development are intended to: improve the effectiveness of localadministration; promote private investment; provide supporting

infrastructure for private commercial development; maintaineffective social services, particularly health, education and basicneed services; develop appropriate transport systems; and

encourage people's participation, particularly through NGOs(Government of Fiji, 1993). The 1995 review of policy (Fiji

Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995) furtheremphasised small-scale agriculture and tourism as the keystrategic sectors for development.

While tourism is an important component of development, the

rural population has not benefited as much as possible as aresult of inadequately developed linkages to the rural economy.Proposed initiatives thus aim to strengthen these linkages

through the development of handicrafts, ecotourism and small-scale agriculture. Women's role in handicraft production has been

recognised in the proposed initiative to develop programmes forwomen's clubs to produce craft work for sale in tourist outlets (FijiMinistry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995). Other

constraints to the development of tourism include: a lack ofGovernment commitment, and a consequent lack of funding;

insufficient training facilities; inadequate hotel room and airlinecapacity; high costs; and land tenure (Fiji Ministry of Finance andEconomic Planning, 1995).

Human resource constraints also exist in that the market

economy cuts across traditional indigenous modes of production.Training in business is therefore seen as an essential part of thedevelopment of the rural private sector. Since the majority of the

rural population is of Fijian ethnicity, this training hasconcentrated on the enhancement of indigenous Fijians'participation in business. The recent review of policy in this area

(Fiji Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995) identifiedthree levels for business development: i) corporate; ii) small-

medium enterprise; and iii) income generation. At the small-medium enterprise level, the review noted that progress hadbeen extremely slow. However, most Fijians are involved at the


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income generation level. The review also noted that the policy of

deregulation runs contrary to the enhancement of indigenousFijians' participation in business since their infant businesses

cannot compete with well established larger businesses. Supportthrough advisory and training services is therefore required, andvarious protectionist measures and tax incentives have also been

proposed (Fiji Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995).

2.2 Vanuatu

In Vanuatu, agriculture, forestry and fisheries accounted for 23percent of GDP in 1995, with 10 percent coming from

subsistence agriculture and 13 percent from commercial farms

and plantations (FAO, 1997). Agriculture, forestry and fisheriesaccounted for 65 percent of exports in 1995 (ibid.). Livestockproduction makes a significant contribution to GDP and beefproduction is well established with exports to Japan and other

Pacific Island countries. Despite vast reserves, fisheriesproduction is small. Forestry accounted for some 4 percent of

GDP in 1995, this being reduced from early 1990 levels due toconcerns about conservation (ibid.).

The population of Vanuatu is overwhelmingly rural; 82 percent ofthe population was classified as rural by the 1989 census

(SPC/UNDP, 1991). Rural households are characterised by asemi-subsistence lifestyle. Traditionally women have beenresponsible for food cropping and marketing while men are

involved mainly in cash crop production. Men also assist with the

heavier land-clearing work for food production. On average,women spend 18 percent of their time on food production andmarketing and a further 5 percent of their time on cash cropping(Agricultural Census, 1983-84 quoted in UNICEF/Government of

Vanuatu, 1991). Yet very little agricultural extension assistance isavailable for women.

Until very recently, development policy in Vanuatu was

formulated in five-yearly development plans, the most recent ofwhich is the Third National Development Plan 1992-1996(Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office, 1992). A


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shorter planning timeframe of three years has now been adopted,

and policies for 1997-1999 are currently being incorporated into aComprehensive Reform Programme with the assistance of the

Asian Development Bank.

Traditionally women's involvement in planning and decision

making has been minimal. Even today, many national andcommunity issues are still addressed only by men. These include

issues such as land use and community water supplies which areof vital concern to women given their role in agriculture and foodproduction.

The overall development goal for women is the realisation of their

full potential as equal partners and beneficiaries in developmentprocesses and the promotion of their full and equal participationin local, national and international affairs. Relevant areas of

emphasis include: incorporation of women's issues inmainstream development; recognition of the importance of the

empowerment of women as a cornerstone to sustainabledevelopment; and recognition of the strategic role of women asagents and beneficiaries of development and in the alleviation of

poverty (Vanuatu Department of Women's Affairs, 1995).

2.2.1 Agriculture

Smallholder producers in Vanuatu accounted for approximately

80 percent of agricultural production in 1994 (Government ofVanuatu, 1994). The main subsistence crops grown are sweet

potato, yams, taro, bananas and manioc. The main cash cropsare copra and cocoa, together with coffee, kava, pumpkin,pepper, vanilla, groundnut and potato.

Emphasis in the past on cash crops, coupled with a lack of

foresight, has resulted in a shortage of traditional materials. Atthe same time, growth in the tourism industry has increaseddemand for traditional materials including palms for thatched

roofing, pandanus for handicrafts, bananas and pawpaw. Yetnone of these are planted in sufficient quantities. Although

sandalwood was sold for a high price in previous decades, it has


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of user-pays systems for inspections. Competition in copra and

cocoa marketing is also being introduced.

In the livestock sector, beef plays an important role with moreand more land being converted from forest to grazing.Government policy seeks to encourage low-cost, high-quality

beef production for both local and export markets, throughmeasures such as the encouragement of competition in

processing, the privatisation of public shares in abattoirs, and theregularisation of industry fees.

Given the low status of women in Vanuatu's culture, women'srole in agriculture is not recognised in many policies, including

delivery of extension services. In this context, farming systemshave not been improved. Indeed, they are not seen to be in needof improvement. For example, no assistance has been given to

women in terms of appropriate technology (such as hoes forweeding). Additionally, women often walk for an hour, carrying

everything by hand, to reach their gardens despite the obvious

inefficiencies. Extension officers are mostly male4 and tend toaddress the chief and/or mostly male farmers who do not

generally pass on knowledge to women. Until recently, extensionservices addressed the needs of cash crop producers, and the

more recent emphasis on food production has met withresistance to change. Moreover, efforts to provide extensionservices to women through the employment of 6 female

extension officers has met with resistance from women farmerswho could not understand the issues being raised and were

unwilling to accept advice from young women. More recently,however, women farmers have come to recognise their problemsand to seek help from extension services on issues such as

limited land availability, soil fertility, diversification of vegetables,etc. Assistance is also provided to women in the areas of food

preparation, food preservation and nutrition.

Agriculture and fishing is one of the "critical areas of concern"

identified in the Women's National Plan of Action (VanuatuDepartment of Women's Affairs, 1995). The strategic objective in

this area is "to recognise, promote and support women's
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participation in agriculture and fishing, both paid and unpaid

activities - recognising women's role in food security". The ActionPlan calls for: the collection of data on women's activities,

including intrahousehold studies on the working of the family unit;appropriate agricultural support systems, extension and trainingfor women; and recognition in agricultural planning systems of

the wide range of agricultural activities necessary for family foodsecurity (including nutrition), cash cropping and the production of

handicrafts.

2.2.2 Fisheries

Fisheries remain a relatively underdeveloped sector of the

Vanuatu economy even though marine resources are vast. Areport on the needs and role of women in fisheries in Vanuatu iscurrently under preparation (FAO). Government policy aims to

encourage and guide the private sector to exploit marineresources in a sustainable way. Strategies address management,

fish licensing, etc. and do not refer explicitly to reef orsubsistence fishing activities. Women are involved in theharvesting of reef produce for subsistence and cash. Income is

also obtained from the sale of shells and shell jewellery.

2.2.3 Forestry

Government policy relating to forestry is concerned withplantations for logging, including local supply plantations. It aimsto create a secure environment for forest utilisation, harvesting

and re-establishment with the intention of attracting landownerand private investment. Forest harvest licensing is to be limited to

sustainable levels.

Reforestation remains an outstanding issue. Pressures for land

impede both natural regeneration and plantation redevelopment.These pressures are the result of increased needs for grazing

and planting of cash crops and, in a few areas, the result of

population growth. Subsistence agriculture also results in thedestruction of primary and secondary forest. On one island at

least (Pentecost), substantial areas of forest have been cleared


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for cash crops (such as kava which requires 5-7 years before

harvesting). One of the consequences of forest clearing is thedrying up of water supplies during drier weather. The task of

carrying water from alternative sources falls largely on women. Asecond consequence is the lack of firewood, and women nowhave to walk substantial distances to gather firewood.


Although Vanuatu's natural resource management policy is

contained in the National Conservation Strategy (Government ofVanuatu, 1993), comprehensive environmental legislation has yetto be put in place. The majority of land and sea resources are

under customary control. The rights and duties of custom ownersare enshrined in Vanuatu's constitution. The constitution statesthat "every person has a fundamental duty to himself and his

descendants and to others to protect Vanuatu and to safeguardthe national wealth, resource and environment in the interests of

the present and of future generations". The role of Government isthus to educate communities in sustainable land and marine usepractices. Several communities have taken steps to make their

land protected areas whilst others are developing ecotourism andenvironmentally friendly income-generation programmes.

The environment is another of the "critical areas of concern"identified in the Women's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu

Department of Women's Affairs, 1995). This Plan of Action callsfor: recognition of, and an increase in, women's participation in

environmental management and development; increasedawareness of, and action in, defence of the environment; and theformulation of policies to address the question of the

environmental effects of military-related and mining activities.


The main themes of rural development policies concern

increased economic self-reliance, improvement in the quality ofrural and urban life, and more equitable development between

regions and provinces. Sustainability is emphasised, based on


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community participation and a sense of ownership, together with

environmental and gender sensitisation and their integration inmainstream development.

The principal aim of the private sector development strategy is toimprove investment, and thereby increase efficiency and

productivity. The development of the private sector is, however,seen as retaining its customary communal character rather than

encouraging individualism. The customary system and itssubsistence mode of production is important in ensuring food andlivelihood security. One policy objective is to expand on-farm and

non-farm earning opportunities through the development of theagricultural and agro-industrial sector.

Small-scale food processing is being encouraged by theDepartment of Primary Industries through its research and

demonstration Food Processing Centre. At present only rootcrops are being processed (into biscuits, chips and powder) but

plans are underway to extend coverage to fruits, etc. Other ruralindustries under consideration include: i) processing of pumpkininto powder for export as an alternative to exporting fresh

pumpkin5; ii) yam powder production for export; and iii) fishcanning as an alternative to fresh fish exports which involve

significant handling problems.

A recent initiative is to find employment for people within their

own communities. For example, unemployed urban women arebeing encouraged to procure handicraft materials from their

home communities for weaving in their urban homes. Urbandwellers are encouraged to grow food on whatever land theyhave available. In rural areas, families are being encouraged to

employ local unemployed persons for a few hours.

The National Plan of Action for Women identifies poverty as a"critical area of concern" for women. According to this document,as the traditional and cultural means of generating income

disintegrate, women have come to bear the brunt of the burden interms of managing food security, child-rearing, family health and

household management. At the same time, customary
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mechanisms of support are rapidly losing their effectiveness

given the changing social and economic conditions. The strategicobjective is thus to recognise the increasing incidence of poverty

in the country, particularly as it relates to female-headedhouseholds, and to promote means to address the root causes ofthis growing problem. In particular, the action plan calls for

programmes to: help reduce the burden of women's multipleroles; promote equitable employment for both women and men;

provide opportunities for women and men to actively pursueincome-generating activities in their own communities; researchand assess the poverty level and develop appropriate indicators.

The Vanuatu Rural Development and Training Centres'

Association (VRDTCA) is an NGO providing skills training totrainees, and training of trainers courses. The aim is to enhancethe provision of appropriate vocational education and skills

training for young men and women and their communities without(gender) discrimination. Areas covered include small business

management, environment and health, and a curriculum onagriculture is currently being developed. The participation ofwomen is not high and efforts are being made to encourage more

women to take advantage of the training on offer and to becomeinvolved in management committees. This includes formulation of

a gender policy which aims to provide equal access to all trainingfacilities, scholarships, materials, information and instructionsfrom male and female trainers, as well as gender-unbiased

management structures.

2.3 SamoaThe Samoan economy is predominantly agricultural with morethan 70 percent of the economically active population employed

in agriculture, fisheries and forestry (1991 Census). Recent yearshave been characterised by low productivity, low growth, balance

of payments deficits, distortional policies and a dominant publicsector, together with a heavy reliance on remittances and foreign

aid. In 1995 agricultural exports accounted for 92 percent of allexport earnings, though the sector's contribution to GDP fell from45 percent in 1990 to 37 percent in 1995. In 1996-97, only 6


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percent of public investment went to the agriculture sector.

The main thrust of the current economic policy is a continuation

of the commitment during 1991-95 to promote the private sectoras the engine of economic growth (Government of Samoa,1996). This includes creation of a less regulated economic

environment, continuing reform of the fiscal system (which willincreasingly incorporate incentives to investment without the

need for discretionary intervention); the sale of shares in state-owned enterprises (primarily to citizens), and determined effortsto make land more easily available for productive use. The

productivity of land, labour and capital is to be increased whilstdiversifying agriculture and rural economic activity. The public

sector is to withdraw from many of its current services. Efforts topromote manufacturing are to concentrate on export-orientedactivities.

2.3.1 Agriculture

The main staple food crops in Samoa are giant taro (ta'amu),yam, coconut, banana and breadfruit. Taro was a staple and

export crop until taro leaf blight devastated the crop in 1993/4.Recent production has also been affected by drought and

cyclones. Beef, pork, chicken and eggs are also produced. Small-scale production of fruit and vegetables includes lau pele (a leafyvegetable), chinese and head cabbage, cucumber, tomatoes,

pumpkins, beans, eggplant, sweetcorn, green pepper, andpeanuts. Sweet potato is also grown but is not popular amongst

Samoans. Most village households also keep livestock, includingpigs, chickens, cattle, horses and goats.

Plantation cropping of coconut and cocoa exists side by side withsubsistence agriculture, and the two are often intercropped.

Commercial agricultural production (mainly coconut, cocoa andtaro) amounted to 14 percent of GDP in 1994, though thecontribution of taro had already declined. Land previously used

for commercial taro production is now increasingly used for cattle.

At present, there is no comprehensive agricultural policy in


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Samoa. There are however various task forces including those

for extension, research, marketing and farming systems(including women in agriculture). It is recognised that improved

productivity in the traditional sector depends on effectiveextension and research services. Research and extensionservices are therefore to focus on improved farming systems and

planting materials with an emphasis on mixed cropping, thepromotion of new tree crops, cyclone resistance, and potential for

processing and export. The distribution of seeds is a particulararea in need of improvement. Livestock improvement will berestricted to cattle. Since the commercial farmer is seen as the

chief source of dynamism, farmers are to be trained in marketingand business.

The public sector role is being restricted to credit and land. Costsof agricultural materials and services will increasingly be

recovered from users and agricultural subsidies and othersupport measures are to be phased out within a few years.

Similarly, Government will withdraw from marketing (Governmentof Samoa, 1996).

Women's involvement in agriculture has been viewed largelyfrom the home economics perspective rather than the producer

perspective. When the Ministry of Women's Affairs (MWA) wasestablished in 1990, the home economics section of the Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery and Meteorology (MAFFM) was

transferred to the MWA. Women are generally involved in homegarden production, whilst men cultivate land further afield. The

MWA promotes the production of (mainly) introduced vegetablesand nutrition retaining cooking methods. A major constraint hasbeen the supply of seeds. Women grow traditional subsistence

crops and, as heads of households, benefit from extensionservices. Women also grow pandanus and mulberry for

handicrafts, an important part of Samoan culture and incomegeneration, but extension services do not usually extend to thisarea. Women's groups are now becoming interested in dairy

farming as a means to improve nutrition especially amongchildren. Women's Committees, one of three traditional groups in

the community (the others being the mataior chiefs and the


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aumagaor untitled men), are also involved in agricultural

development.

The draft Policy for Women in Agriculture, developed as part ofthe farming systems policy, aims to establish policy guidelines to

promote women's involvement in agriculture at all levels.

Objectives for women in agriculture address extension services,training and public awareness. In extension, the aim is to improve

women's involvement in agriculture through more frequentcontact and a greater focus on women's agricultural activities and

their importance in agricultural development. In particular,strategies cover the need for: an increased number of women inMAFFM especially among extension workers; gender training of

extension workers; village nomination of women to liaise withextension workers; women's committees to assist extension

workers; increased visits by extension workers to women; andgender sensitive extension material. In the area of training,improved management ability is to be achieved through

increased awareness of the factors contributing to successfulfarming. Strategies include training for motivators of women's

groups, establishment of resource centres for women in

agriculture, planning village workshops on agriculture for women,preparation of training materials featuring successful women

producers, and monitoring and evaluation of women in agricultureprojects. In terms of raising public awareness, the objectives aim

to improve public acceptance of women in agriculture assuccessful farmers, and to improve recognition of women andtheir significant contribution to national development. This is to be

achieved through a community awareness programme focusingon women in agriculture.

2.3.2 Fisheries

Fisheries contribute only 2 percent to GDP with three-quarters ofthe total catch for subsistence consumption (Government of

Samoa, 1996). Although the subsistence fish catch has been in

decline for many years, it is still four times as large as thecommercial catch. Fish provides an important source of high-quality protein for local consumption. Women are involved in the


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collection of seafood from the reef and in selling fisheries

produce in the market. Inshore fisheries resources are decliningdue to over-exploitation, the use of destructive fishing methods

such as dynamite, environmental disturbances and silting of thelagoon.

A 1996 Mission Statement aims to ensure sustainable andoptimum use of fisheries resources and to develop alternatives to

inshore resources that have been seriously depleted. A newapproach based on working with villages has been adoptedwhereby if an initial meeting with village matai(chief) is positive,

MAFFM staff undertake a fact-finding exercise in the village andassist villagers to put together a management plan based on their

own ideas and solutions to problems. Out of 45 villages, 21 haveso far developed their own management plan and 14 have

established marine reserves in their area to allow the reef torecover. Women are involved in this exercise as one of the threetraditional groups with whom fisheries extension workers consult.

Out of a total of 16 fisheries extension workers in 1997, only 4 or

5 were women6.

Commercial fishing is mainly for tuna and deepwater bottomfish.Fresh tuna is exported, providing some employment in ruralareas for both women and men. Offshore tuna is the onlyfisheries resource available for expansion. However, Samoa's

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is not large enough to generatefish licensing fees from distant-water fishing nations. Commercial

farming of mussels, oysters, giant clams and prawns is also to be

expanded (Government of Samoa, 1996).

2.3.3 Forestry

Forest reserves have been depleted to meet both subsistenceand market agricultural production, since land use has not beenintensified through increased capital or labour inputs. Forest

resources were also degraded by cyclones in the early 1990s

when 92 percent of plantation forestry was damaged. Althoughreplanting had recovered more than 50 percent of the area underplantation by 1997, it does not yet provide wood for the domestic
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market, thus threatening indigenous forest resources. Only a

portion of the indigenous forest area is merchantable and, atcurrent deforestation rates of 3.5 percent per annum,

merchantable forest is expected to disappear by 2005.

Forestry policy is guided by five fundamental principles (Samoa

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1994). Theseare: i) optimal and sustainable use through maintenance of

ecological and economic forest value and sustainability; ii) forestprotection through the safeguarding of plant and animal diversity,protection from fire, erosion and damage to water catchment

areas, and maintenance of sacred/historical sites; iii) provision ofbasic human needs including traditional forest products such as

food, water, fuel, medicines, building and cultural materials; iv)recognition of individual and collective responsibilities throughincreased appreciation of forests and the recognition of various

interests in their control and management; and v) recognition ofthe role of forests in economic development including

reforestation for domestic use, export and recreation.

Policy objectives (Samoa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and

Fisheries, 1994) aim to restore sustainable forest use. In the areaof conservation, plans are to document and protect biodiversity,

expand ecological reserves, ensure good forest management,and develop conservation programmes to protect threatenedecosystems and species. Water catchment areas are also to be

better protected, and the clearance of forests for agriculture is tobe discouraged. Indigenous forest utilisation is intended to be

sustainable, necessitating the preservation of 5,000 ha ofindigenous merchantable forest with 10,000 ha logged fordecorative and customary purposes at a sustainable rate. Efforts

to encourage community forestry conservation, reforestation andwatershed management include increased royalties, community

education, the promotion of multipurpose trees as cash crops,and tree planting on marginal land. Plantations and the timberindustry are to be fully privatised with reduced capacity. Forest

education will also seek to promote appreciation of the value offorests in biodiversity and human welfare and the

interrelationship between development and conservation. Areas


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for recreation and tourism are to be identified and appropriate

levels of protection ensured. These objectives also devoteattention to improving documentation, research capacity and

organizational structure.


Landlessness does not exist in Samoa because of customary

rights. Land is held by the extended family and all members haverights, though distribution is not necessarily equitable. More than

80 percent of land is held under customary tenure. While onaverage households control 15.4 acres, a quarter of allhouseholds control less than 5 acres which is considered the

minimum for livelihood security. Government land is now beingsubdivided and leased and a new land use policy is underformulation.

Sustainability is threatened by a number of factors including the

increasing use of herbicides and pesticides, and deforestation ofupland areas for agricultural purposes. The area of land undercultivation has increased as a result of population pressure and

cash cropping, but intensification has not taken place.

Women play an important and recognised role in environmentalmanagement. Traditionally environmental sanitation andprotection measures have been part of women's roles. However,

it is only recently that recognition has been given to theenvironmental impact of development projects and the

Government now requires environmental (and social) impactassessments for all projects.


The heart of the Samoan economy is in the villages. More than70 percent of rural households are engaged to some extent inagriculture, with two-thirds producing only or mainly for

subsistence consumption (FAO, 1997). Thus the overalldevelopment strategy is to strengthen the involvement of the

private sector in rural development. The strategy's central feature


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is the improvement of rural living standards, achieved through an

increase in the productivity of land and labour, and thediversification of rural economic activities. Both employment

creation and the expansion of livelihood options in rural areas aregiven importance. The equitable distribution of economic benefitsthrough the traditional communal system is emphasised rather

than the pursuit of individual profit (Government of Samoa,1996).

Efforts to make land more easily available pertain only toGovernment land which comprised some 11 percent of the total

in 1996. Since 1997, Government land can be subdivided on a49-year lease. Leases are put to tender, with the highest bidder

securing the lease. Rents are reviewed after five years. Thissystem clearly discriminates against the poor, and consequentlyagainst women. The land is nevertheless divided into both large

and small parcels, also catering for smaller farmers.

Diversification of the village economy is to include theencouragement of handicrafts (through the Development Bankand the Small Business Enterprise Centre) as well as small-scale

food-processing and tourism, especially in conjunction withenvironmental protection. These areas are intended to benefit

women. The Ministry of Women's Affairs is promoting economiccapacity building through training in activities such as sewing,flower arranging, vegetable gardening, cooking and small

business development. The National Food and Nutrition Policyfor Samoa includes the encouragement of small local

entrepreneurs in food processing industries. This policy also callsfor income-generation activities in rural areas. The present policyapplies the same business fee to informal traders and large

formal businesses alike, and there is no policy framework topromote, support or regulate small traders. Similarly, there are no

policy measures in place to ensure that small-scale credit isavailable to the informal sector, though a micro-credit schemehas been initiated by the Ministry of Women's Affairs.

Traditionally, faaSamoa7 has ensured an equitable distribution of

wealth and acted as a safeguard for women's rights within
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Samoan society. FaaSamoameant that all members of the

extended family would have access to shelter and adequatefood. Yet indications today suggest that customary mechanisms

are now operating less effectively than in the past. Poverty,particularly amongst women, has been identified as an emerging

concern (Samoa Ministry of Women's Affairs, 1995). Social

impact assessments, now a requirement for all projects, may helpto address this.

Rural development policies also seek to: improve education;

address health issues arising from diet and lifestyle (includingtobacco consumption); address the high natural increase of thepopulation (2.4 percent per annum); increase the supply of

electricity to meet demand; improve water supplies with theintroduction of meters and charging; and improve sea and road

transport (responsibility for plantation roads will pass to villages).

2 This project entitled "Incorporation of Women in Mainstream Development Planning"was funded by UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP. It began in July 1990, initially for 2.5 years. Theproject aimed to increase the participation of women in all aspects of developmentthrough their incorporation in mainstream planning.3 The 1993 policy mentioned in this section deals with all types of policy (agriculture,forestry, fisheries, social, economic, etc.) and was produced by the Central PlanningOffice of the Government of Fiji.4 29 out of 35 extension workers were male in 1997 (personal communication with Mr.James Wasi).5 Fresh pumpkin is currently exported to Japan, though more than half of the pumpkincrop produced fails to meet the strict size and shape requirements.6 Personal communication with Mr. Ueta Faasili, 1997.7 The term faaSamoaencompasses Samoan customs and traditions. FaaSamoawasfounded on subsistence agriculture based on descent group tenure and land ownership.This system made basic resources available to all so that economic individualism wasimpossible. Egalitarianism was balanced by hierarchy, based on age and rank (Meleisea,

1987).
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3. The Impact of Policies on HouseholdLivelihood and Food Security

Food security has not traditionally been regarded as an area ofconcern in Pacific Island populations. In normal times food isplentiful and it is only in times of crisis, such as in the monthsfollowing a cyclone, that measures have to be taken to ensurethat food is available to those in need. Whilst this paper is notconcerned with such times of crisis, it is noted that a populationthat is food secure in normal times will be better able to copewith food insecurity during crisis periods.

National food balance data for Fiji and Papua New Guinea showthat the availability of food exceeds national requirements(defined as desirable energy intake needed for work and leisureand calculated on reference weights for the population) by aconsiderable margin (see Table 1). Since food availability inother Pacific Islands (with the possible exception of Solomon

Islands) is commensurate with Fiji and Papua New Guinea, it canbe surmised that food requirements are also more thanadequately met in other Pacific Island populations.

Table 1: Daily per Capita Food Availability in Kilocalories as

a Percentage of Requirements (1990-92)8

Country Food

Availability

Food

Requirement

Percent

Availability

Cook Islands - - -

Fiji 2769 2170 127.6

Papua New Guinea 2347 2066 113.6

Solomon Islands 1988 - -
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Tonga 2642 - -

Vanuatu 2463 - -

Samoa 2548 - -

Whilst food security might be achieved at the national level,accessibility to food differs between households (and indeedbetween individuals within households), such that householdfood security is not universal. Policies in agriculture, fisheries,forestry, natural resource management and rural developmentclearly have an impact on livelihood and food security. Thenature of this impact is considered below for the three countriesstudied.

3.1 Fiji

In Fiji, food security has been a long-term concern. Despite this,a recent study on poverty (Government of Fiji and UNDP, 1997)

found that 33 percent of the population were living in relativepoverty and 10 percent of households could not afford a basicdiet. One reason for this is the past concentration on cash cropsin the rural economy, with the result that there has been anoverall reduction in the quantity and quality of food cropsproduced for household consumption. Available cash is spent onimported cereals, canned foods and vegetables. Other

indications of an inequitable distribution of food are seen in thedeteriorating national health situation with respect to non-communicable diseases.

At the World Food Summit in November 1996, the Fijian Ministerof Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests indicated that Fiji remainscommitted to providing an environment conducive to attainingfood security for all its citizens. During the 1980s, the aim was to

achieve food security through protective policies, though this didnot prevent the decline in household food production. Morerecently, the approach to food security has been changed to


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encompass an export-led agricultural policy in line with theoverall emphasis on an export-led economy. The development ofagricultural exports is seen as providing income-generatingactivities whilst at the same time improving food security. Inparticular, food accessibility and affordability is to be improvedthrough consistency and quality of supply, which export-oriented

production is intended to foster. In addition, an expanded exportmarket is expected to generate a surplus for the domesticmarket, which in turn is necessary to absorb lower-qualityproduce and provide economic viability. Since most exportedproduce is grown by smallholders with 1-10 acres of land, thispolicy will benefit most producers. At the same time, thepresence of larger farms producing for the same market, but with

improved efficiency through mechanisation, ensures supply andhence keeps prices down. Prices are also kept down by largerplantings, now possible due to the existence of a larger localmarket and an expanding export market.

Whilst this export-led approach to food security has manypositive aspects, reservations have been expressed. Theapproach does not cater for very small farmers with less than

one acre, many of whom are the rural poor and women. Whilstthe rural poor may benefit from cheaper food prices, they willalso suffer in that their own produce will not generate muchincome especially as gluts are likely to occur on the local marketdue to the larger scale of production for export. In addition,agricultural services will be less and less suitable for their needs.

Despite ministerial statements, food security does not enjoyexplicit policy status and resources are not allocated to foodsecurity per se. Policies that have some relevance for foodsecurity are those in agriculture and in health. However theformer do not address the links to food security, either explicitlyor implicitly, and the latter are concerned with curative measuresrather than prevention of nutrition related diseases such asdiabetes.

The National Food and Nutrition Committee advises theGovernment on matters relating to food and nutrition. The draft


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Fiji Plan of Action for Nutrition (Fiji National Food and NutritionCommittee, 1996) promotes food security through, amongstothers, improved availability and accessibility, increasedproduction and consumption of local foods and increasedacreage of agricultural land devoted to food crops. It alsopromotes family food production through backyard food gardens,

community-based food production and food-processingenterprises, diversification of farming practices to strengthenhome food production, and household food processing andpreservation. The lack of resources allocated to food security isevident in the fact that the backyard gardening activities are tobe implemented through women's organizations, whilst theremaining activities are to be implemented by the Department of

Agriculture.

Improvements in food security are occurring as a result ofmarketing developments. The emergence of urban squattersettlements, housing poor rural to urban migrants, has resulted insome squatters developing `middleperson' roles, in which theybuy basic foodstuffs from rural farmers to sell in stalls in squatterareas. Since squatter settlements are found in various locations

in Suva, this has improved food distribution and alleviatedfarmers of the need to go to, and spend time selling at, thecentral Suva market. This development also provides livelihoodsecurity for the squatters concerned and increases theproductivity of farmers. Further marketing developments includepackaging to reduce the time that women spend selling theirproduce at the market and to reduce food spoilage. Packaging

also provides employment for women and increases farmerproductivity.

3.2 Vanuatu

Food security has featured relatively prominently in Vanuatu'srecent development policies. One of the two key objectives of theThird National Development Plan 1992-1996 (DP3) is to expandthe agricultural and natural resources sector in a sustainablemanner so as to provide domestic employment, incomegeneration opportunities, domestic food security and export


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revenue. In particular, DP3 focused on the development ofsubsistence farming and gardening, with special emphasis onenhancing women's agricultural activities and welfare,diversifying cash crops particularly coconut, and improvingmarket development for exports. However, food security andwomen's role in agriculture feature less prominently in the new

Comprehensive Reform Programme for Agriculture whichemphasises increased smallholder commercialisation, agro-industries and small-scale export enterprises, and import-substitution industries, particularly food-processing.

Given the pivotal role of women in agricultural production,policies to address food security must address women's

agricultural role. This was recognised in DP3, but in practice wasfound to be difficult to implement because of the low status ofwomen and the existence of cultural norms. Development in thisarea is slow and will be a major constraint to the implementationof policies aimed at improving agricultural production. Thus, theWomen's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu Department ofWomen's Affairs, 1995) calls for the recognition, promotion andsupport of women's participation in agriculture and fishing, both

paid and unpaid activities, in recognition of women's role in foodsecurity.

The Women's National Plan of Action also identifies povertyarising from a breakdown of effective traditional and customarysupport systems as an area of concern. The increasing burden ofwomen's multiple roles are compounded in areas where water

and firewood now have to be carried longer distances due toenvironmental degradation. A consequence is that women haveless time for agriculture resulting in decreased productivity,increased poverty and diminished food security.

Vanuatu's National Food and Nutrition Policy was approved in1986. Its overall objective is to ensure the nutritional well-beingof the total population and increased self-sufficiency in food. To

achieve this, three priority objectives were identified: i) to preventand reduce the prevalence of under-nutrition in vulnerablegroups; ii) to prevent an increase in the prevalence of nutrition


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related non-communicable diseases; and iii) to improve foodsecurity. The more recent Plan of Action for Food and Nutritionfor 1997-2001 (Government of Vanuatu, 1996), formulatedfollowing the International Conference on Nutrition in 1992,expands these objectives to include increased food self-sufficiency and reduced dependence on imported foods and

beverages, particularly those that induce nutrition relateddisorders.

The Plan of Action for Food and Nutrition includes a NationalHousehold Food Security Development Plan, developed jointlyby the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture and theNational Food and Nutrition Committee. Project activities under

this plan await resources for implementation. Priority is to begiven in the first instance to urban areas, where home foodproduction is to be promoted and extension services (includingtechnical assistance and inputs) provided. This plan also calls forthe institution of agricultural policies that promote foodproduction, and the review of tariffs imposed on imported foods,which play a crucial role in ensuring household food securityamong urban dwellers. The need for income-generating activities

and a minimum wage policy is also recognised. Strategies forrural areas include production of less land demanding cashcrops, intercropping, and maximisation of available land that hasalready been cleared. Some training in horticulture is alreadybeing provided in urban areas by an NGO.

3.3 Samoa

At the national level, food security is not an issue of concern inSamoa. However, relative poverty and food insecurity exist at thehousehold and intrahousehold levels. Youth and someeconomically disadvantaged households in urban and peri-urbanareas are at particular risk. Malnutrition is a significant healthproblem. In adults this takes the form of over-nutrition withobesity, hypertension and diabetes, whereas in children it takesthe form of micro-nutrient deficiencies and protein-energy under-nutrition, especially in infants. Iron deficiency anaemia alsooccurs in children and in pregnant and lactating women. The


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promotion of home gardens and nutrition education should helpto overcome malnutrition problems, especially since part of theproblem appears to stem from a lack of nutritional knowledge.

In Samoa there is increasing dependence on imported food, thevalue of which now exceeds the value of all exports. This trend is

likely to continue under the current economic strategy. Indeedone of the most likely outcomes of this strategy, according toexpert consensus, is an "increased monetisation of theagriculture sector and increased dependency on cheap importedfoods" (Government of Samoa, 1996:14). The fact that mostpeople cannot afford the `cheap' foods currently importedindicates that food security will further deteriorate. Furthermore,

cheap imported foods include foods such as mutton flaps andturkey tails which are nutritionally inferior to local sources ofprotein.

The National Food and Nutrition Policy (Samoa National Foodand Nutrition Council, 1995) includes, as one of four overallobjectives, the achievement of environmentally sound andsocially sustainable development to contribute to improved

nutrition and health. Amongst the specific objectives is areduction in the reliance on imported food through increasedproduction of local foods, especially foods of high nutritionalvalue, and the improvement of national and household foodsecurity. Home gardening is also promoted. MAFFM alsopromotes the production and consumption of local foods in co-operation with the National Food and Nutrition Council.

By the year 2010, the Government aims to: eliminate moderateand severe protein-energy malnutrition; stabilise and/or reduce tobelow 1991 levels the incidence of diabetes, hypertension,obesity and heart disease; reduce by 20 percent present infant,child and maternal mortality rates; reduce the incidence ofnutritional anaemia among 1-5 year olds and pregnant andlactating women; and increase breast-feeding of infants.

8 Source: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Selected Indicators of Food andAgriculture Development in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1983-1993. Bangkok, 1994.


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4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs toAddress Policy

The availability of reliable sex-disaggregated data is an importantprerequisite for the formulation, monitoring and evaluation ofpolicies and programmes aimed at enhancing the role of women inagriculture, natural resource management and rural development.In that women play a pivotal role in livelihood and food security,sex-disaggregated data are needed to evaluate these securities.The FAO Plan of Action for Women in Development 1996-2001(FAO, 1995) points to the need for statistical data on the role of

women in agriculture and rural development. The establishment ofa global database on women in agriculture and rural developmentwas proposed in 1988 (FAO, 1988).

In the Pacific, like the developing world in general, sex-disaggregated data on human resources in agriculture and ruraldevelopment are not readily available (FAO, 1993). There is thus aneed to specify data needs and appropriate sources. Table 2

identifies data needs and sources for the Pacific Island countriesincluded in this study. These data needs are those required tomonitor and evaluate the policies, strategies and plans detailedabove, particularly in relation to gender roles in agriculture andrural development and to food security. These data are groupedinto seven broad areas, namely economic activity, access to themeans of production, time use and productivity, decision making,

income and expenditure, food security, and education and training.Within each broad area, a range of data requirements are defined(column 2) and these are grouped into subject areas (column 1).The level (column 3) at which the data are required may benational or community (or both). The source, or the proposedsource in the case of data items that are not generally available, isalso provided (column 4) as is an indication of the status of theitem in terms of general data availability (column 5). The table is

not exhaustive in the range of data items required, but serves toprovide a list of appropriate and feasible data for the specifiedpurpose.


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For example, policies to improve the delivery of extensionservices, especially to women, are informed by data providing thefrequency of contact with extension workers and the type ofservice received by women and men involved in agriculture,whether large or small-scale. Such data could be7 obtained fromrecords of extension activities made at the time of service delivery

and incorporated into a farming systems database. However this isnot currently done in most countries.

In addition to the statistical data included in Table 2, other types ofdata are required to understand the changing roles of women inagriculture, rural development and food security. For example,detailed gender sensitive case studies of the farming systemscurrently practised are required to provide an adequateunderstanding of those systems for policy formulation andevaluation. A detailed study of gender roles would complement thedata obtained from time-use studies. A detailed examination ofsuch qualitative data needs is beyond the scope of this report.

Table 2 Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions inAgriculture, Natural Resource Management and Rural

Development in the Pacific

Subject Data Item LevelSource/ProposedSource

Status

Economic Activity in Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry and RuralEnterprises

Overall

employment

persons economicallyactive in agriculture

(industry) by sex byemployment status

N CPC or LFS or

HIESA

persons economicallyactive in agriculture

(occupation) by sex byemployment status

N CPC or LFS or

HIESA


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persons economically

active in agriculture(occupation) by sex by

educational level

N C PC or LFS A

Market-oriented

employment


active in market-oriented agriculture


N CPC or LFS: codes611-613 of ISCO-

88 at 4-digit level

A/t


active in market-oriented fisheries


N CPC/LFS: codes6151 and 6152 of

ISCO-88

A/t


active in market-oriented forestry


N CPC/LFS: codes6141 and 6142 of

ISCO-88

A/t

Subsistence

activity

persons economicallyactive in subsistence

agriculture and fishing(occupation) by sex by

employment status

N CPC/LFS: code 62

of ISCO-88A/t

Farm holders

and labour

holders by sex byhousehold members

working on holding bysex by age

N AC A/t

holders by sex by

household membersworking on holding by

sex by hours worked

N AC A/t


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holders by sex byhousehold members

working on holding bysex by method of

payment (cash/kind)

N AC A/t

holders by sex byhousehold membersworking on holding by

sex by whether mainor secondary activity

N AC A/t

holders by sex by

hired labour on holding

by sex bypermanent/occasionalstatus

N AC A/t

Ruralentrepreneurs

rural entrepreneurs

by sex by type ofenterprise

N ES or HIES A/t

Ruralhouseholds

rural households withown activity in

agriculture, fishing,forestry or handicrafts

by main source ofincome (e.g. crop or

activity)

N HIES A

Access to Means of Production

Land holders by sex bymarital status by size

of holding by tenure

N AC A/t

holders by sex by

legal status by size ofholding by tenure N AC A/t


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horticulturalists bysex by size of land

controlled

N C FSDB NA

Credit

holders/

horticulturalists by sex

by amount of creditduring specified period

N C FSDB NA

rural loans bypurpose by sex of

borrower

N C AR A/t

Agriculturalinputs

holders by sex byuse of high yield

seeds, fertilisers,pesticides and

herbicides

N CAC: appropriatelist of inputs

A/t

horticulturalists by

sex by use of highyield seeds, fertilisers,

pesticides andherbicides

N C FSDB NA

Agricultural

technology

holders by sex by

use of introducedtechnology

N C

AC: appropriate

list of tools andmachinery

A/t

horticulturalists bysex by use ofintroduced technology

N C FSDB NA

Extension

services

holders/horticulturalistsby sex by frequency of

contact with extension

workers

N C FSDB NA


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extension workers bysex by type of service

N C FSDB A

holders/horticulturalists

receiving extension

services by sex bytype of service

N C FSDB NA

Transport

holders/horticulturalists

by sex by adequacy oftransport for marketing

N C FSDB NA

Time-use and Productivity

Gender-

division oflabour

rural adult populationby sex by time spent

on specified domesticand productive

activities

N C TUS NA

rural child/youthpopulation by sex by

time spent onspecified domestic and

productive activities

N C TUS NA

Productivity

productivity of labour

by sex by type ofactivity

N C FSDB NA

Decision making

Individual

persons with cash

income by sex bydegree of control over

income

N HIES or SS NA


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horticulturalists by

sex by degree ofcontrol over decisions

relating to cultivationof plot

N C FSDB NA

Household

households with cashincome by members'

degree of control overhousehold income by

sex of head/members

N C HIES or SS NA

households bymembers' degree of

control over householddecisions by sex of

head/members

N CHIES or FSDB orSS NA

Community

membership andoffice-bearers of

agricultural/ruralorganizations by sex

N C AR or FSDB A

involvement incommunity projects by

sex

N C AR or FSDB A/t

National Members ofParliament by sex

N AR A

employees in

relevant governmentpositions by sex

N AR A/t

Food Security

Nutritionalstatus

anthropometric and

other relevantmeasurements by sex

N NNS A


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prevalence ofdiabetes by sex by

age

N A

prevalence ofhypertension by sex

by age

N AR or HS A

prevalence ofanaemia by sex by

age

N AR or HS A/t

prevalence ofanaemia in pregnant

and lactating women

N AR or NNS or HS A

prevalence of protein-

energy malnutritionN AR or NNS or HS A

Food average foodconsumption per

capita by type of food

N HIES A

consumption calorie and proteinintake per capita by

sex by age

N DS NA

prevalence of breast-feeding in infants

N NNS or HS A

Economic monthly prices ofmajor food items

N C CPI A

factors monthly supply of

major food itemsN C HIES/FSDB A

Income and Expenditure


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Householdincome

rural householdheads by sex byhousehold income by

household size

N HIES A/t

distribution of rural

household income bycontribution ofhousehold members

by sex by adult/child

N HIES A/t

distribution of ruralhou

Documents

Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries