Gender and Climate Change - Africa - Module 4: Gender, Agriculture and Food Security - November 2012

7/28/2019 Gender and Climate Change - Africa - Module 4: Gender, Agriculture and Food Security - November 2012

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Empowered lives.Resilient nations.

Gender, agricultureand food security

G n d n d C l i m C h n G

Training module 4Capacity development series

f i C


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2012 United Nations Development Programme

All rights reserved.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s)

and do not necessarily represent those of the United Nations,including its Member States and UNDP.

A ut h o r: Zerisenay Habtezion

Co n t ri b ut o rs:Tim Scott, Lucy Wanjiru and Agnes Babugura

Wri t t e n p e e r re v i e We rs: Ana Rojas, Anesu Makina, Anthony Kagoro,

Evelyne Nairesiae, Gisele Dodji Dovi, Hannah Strohmeier, Kaijage Erneus,Kathleen Rutherford, Norah Matovu, Pia Treichel, Restituta Bogere, Simon

Billett, Susanne Olbrisch and Marie-Laure Mpeck Nyemeck.

i n - p e rso n p e e r re v i e We rs: Ana Maria Currea, Elizabeth Eggerts,

Gail Karlsson, Hye Jung Han, Lucy Wanjiru, Naoko Otobe, Ngone Diop,

Ryan Laddey, Sabina Mensah, Sarah Twigg, Solange Bandiaky,Stacy Alboher, Tim Scott, Tonni Brodber and Tracy Vaughan Gough.

e di t o r: Lance W. Garmer

de si gn : Suazion, Inc. (suazion.com)

photogrAphy: Curt Carnemark/World Bank and UN Photo/

Albert Gonzalez Farran (p. 4)


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I. Purpose of the training module 2

II. Objectives 4

III. Key messages 5

IV. Gender roles in agriculture 6

V. Gender-dierentiated impacts ofclimate change on agriculture 11

VI. Incorporating genderperspectives to improveagricultural development andfood security 15

VII. Conclusion 20

Appendix A: Case studies 21Appendix B: Learning tools 27

References 29


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Gnd nd Clim ChnG Capacity development series fiC

Gender, agriculture and food securityTraining module 42

i Purpose of the training module

i RationaleThe United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) has developed training modules and policybries on gender and climate change themes ospecifc relevance to the Arica region, includingoverall climate change issues, adaptation, energy,agriculture and ood security, and fnance. Theknowledge products in this series are designed tobuild capacity in the Arican region with respect togender and climate change and broader issues osustainable development. These materials draw oncapacity development work being undertaken inpartnership with other members o the Global Genderand Climate Alliance (GGCA) and complementexisting GGCA training modules, resource guides,and other related knowledge products. Their

preparation has been made possible by contributionsrom the Government o Finland and theGovernment o Denmark (or more detail, see theintroduction to module 1).

This ourth module in the series deals with genderissues related to agriculture and ood security.

iB Module structure and methodThis module provides basic inormation and learningtools needed to understand and advocate or

integration o gender issues in climate change policies at the regional, national,and community levels. It ocuses on gender, agriculture and ood security. Theollowing themes are covered:

Activity orexercise

Link to othertraining modules

PowerPoint orvideo presentation

Readings

Importantinformation

Timingindication

Internetlink

Box 1:Icon key


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3Gnd nd Clim ChnG Capacity development series fiCGender, agriculture and food security Training module 4

The dierent roles o men and women in agriculture and ood security in Arica

Gender dimensions o climate stressors on agricultural production and oodand nutritional security

The need and options or integrating o gender perspectives into agriculturaland ood security policies

The module starts by outlining its learning objectives and what users are expectedto understand upon conclusion o the training (Part II). The key messages othe module are presented in Part III, ollowed by Parts IV and V, which addressthe interlinkages between gender and climate change in the agriculture sector,including the gender-based constraints that women ace in this context. Part VIpresents policy options to bridge the gender gaps in this sector.

The module uses case studies rom countries in the region and other learningtools, including group activities and video. It uses seven easily identifable picturesand icons that make the content more user-riendly (see box 1).

This module includes reerences to other thematic modules in this series.Facilitators and participants are, thereore, encouraged to consult these modules.

Training based on this module could be delivered in three sessions:

Session 1: Parts II and IV (1 hour)

Session 2: Part V (1 hour)

Session 3: Part VI (1 hour)

The Learning Tools section oers a breakdown o time or dierent activities.


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Gnd nd Clim ChnG fiC Capacity development series

Agriculture and Food SecurityTraining module 44

ii Objectives

Understand the gender-dierentiated roles in agriculture and ood security in Arica.

Understand the gender-dierentiated impacts o climate change on agricultureand ood security in Arica.

Identiy the gender gaps in the agricultural sector that make womenparticularly vulnerable to ood insecurity as well as show they hinderagricultural development in rural communities.

Identiy appropriate responses to close the gender gap in the agricultural sectorin order to achieve gender equality and ood security.


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iii Key messages

In Arica, agriculture is the mainstay o 70 percent o the continentspopulation and this critical sector will be most impacted by climate change.

Women play a vital role in ood production, ood distribution, and oodutilization the three components o ood security; they also undertake arange o community-level activities that support agricultural development,such as soil and water conservation, aorestation and crop domestication.

Women ace numerous obstacles to access productive inputs, assets and

services; these obstacles not only heighten their vulnerability to oodinsecurity, but also considerably reduce their contribution to overallagricultural production.

Agriculture is central to womens livelihoods, especially in Arica.Climatic stresses on agricultural production will make womenparticularly vulnerable to ood insecurity.

Women oten ace a greater burden in responding and adapting toclimatic stresses due to their lack o access to land, fnancial services,social capital and technology. In some cases, discriminatory socialattitudes and traditions are sanctioned by law.

Empowering women and girls is not just necessary or their well-being,but also a means to broader agricultural development and ood security,and it is economically sound. Studies show that, i women armers weregiven the same access to resources (such as land, fnance and technology)

as men, their agricultural yields could increase by 20 to 30 percent;national agricultural output could rise by 2.5 to 4 percent; and thenumber o malnourished people could be reduced by 12 to 17 percent.

Eliminating gender-based discrimination under the law, ensuringgender-sensitive policies and programming decisions, and givingwomen greater voice in decision-making at all levels are necessary ormainstreaming gender in agriculture and ood security.

5Capacity development series Gnd nd Clim ChnG fiCAgriculture and Food Security Training module 4


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iV Gender roles in agriculture

Learning Objective: Understand the linkages among gender, climatechange, agriculture and food security

1. Climate change aects regions dierently, but the poorest regions experiencethe worst impacts because they are very vulnerable. Countries low on theHuman Development Index already experience the greatest reduction inrainall and the greatest increase in its variability, with implications oragricultural production and livelihoods (UNDP HDR 2011; see FAO 2011a).

In Arica, current and possible uture impacts include increased sea level riseand coastal erosion, stresses on resh water resources, deorestation, increasedintensity and recurrence o disasters, and the spread o malaria. Many Aricancountries are dealing with poverty, a lack o good governance, debt, conicts,and disease, including HIV/AIDS all this reduces their capacity to adapt toclimate change (Boko et al. 2007; Toulmin 2009; see Figure 2).

2. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Synthesis Report

and the Summary or Policy Makers o the Working Group II Report notethat, by 2020, some Arican countries will see yields rom rain-ed agriculturereduced by up to 50 percent; that agricultural production, including access toood, could be severely compromised; and that this would urther adverselyaect ood security and exacerbate malnutrition (IPCC 2007a, 2007b). Newerstudies also confrm the predicted climatic risks or Arican agriculture andood production (see Mller et al. 2011). It should be noted that the eectso climate change on agriculture vary with the crop, region and season andthere may well be certain crops, such as rice, that will be helped by climatic

changes. But, overall, agricultural production and ood security in Arica areexpected to suer additional stress (UNDP 2011; FAO 2007). The stress couldmaniest itsel in crop ailures, pest and disease outbreaks, and the degradationo land and water resources (FAO 2007; Boko et al. 2007; Toulmin 2009).For example, changes in precipitation could lead to erratic weather patterns(rainy seasons beginning earlier or later than normal, or sudden rain spells in aregion that is normally dry), which, in turn, could lead to crop ailures.


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Water scarcty, cate cage a agrcuture (Be) (veo k)

3. These impacts are likely to be elt more acutely at the individual level,as agriculture is the mainstay o 70 percent o the continents 1 billionpopulation, employing 65 percent o its labour orce and contributing toabout 30 percent o the GDP and 50 percent o the total export value (IPCC2007; Toulmin 2009; World Bank 2011a). Environmental degradation ingeneral can strain agricultural productivity and ood security in Arica;or example, drylands, home to about a third o the worlds population, arecurrently threatened by desertifcation. Climate change would aggravate these

problems. Sub-Saharan Aricas drylands are said to be especially vulnerablebecause o the regions low adaptive capacity UNDP HDR 2011; InternationalUnion or Conservation o Nature (IUCN)/International Institute orEnvironment and Development(IIED)/UNDP 2009.

4. Agriculture and ood security are characterized by gendered dimensionsin that women play a key role in agricultural production, ood processingand marketing. They play a decisive role in dietary diversity and areresponsible or nutrition in the home. In addition, women are involved in the

production and domestication o plants and animals; they are knowledgeablein seed selection and vegetative propagation; they understand how plants andanimals grow and reproduce; and they plant trees. Women comprise 20 to 50percent o the agricultural labour orce in developing countries (FAO 2011b)and 79 percent o women in least developed countries who are economicallyactive report that agriculture is their primary economic activity (Doss 2011).While the roles o women in agriculture vary widely by region, age, ethnicityand social station, their participation rates in the agricultural labour orce in

sub-Saharan Arica is the highest in the world. For example, the percentageo women in agricultural activities ranges rom 36 percent in Cte dIvoireand Niger to over 60 percent in Lesotho, Mozambique and Sierra Leone (FAO2011b). Figure 1 provides additional percentages o women in various Aricancountries involved in agricultural activities.


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5. Because women tend to heavily rely on agriculture, a highly climate-sensitivesector, any stresses on the sector, including those related to climate change,

are likely to have disparate impacts on their livelihoods.

5A. Unmitigated climate change is potentially one o the most consequentialstresses to agriculture in sub-Saharan Arica (UNDP 2011; FAO 2007; IPCC2007a, 2007b; see Figure 2). Just as dierent countries and societies havevarying degrees o susceptibility to the adverse impacts o climate change,men and women also have dierent coping and adaptive capacities andconsequently disparate vulnerabilities to the impacts o a changing climate

(UNDP 2010; Women Watch 2008). This disparity has been evident in currentexperiences o extreme climatic events such as droughts and ood.

Training module

8

Note: Multiple results per country are reported where available studies reect dierent time periods or locations.

Source: Adapted from FAO (2011b).

TheGambia

Tanzania

BurkinaFaso

Nigeria

Zambia(1)

Zambia(2)

Cameroon(1)

Cameroon(2)

Cameroon(3)

Niger

Togo

Ghana

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Figure 1: Proportion of labour in all agricultural activitiesthat is supplied by women within various African countries


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Figure 2: Examples of current and possible future impacts andvulnerabilities associated with climate variability and change in Africa

Source: Boko et al. 2007.


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5B. One main reason or this disparity is the gender gap that restricts theaccess o women to land, fnancial services, social capital as well as access totechnology, which renders them vulnerable to ood insecurity (FAO 2011b;World Bank 2011a). According to a recent study by the World Bank, 103 o

141 countries (25 o 35 economies in sub-Saharan Arica) have laws that likelythwart womens economic opportunities and socio-cultural barriers that caninhibit women rom eectively responding to climatic risk (World Bank 2010).See module 2 (particularly Section V) or details o social limitations imposedon the adaptive capacity o women. Oten, these regressive social attitudesand traditions may be sanctioned by law (World Bank 2011b).

moue no. 2

6. Men also play a crucial role in ood production; they, however, ace ewerconstraints than women. Men are more likely to have access to productiveresources such as land, credit and extension services. In cases o crop ailuredue to harsh climatic conditions, cultural traditions oten make it easier ormen to leave their arms in search o employment elsewhere, leaving womenbehind to struggle to eed their amilies and make ends meet. In many cases,

women have diminished assets and resources to help them plan or andpotentially avert the next crisis. Related to this, it has recently been notedthat numerous countries in Arica have also seen substantial increases in theemale share o the agricultural labour orce in recent decades due to externalpressures such as conict, HIV/AIDS and migration (FAO 2011b).

Summary questions

Wat are te key geer ssues agrcuture a oo securty?

Gve soe exapes o curret a possbe uture pacts a vuerabtes as-

socate wt cate varabty a cage, geer, agrcuture a oo securty

rca.

Wy are woe arers ore key to be sproportoatey vuerabe to cate

cage pacts ta e arers?


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V Gender-dierentiated impacts ofclimate change on agriculture

Learning objective: Identify gender gaps in the agricultural sector thatincrease the vulnerability of women to food insecurity, and the cumulativeeect on rural agricultural development

7. Figure 3 shows that ood security is already a serious problem or manycountries in Arica. Food security is a situation that exists when all people,at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufcient, sae

and nutritious ood that meets their dietary needs and ood preerences oran active and healthy lie (FAO 2002). Food availability, at least on thesupply side, is likely to be exasperated by climate change (FAO 2011a; alsosee paragraph 2 in this module). Women play a pivotal role in the threecomponents o ood security: food availability (production), food access(distribution), and food utilization (use and processing) (World Bank 2009).These are discussed below.

Sources: FAOSTAT 2010 (www.fao.org/hunger).

Figure 3: FAO Hunger Map 2010 prevalence ofundernourishment in developing countries


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8. Women participate in ood production activities such as hoeing, weeding,harvesting, land preparation, threshing, transportation and usage. They alsobroadly support agricultural development through soil and water conservation,aorestation and crop domestication. However, the asymmetries in ownership

o and access to vital livelihood assets (such as land, water, energy, credit,knowledge and labour) constrain womens contributions to ood production(World Bank 2009; FAO 2011b). For example, mens land holdings are almostthree times that o womens land holdings. In certain cases, the asymmetriesare even more acute. For example, women are 5 percent o registeredlandholders in Kenya. Limitations on such essential assets oten lead to loweryields or women than would otherwise be possible i household resourceswere allocated equitably (World Bank 2009; FAO 2011b). This also leads towomen having a lower adaptive capacity (UNDP HDR 2007).

9. As with ood production, women play a key role in ood distribution (access).At the household level, once a amily collects its harvest, women mustdistribute and allocate the ood stock until the next harvest. Women otenmanage the production o subsistence crops, increasing ood availability orthe household. Related to this, rural women tend to spend more o the incomethey make rom ood crops (compared to men) on ood, health, clothingand education or their children, hence improving the entire households

ood security (World Bank 2009; FAO 2011b). However, women still acedifculties related to ood distribution. In many Arican states, distributiono ood to local markets, especially or ood crops, as opposed to cash crops,entails arduous head-loading by women. Some studies note that womentransport 26 metric-ton kilometres per year compared to less than 7 metric-ton kilometres or men (World Bank 2009). A related obstacle or women inrural areas is time poverty, that is, the ability o people to engage in otherproductive activities (such as education) that is constrained by time spent on

subsistence chores. Firewood and water collection is largely done by womenand girls on oot. Climate-induced scarcity o natural resources can diminishood security by urther constraining the time available to women. Waterdegradation and pollution can orce women to travel arther to collect waterand reduce the amount they collect.

See moue no. 5


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10. Finally, in ood utilization (use and processing), women process many oodand related products that support the livelihood o the household, henceadding value. Women are typically responsible or ood preparation and arethereore crucial to the dietary diversity o their households. Women are

generally responsible or selecting ood purchased to complement stapleoods and to balance the households diet (World Bank 2009). Although thecontributions o women to ood use and processing are widely known, thereis gender bias in this regard as well. Women are, or instance, said to be moreundernourished than men, as they tend to eat less in times o ood shortage(Dankelman 2010; WHO 2011).

11. In agricultural practice, there are several gender-specifc constraints thatlimit the access o women to productive inputs, assets and services. These allbroadly under the categories oownership of assets, access to productiveinputs such as ertilizers, and access to credit and extension services. (FAO2011b; World Bank 2011a). These are discussed below.

12. On land ownership, between 10 to 20 percent o all landholders are womenalthough there is a signifcant variance in this range among countries evenwithin the same region. In Arica, an average o 15 percent o landholdersare women; the range in relation to land ownership is considerable rom

less than 5 percent in Mali to over 30 percent in Botswana, Cape Verde andMalawi. In many developing countries, land is predominantly owned by menand transerred intergenerationally to males. Even when women are ableto access land, lack o ownership creates a disincentive to invest time andresources into sustainable arming practices, which, in turn, lowers productionand results in less income and ood or the household. In some countries,arms operated by emale-headed households are only one hal to two thirdsas large as arms operated by male-headed households.

13. With regards to livestock, the holdings o emale armers are much smallerthan those o men in all countries or which data are available, and womenearn less than men rom their livestock holdings. Women are much less likelyto own large animals, such as cattle and oxen that are useul as droughtanimals. Farms run by emale-headed households have less labour availablebecause these households are typically smaller and have ewer working-ageadult members and because women have heavy and unpaid household dutiesthat divert them rom more productive activities.


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14. Women receive only 5 percent o agricultural extension services worldwide.Time constraints and cultural reservations may also hinder women romparticipating in extension activities, such as feld days, outside their villageor within mixed groups. In most countries, the share o emale smallholders

who can access credit is 5 to 10 percentage points lower than that o malesmallholders. The reason or this is partly that women oten do not havethe necessary collateral. As noted above (paragraph 5b), many countrieshave laws and established legal practices that discriminate against women,including on access to credit. Access to credit and insurance are important oraccumulating and retaining other assets.

15. Women are much less likely to use purchased inputs such as ertilizers andimproved seeds or to make use o mechanical tools and equipment. In manycountries, women are only one hal as likely as men to use ertilizers. Studiesin Burkina Faso, Kenya, Nigeria and Zambia showed that, due to dierentialcontrol over resources, women were at a disadvantage when men and womengrew the same crop on individual plots. Most inputs, such as labour andertilizer, went to the mens plots.

Group exercse (see ppex: learg oos)

Summary questions

Wat s oo securty?

how o woe cotrbute to oo securty?

Wat are soe o te geer base costrats tat woe ace te

agrcutura sector?


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Vi Incorporating gender perspectivesto improve agricultural

development and food securityLearning objective: Identify appropriate policy responses to address gendergaps in agriculture and food security

16. Empowering women and girls is critical or agricultural development andood security (World Bank 2009), but there is also a strong economic rationale

or this: i women armers were given the same access to resources, suchas fnance, womens agricultural yields could increase by 20 to 30 percent;national agricultural production could rise by 2.5 to 4 percent; and thenumber o malnourished people could be reduced by 12 to 17 percent (FAO2011b; Bertini 2011). It has recently been observed that, i Arican womenwere given equal access as men to vocational training and technology, thecontinents economy would expand by at least 40 percent (Krause-Jackson2011). Box 3 provides a notable ongoing eort to address gender issues in

agriculture in the Southern Arican Development Community (SADC).

P: SdC egoa grcutura Pocy (P)

PGd: SdC Protoco o Geer a deveopet (PGd)


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(Adopted from SADC RAP 2010, SADC PCD 2008).

In Africa, the Southern African Development Community(SADC) has identied gender issues as a top priority. The SADC Protocolon Gender and Development (2008) (PCD) requires, in particular, that genderissues be mainstreamed into all of SADCs actions. The objective of the PCD is to provide forthe empowerment of women, to eliminate discrimination and to achieve gender equality andequity through the development and implementation of gender responsive legislation policies,programmes and projects (Art. 3). The PCD has 43 Articles under eight headings: constitutionaland legal rights; governance; education and training; productive resources and employment;gender-based violence; health and HIV/AIDS; peace building and conict resolution; and media,

information and communication. There are 23 set targets, including that women should hold50 percent of decision-making positions in the public and private sectors by 2015. Other keytargets include ensuring that provisions for gender equality are contained in all constitutions andinclude armative action clauses, halving gender-based violence, and abolishing the minoritystatus of women codied in many of the member states constitutions based on the dual legalsystems that recognize customary law. The PCD also calls for stepping up prevention, treatmentand support of HIV/AIDS victims. A section on nal provisions includes sections on remedies,institutional arrangements, and implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The PCD gendermainstreaming requirement has recently been adopted within the context of the regionalAgricultural Policy (RAP) of the SADC region. The RAP notes:

Rural women are key contributors to economic development, particularly in termsof farm production and productivity, local processing and marketing. Their role incontributing to appropriate nutrition has been well documented, including their inter-generational impact on development. The numerous constraints that women face indeveloping their economic and social functions are of various kinds (e.g. social rights,access to nance and land, time and labour, adapted agricultural and processingtechnology, etc.). These constraints need to be addressed at various levels (legal/economic, national/local, global/sector specic, etc.). However, despite several decades ofpromoting related issues, they have not been properly reected in public action.

SADC has identied gender issues as top priority. Among the latest and most importantdevelopments is the Protocol on Gender and Development (Aug. 2008), which requires inparticular that gender issues be mainstreamed into all SADCs actions. This includes the RAP.

Suggested key policy issues for inclusion in the RAP in relation to gender, therefore,include:

Systematically mainstreaming women promotion under all pillars of the RAP: (1)Production, Productivity & Competitiveness; (2) Trade and Markets and (3) Financing andInvestments; and

Supporting Member States planning and action to improve womens benecialinvolvement in agriculture.

Box 2: In focus: Gender mainstreaming in agriculture(SADC Regional Agricultural Policy)


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17. The ollowing are a set o recommended policy measures that could beemployed in addressing gender-based barriers in the agricultural sector(see FAO 2011):

Closing the gap in access to land

Eliminate discrimination under the law

Recognize the importance and power of customary land rights

Educate ocials and evaluate them on gender targets

Educate women regarding land rights

Ensure that womens voices are heard

Adjust bureaucratic procedures

Gather sex-disaggregated data for policy design and monitoring

Closing the gap in rural labour markets

Target womens multiple trade-os

Reduce gender inequalities in human capital

Capitalize on public work programmes

Strengthen womens rights and voice

Closing the fnancial services gap

Promote nancial literacy

Design products that meet the needs of women

Promote a women-friendly and empowering culture

Closing the gap in social capital through womens groups

Use technology and innovative delivery channels

Closing the technology gap

Develop technologies and environments that address womens needs

Improve extension services

Scale up farmer eld schools

Box 3: Addressing gender barriers in agriculture


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18. Gender mainstreaming ocuses on the act that women and men experiencelie dierently and have dierent needs and priorities and that developmentpolicies and interventions aect them dierently. The process requirestaking into account several considerations as well as commitment o human

and physical resources to produce specifc activities, outputs, and outcomesthat beneft men and women equally. In the context o agriculture andood security, it is important that men and women o all ages, ethnicities,religions, and socioeconomic levels have enough ood and especially that theood be readily available, accessible, and appropriately used. Gender-basedinequalities along the ood production chain rom arm to plate that impedethe attainment o ood and nutritional security must thereore be addressedthrough eective gender responsive policies, programs, and projects (WorldBank 2009).See Figure 4 or a step-by-step process or integrating gender intoagriculture and ood security policy, projects and programmes.

19. Careully designed policies, strategies and projects can work within existingcultural norms and through the public and private sectors in ways that beneftboth women and men. Many steps are required by many dierent actors governments, civil society, the private sector and individuals but the basicprinciples are the same across the board: eliminate discrimination under thelaw, make gender-aware policy and programming decisions, and give women

a greater voice in decision-making at all levels.

Group exercse (see ppex B: learg toos)

Summary questions

Prove soe exapes o ow geer-base costrats agrcuture ca

be aresse.

meto soe ways o astreag geer agrcuture a oo

securty pocy, projects a prograg.

how oes te SdC aress geer atters ts egoa grcutura Pocy?


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1. Establishing the foundation for

successful gender integration into

agriculture and food security policy,

projects and programmes.

2. Problem identication

Be clear about exactly what the

problem is.

3. Being informed (gender analysis)

Understand what the gender issues

in agriculture and food security are,

and the causes and options for

addressing them.

4. Policy/program/project design

Develop a policy, project or program

design to address the gender issues in

agriculture and food security

5. Policy/program/project design appraisal

Process to ensure that the proposed

design will eectively address the

gender issues

10. Lessons learned & adjustment

Review and make use of lessons learned

in policies/projects or programs in the

design of future initiatives

9. Gender-responsive evaluation

Review the overall impact of the

policy/project or programme to assess if

it was successful and why/why not.

Identify best practices & lessons learned.

8. Gender-responsive monitoring

Regular measurement of progress

towards the policy/project or

programme goals

7. Policy/program/project

implementation

Planned activities and actions carried

out to address the gender issues in

agriculture and food security

6. Resource allocation

Specic and sucient resources

(nancial, human, time) are allocated to

enable the achievement of all

policy/program/project objectives.

Figure 4: Integrating gender into agriculture and food security


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Vii Conclusion

The agriculture sector in Arica is being severely aected by climate change andwill be even more so in the uture. Many women, among the poorest and mostvulnerable groups, are particularly hard-hit by these eects. The majority owomen, especially in Arica, are involved in agriculture and the sector is crucialto their livelihoods. On the one hand, they play a pivotal role in ood production,ood distribution and ood utilization the three components o ood security as well as in various activities that support agricultural development such as soiland water conservation, aorestation and crop domestication. On the other hand,they are oten constrained heavily by discriminatory policies and social norms

that limit their access to productive inputs, assets and services. This increasestheir vulnerability to ood insecurity and heavily limits their contributions toagricultural productivity.

Eliminating gender-based discrimination under the law, ensuring gender-awarepolicy and programming decisions, and giving women a greater voice in decision-making at all levels are important or mainstreaming gender within agricultureand ood security programming and policy. The increased participation o women

and their empowerment, which includes giving them better i not equal accessto resources such as land and credit, are essential components o sound socialand economic policy. Empowering women can also help improve agriculturaldevelopment and ood security or the community as a whole.


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Appendix A. Case studies

Case stuy 1

Closing the technology gender gap in agriculture(Uganda)Source: Adapted from FAO 2011c.

Farmer feld schools have proved to be a participatory and eective way oempowering and transerring knowledge to women armers. This was evidentin Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, where women who participated in these feld

schools were more likely to adopt major technologies, including improved cropvarieties, livestock management and pest control techniques.

The sustainable rural livelihoods programme established in 2004 in easternUgandas Kamuli District was designed to improve ood security, nutrition andhealth at the household and community levels. The programme employs a armer-to-armer training and extension approach to demonstrate and disseminateinormation on key management practices such as planting banana or cassava.This is done in ways that ensure productivity and control diseases, enhancing

soil ertility through composting with manure, growing and using nutrient-dense crops such as amaranth grain and vitamin A-rich sweet potatoes. It alsoemphasizes the establishment o multiplication gardens and seed nurseries, post-harvest management and storage, improving livestock breeding and eeding,integrating nutrition and health with agriculture, arm enterprise development,marketing, and strengthening armer groups. Women make up the majority oarm group members, leaders and trainers. They comprise about 58 percent ocommunity-based rural development extension workers, 75 percent o community

nutrition and health workers, 76 percent o committee members and 71 percent oexecutive committee members.

The programme has enriched womens human capital through training andexperience gained in developing leadership skills, improved nutrition and health, andcommunitywide respect or their role as sources o valuable knowledge. The womenare also involved in arm groups and emerging marketing associations. Another keyreported result has been a signifcant increase in household ood security.


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Case stuy 2

Climate change and food insecurity:The case of the Wula Ekumpuo community (Nigeria)Source: NEST 2011.

A needs assessment conducted in the community o Wula in Cross River State,showed that ood shortage and water scarcity during the dry season are the majorimpacts resulting, in part, rom climate change. Other related problems includethe loss o animal and plant species due to deorestation as people continue toharvest frewood or domestic use and sale.

People generally attribute the ood shortage to poor soil ertility, which is madeworse by changing and unpredictable rainall patterns. As an adaptation strategy,people have resorted to growing cassava as a staple ood, instead o yam, sincecassava grows better in inertile soils than yam. People are also more otenresorting to buying imported oods, such as rice, indomie (Chinese instantnoodles), spaghetti and other exotic ood items rom outside the community.The eect o this dependency on cassava and imported oods is lack o adequatenutrition or children.

Water scarcity has put an additional burden on women and children in Wula sincethey are the ones primarily involved in water collection. The reduced nutritionalstatus o the diet together with the increased burden o water collection in thecommunity means that the women and children are very vulnerable to urtherchanges in resource availability due to climate change.


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Case stuy 3

Gender, international nance institutionsand food security (Ethiopia)Source: Extracted from Arend, E. 2011.

Poor, rural Ethiopians, the majority o whom are women and girls, experience chronicood insecurity. Despite decades o agricultural investments rom international fnanceinstitutions (IFIs), overall productivity in Ethiopias agriculture sector has stagnated,leaving 8.3 million Ethiopians more or less perennially dependent on ood securityprograms, and several million more [who] are susceptible to ood insufciency inthe event o adverse climatic shocks (World Bank, 2008). Although the World Bank(WB) has invested a total o $2.5 billion in agriculture and ood security projects in

Ethiopia since 1970, a 2010 WB project appraisal stated that the capacity o [Ethiopias]agricultural institutions is still weak, [] yields remain low, and many geographicalareas have unexploited potential or productivity growth. The WB noted thatEthiopias poor have also suered disproportionately rom the global economic crisis,as the price o goods consumed by the poor is estimated to have risen by 78 percentin urban areas and 85 percent in rural areas between 2008-2010 (2010). Householdsare oten orced to ulfl basic ood needs by selling assets, reducing the number omeals eaten per day, or borrowing ood or money (FAO, 2009). Ethiopian women and

girls bear the greatest burdens due to ood insecurity, since they have a substantiveproductive role in the rural sector, including participation in livestock maintenance andmanagement, crop production and marketing o rural produce (Ethiopian Ministry oForeign Aairs, 2010).

This case study applies Gender Actions Essential Gender Analysis Checklist to ouractive IFI projects in Ethiopia that ocus on agriculture, land management andnutrition. Totalling $384 million and unded by the WB, none o these projectsembrace a gender rights perspective or analyse dierential impacts on men andwomen, boys and girls; and only two out the our projects discuss gender equality.The WBs private sector arm, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), alsoinvests in Ethiopia: in 2010, the IFC extended a risk-sharing acility worth up to


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$10 million to Ethiopias Nib International Bank to increase the number o loansoered to 70 coee armer cooperatives. Although the IFC claims that its ocus onagribusiness and industry benefts small and medium enterprises by helping themaccess fnance (2010), small-scale and subsistence armersthe majority o whom

are womenare unlikely to beneft rom such large-scale investments. The AricanDevelopment Bank has also invested in agriculture projects in Ethiopia, but its mostrecent agriculture project closed in 2010.

Some recommendations based on the case study are the ollowing:

Approach agriculture and ood security investments rom gender and humanrights perspectives. Eliminate investments that undermine developing countries local agricultural

markets and harm the livelihoods o poor women and girls. Explicitly promote the integration o women throughout agriculture and

nutrition project cycles and promote outcomes that increase ood security,especially or women and girls. Integrate the needs o women and girls into agriculture investments and

promote outcomes that equally beneft men and women, boys and girls.


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Case stuy 4

Climate change and women farmers in Burkina FasoSource: Extracted from Intermn Oxfam 2011.

Burkina Fasos geographical situation makes it particularly vulnerable to climatechange. As a country in the Sahel in the heart o western Arica, Burkina Fasosuers an extreme, variable climate: the same area can be aected by bothooding and drought within only a ew months. The economy o this largely ruralcountry is essentially based on agriculture and stockbreeding. According to variouspredictions, climate change will have an impact on agricultural production andood security, and will thereore aect inhabitants o rural areas, especially thosewho are most vulnerable, such as women.

Recent research by OXFAM on the interconnections between agriculture, adaptationto climate change and gender seeks to 1) analyse the specifc impact o climatechange on women in Burkina Fasos agricultural sector, 2) analyse how gender andwomen are taken into account in national adaptation and rural development policiesand programmes, and 3) examine adaptation practices aimed at women and theoutcomes o such practices in terms o both gender and adaptation.

In Burkina Faso as everywhere else, the eects o climate changedisproportionately aect women and their livelihoods. The ollowing arerecommendations based on the research:

ecoeatos or takg woes vuerabty to accout cate cage

aaptato

At institutional level

Involve rural communities, especially women, in the planning and carrying out

o climate change adaptation initiatives in development and adaptation plansand policies. Develop awareness and inormation campaigns about climate change and its

eects or inhabitants o rural areas. Promote awareness raising and training among those involved in rural

development (at national, regional and local levels) with regard to the specifcimpact that climate change has on women. Involve rural communities, and women in particular, in the sustainable

management o resources such as water and orests.


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Promote adapted arming systems, the use o water- and soil-conservationtechniques, reorestation and sustainable resource management. Improve womens access to land ownership; develop awareness raising

programmes within communities and among those involved in development

at local, regional and national levels. Promote the amendment o laws to grantwomen the right to ownership. Promote womens access to agricultural-extension services and training on

arming adaptation techniques. Improve womens access to credit and theinputs needed to increase agricultural yield. Promote access or both men and women armers to inormation about the

climate, including weather orecasts, so that they can decide on the best timeto plant seeds. Promote suitable rameworks and tools or analysing interactions between

climate change and development, with a view to consistently incorporatingclimate change into planning at national, regional and local levels. Support a long-term assessment o the NAPA and the rewriting o a

programmatic, airer and gender-sensitive NAPA.

At organisational level

Work on identiying and eliminating actors that limit womens capacity to

adapt. Give women training so that they can develop their adaptation skills, andpromote medium- and long-term strategic changes in order to achieve greatergender equality. Promote participation by women in the planning and carrying out o

adaptation measures so that their needs and priorities are taken into account. With regard to adaptation, work on adaptation measures with a view to

responding to known risks (heavy and irregular rain and extreme events) andinormation on weather conditions (rainall measurement) so that people canbe better prepared.

Promote womens access to adaptation techniques: water- and soil-conservationtechniques, use o improved seeds, diversifcation o crops, compostingand horticulture. Strengthen womens organisations in rural communities and support their

participation in the planning and carrying out o adaptation measures so thattheir needs and priorities are taken into account. Promote active participationin community decision making. Develop credit and storage systems to support amilies during the period

between harvests so that they do not have to sell their capital to buy ood whenmarket prices are higher.


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Appendix B. Learning tools

Task 1: Water scarcity, climate change and agriculture(Benin) (plenary)

Learning Objective: Understand how gender roles in society dierentlydetermine how men and women farmers experience the impacts ofclimate-induced water scarcity

Water scarcty, cate cage a agrcuture (Be) (veo presetato)

7 Minutes (video presentation)20 minutes (group discussion and reections)

notes to te factator

Encourage a discussion on the take-away message rom the video presentation.

Encourage a discussion on the question, How does climate change impactmen and women armers? Encourage the participants to discuss the genderdimensions o ood insecurity in their local context.


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Task 2: Time-use activity (breakout groups and plenary)

Learning Objective: Understand the gender dierentiated climatechange impacts in agriculture and how these impacts could worsen time

poverty of women

e-use actvty

50 minutes (group breakout discussions);15 minutes (presentation o fndings, with three fve-minute presentations);

20 minutes (plenary discussions)

notes to te factator

Men and women play multiple roles (productive, reproductive and communitymanagement) in society. These patterns o time use are dierentiated by gender.Encourage the participants (divided into groups) to identiy time expended inagricultural activities by gender in their communities. You may encourage theparticipants to add to or modiy the activities listed in the table to suit theircircumstances. Finally, ask the participants to discuss what they have learned romthe assignment.

Time (hrs./day/person)

RemarksActivities Women Men

Collection of food

Collection of water

Crop farming

Food Processing

Hunting, gathering

Herding

Fish farming

Land preparation

Fencing

Gardening


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United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (2011b). The State of Food and Agriculture, Rome: FAO.

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lks or urter reerece

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENAGRLIVSOUBOOK/Resources/CompleteBook.pdf

http://www.gendercc.net/

http://www.africa-adapt.net/

http://weadapt.org/


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Notes


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Notes


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Empowered lives.Resilient nations.

Documents

Gender and Climate Change - Africa - Module 4: Gender, Agriculture and Food Security - November 2012