GELATIN ISSUES IN HALAL FOOD PROCESSING FOR … · Gelatin Issues In Halal Food Processing For Muslim Societies 39 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature

Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic

Volume 10/14 Fall 2015, p. 37-52

DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8928

ISSN: 1308-2140, ANKARA-TURKEY

GELATIN ISSUES IN HALAL FOOD PROCESSING FOR MUSLIM

SOCIETIES

Ali BATU**

Joe M. REGENSTEIN***

Ismail Sait DOGAN****

ABSRACT

Religious Muslim people pay attention to halal food consumption. They avoid unlawful or suspicious food. Last decade consumed foods often consist of ready-made food. Unfortunately, they are produced without religious obligations taking into account by certain companies. Thus, some non-lawful food additives may be used. Gelatin’s wide use impacts Muslims and Jews as the halal and kosher food regulations do not permit products that are derived from pigs. Gelatin can be used in every phase of daily life due to it is multipurpose food additive. Gelatin’s largest single food use is in water gel desserts. It is used a wide application area such as gelling product, concentration, glazing and as encapsulating material. It is used also in cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. The main sources of gelatin are from pigskins, cattle bones and cattle hides. Generally pig-skin gelatin is the quickest to make and least expensive process. In recent years several new initiative have started to produce halal bovine gelatin in Turkey and in Muslim Countries. Halal gelatin can be produced from cow, fish and chicken. At present, fish gelatin is considerably more expensive than gelatin that is produced traditionally. Another alternative for mammalian gelatin can be chicken skin gelatin if it is slaughtered in the Islamic way.

STRUCTURED ABSTRACT

Gelatin production and consumption has been performed since ancient times in the World and Turkey, and it is increasing steadily. Last year gelatin has been produced about 300 thousand tons in the world and it is known that it also belongs to Europe about 65% of it. It is estimated that the gelatin consumtion in Turkey about 5,000 tons per year. Religious Muslim people pay attention to halal food consumption.

Bu makale Crosscheck sistemi tarafından taranmış ve bu sistem sonuçlarına göre orijinal bir makale olduğu tespit

edilmiştir. ** corresponding author, Prof. Dr. Department of Food Engineering, Facuty of Engineering, Mevlana University, El-mek:

[email protected] *** Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Stocking Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853-7201, USA **** Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering&Architecture, Yüzüncü Yıl University

http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8928

mailto:[email protected]

38 Ali BATU – Joe M. REGENSTEIN – İsmail Sait DOĞAN


Volume 10/14 Fall 2015

Thus they avoid unlawful (haram) or suspicious food. Consumed foods often consist of ready-made food. Unfortunately, they are produced without religious obligations taking into account by certain companies. Thus, some non-lawful food additives may be used in some produced foods in Turkey. Gelatin’s wide use impacts Muslims and Jews as the halal and kosher food regulations do not permit products that are derived from pigs or from mammals and birds that are not slaughtered following the religious requirements.

The main sources of gelatin are from pigskins, cattle bones and cattle hides. Generally pig-skin gelatin is the quickest to make and least expensive process. Gelatin has been produced commercially from beef, pork, and fish. Gelatin is usually prepared from bones, tendons, and cartilage by extraction in hot water, where collagen is hydrolysed to produce gelatin. The resulting solution is evaporated to concentrate, clarified, and chilled to create a gel, which can subsequently be dried and then cut into sheets or powdered. During gelatin manufacturing, the conversion of collagen to gelatin yields molecules of varying mass, due to the cleavage of inter-chain covalent crosslinks and the unfavorable breakage of some intra-molecular peptide linkages. As a result, the gelatin obtained has a lower average molecular weight than native collagen, and consists of a mixture of fragments. The manufacturing procedure for mammalian gelatins consists of cleaning, pretreatment, extraction of gelatin, filtration, concentration, evaporation, sterilization and drying. Prior to pretreatment, porcine skins and cattle hides are cleaned with water.

In recent years several new initiative have started to produce halal bovine gelatin in Turkey and in Muslim Countries. Muslims, even beef gelatin is of concern if it was not from animals slaughtered halal, or possibly kosher. Halal gelatin can be produced from fish and chicken other than bovine animals. Gelatin produced from the skin of a tuna fish has different properties from that of a Nile perch or tilapia. At present, fish gelatin is considerably more expensive than gelatin that is produced traditionally. This is mainly because of the high cost of transport and the low concentration of collagen in fish skins. Fish gelatin has been highlighted as a better alternative in some cases to mammalian gelatins, particularly with qualities such as a lower melting point, resulting in faster dissolution in the mouth with no residual ‘chewy’ mouthfeel. Another alternative for mammalian gelatin can be chicken skin gelatin if it is slaughtered in the Islamic way. Poultry skin and bones are expected to yield gelatin in the near future, but commercial production is currently limited due to low yields Chicken gelatin has a chemical composition similar to bovine gelatin and better physicochemical properties compared with those reported for fish gelatins.

Gelatin manufacturers tend to work hard to greater use of gelatin because of it is a kind of protein and its unique functional properties. That is why gelatin can be used in every phase of daily life due to it is multipurpose food additive. Gelatin’s largest single food use is in water gel desserts. Gelatin is widely used in many food productions. During yogurt and ice-cream processing or storage, casein may lose its stabilizing properties. The use of different concentrations of gelatin would provide the manufacturer with the possibility of obtaining a wide range

Gelatin Issues In Halal Food Processing For Muslim Societies 39



of textures in food products. Gelatin is used as a beverage clarifier, e.g., as a fining and clarifying agent for fruit and vegetable juice. In the confectionery industry, gelatin is not only used for its thermoreversible gelling, but also for its foaming, foam-stabilizing, binding, and emulsifying qualities as well as for its ability to control crystallization. The meat industry uses considerable quantities of edible gelatin in applications such as boned-cooked hams, meat loaves, sausages, canned hams, and meat jellies. Gelatin is used with the ultimate aim of absorbing juices, which separate out during cooking processes and serve for coating purposes. It is a functional gelling protein widely used in cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries also. In this article the functional properties and uses of gelatin will be described, focusing on their role in the Muslim community.

Key Words: food production, gelatin, muslim society, halal food

MÜSLÜMAN TOPLUMLARDA HELAL GIDA ÜRETİMİNDE JELATİN PROBLEMİ

ÖZET

Jelatin üretimi ve tüketimi Dünyada ve Türkiyede ilk çağlardan beri yapılmaktadır ve gittikçe de artmaktadır. Son yıllarda Dünya da yaklaşık 300 bin ton civarında jelatin üretildiği ve bunun da yaklaşık % 65’inin Avrupaya ait olduğu bilinmektedir. Türkiye de yılda 5000 ton civarında jelatin kullanıldığı tahmin edilmektedir. Müslüman dindar insanlar gıda tüketiminde helal gıdaya dikkat ederler. Böylece haram veya şüpheli gıdalardan kaçınmaktadırlar. Tüketilen gıdalar çoğu zaman üretilmiş hazır gıdalardan oluşmaktadır ve belli firmalar tarafından maalesef dinî vecibeler dikkate alınmadan üretilmektedir. Böylece Türkiyede üretilen bazı gıdalarda helâl olmayan katkı maddeleri kullanılmış olabilir. Jelatin kullanım, helal ve koşer gıda tüzüğüne domuz üretilmiş ürünlere izin vermediğinden Müslümanlar ve Yahudilerin hayatını geniş bir şekilde etkiler. Bu tüzükler ninin gerektirdiği şekilde kesilmemiş olan memeliler ve kuşlardan üretilmiş ürünlere de izin vermezler.

Jelatinin ana kaynakları domuz derisi, sığır ve domuz kemikleri ve sığır derileridir. Genellikle domuz derisi jelatin üretimi için kolay ve hızlı olduğu gibi çok ucuz bir üretim yöntemine sahiptir. Ticari olarak jelatin sığır, domuz ve balıktan imal edilmektedir. Jelatin genellikle kollajenin sıcak su içinde ekstre edilerek kemik, tendonlar ve kıkırdakdan hidroliz yolu ile elde edilerler. Elde edilen çözelti, konsantreetmek için buharlaştırılır, durultulur, saflaştırılır, jel haline gelmesi için dondurulur ve nihayetinde kurutularak yaprak veya toz haline getirilir. Jelatin imalatı sırasında, jelatinin kollajene dönüşümü verimi zincir-arası kovalent çapraz bağların parçalanması ve bazı molekül içi peptid bağlantılarındaki olumsuzluklarının kırılması sonucunda oluşur. Bunun bir sonucu olarak, elde edilen jelatin doğal kolajenden daha düşük bir ortalama molekül ağırlığına sahip olup bunların parçalarından oluşan bir karışımdır. Memeliden elde edilen jelatin imalat prosedürü temizleme, ön işlemler, jelatin ektraksiyonu, filtrasyon, konsantrasyon, buharlaştırma,




sterilizasyon ve kurutma şeklindedir. Ön işlemler öncesinde, domuz derileri ve hayvan derileri su ile temizlenir.

Son yıllarda Türkiye ve Müslüman Ülkelerde helal sığır jelatini üretmek pek çok yeni girişim başlamıştır. Müslümanlar, eğer sığır kesimi helal yöntemlere göre yapılmamış ise halen sığır jelatininin helal olup olmadığı konusunda endişeye sahiptirler. Helal jelatin büyükbaş hayvanların dışında tavuk ve balıktan da üretilebilir. Bir ton balığı derisine üretilen Jelatin Nil levrek ya da tilapia balıklarından daha kalitelidir. Şu anda, balık jelatini geleneksel olarak üretilen jelatinden önemli ölçüde daha pahalıdır. Bunun temel nedeni ulaşımın yüksek maliyeti ve balık derilerinin düşük kollajen içeriğine sahip olmasından dolayıdır. Balık jelatini memeliden elde edilen jelatinlere bazı durumlarda daha iyi bir alternatiftir. Özellikle düşük kalıntı, kolay çiğnenebilen, lezzet ile ağızda hızlı çözünme özelliğine sahip olan ve düşük bir erime noktası özelliklerine sahiptir. Helal jelatin üretiminde hammadde olarak memeli hayvan deri veya kemikleri kullanımı yerine alternatif olarak tavuk derisi kullanılabilir. Ancak tavuk derisi ve kemiğinden jelatin üretiminin verimi düşüktür. Bunun için ticari üretim şu anda çok sınırlı düzeyde olup sığır jelatini veya domuz jelatini üretimi daha ekenomiktir. Ancak bu sorun yakın gelecekte çözülebilir.

Jelâtin üreticileri bir nevi protein olması sebebiyle, jelâtinin günlük hayatın her safhasında kullanılabilmesi için yoğun çaba göstermekte ve böylece jelatinsiz ürün neredeyse hemen hemen yok gibidir. Jelatin, sahip olduğu eşsiz fonksiyonel özellikleri nedeniyle çok amaçlı bir gıda katkı maddesi olup yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Jelatin jel içerikli tatlılarda yaygın olarak kullanılan tek gıda olup birçok gıda üretiminde de yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Yoğurt ve dondurma işleme veya depolama sırasında, kazein onun stabilize edici özelliklerini kaybedebilirler. Farklı jelatin konsantrasyonlarının kullanılması gıdanın geniş bir tekstür yelpazesinde gıda ürünleri elde etmelerini sağlar. Jelatin meyve ve sebze suyu için durultucu, saflaştırma ve renk açıcı madde olarak kullanıldığı gibişekerleme sanayiinde, jelatin, köpük stabilize etme, köpük bağlanma, emülsiyon niteliklerini geliştirme ve kristalleşmeyi kontrol etme yeteneği ile jelleşmeyi düzenlemek için kullanılır. Et endüstrisi gibi kemikli pişirilmiş jambon, sosis, konserve ve jöle gibi uygulamalarda yenilebilir jelatin önemli miktarda kullanır. Jelatin pişirme işlemi sırasında dışarı ayrılmak arzusunda olan suları bağlayıcı ve ürünü kaplama amaçlı olarak kullanılır. Bu makalede müslüman toplumunun helal gıda tüketimi ile ilgili sorunları üzerine odaklanarak jelatinin fonksiyonel özellikleri ve kullanım alanları üzerinde durulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Gıda üretimi, jelatin, müslüman toplum, helal gıda

1. Introduction

In general consumers’ attitudes and behaviours towards food are determined by individual and environmental factors, such as marketing and advertising, one’s personal situation and food

specific properties. Religion is one of the potential individual factors that will shape consumption

decisions, especially among Muslims (Rezai et al., 2012: 33). Countries across the globe, Muslim




and non-Muslim alike, have boosted income from food exports by paying attention to the needs of

Muslims. Introducing a halal standard in 2004, has helped Malaysia secure a worldwide market share worth billions of dollars. Seeing the economic potential, even non-Muslim countries have started to

take important steps to produce food and non-food items in conformity with Muslim requirements

(Aziz & Vui, 2012: 1820). Muslims, especially in Muslim countries, are showing an increased awareness about their obligation to consume properly prepared halal food (Mohd, 2004: 4) and just

saying “Halal” on the package may be insufficient. Muslims have become much more concerned

about the integrity of halal products in recent years with a greater focus on the entire supply chain (Batu & Regenstein, 2014: 113).

The demand for halal food has increased in parallel with the growth of the Muslim population

to about 1.7 billion people (over 20% of the world’s population is Muslim). The halal market

worldwide is estimated at about 2.1 trillion USD. The halal market is growing at an estimated 25% per year (Ahmad et al., 2013: 1073), making halal food preparation a lucrative business not only

among Muslim but also in non-Muslim countries. The growth of the halal food market is occuring

not only in Muslim countries but also in western markets with significant and growing Muslim populations among which halal observance is on the increase (Aziz and Chok, 2012: 3). The global

trade in halal food products has been estimated to be around 80 billion US dollars, or some 12% of

the total trade in agri-food products. With expected increases in both the population and incomes of Muslim consumers, this percentage is certain to increase. Furthermore, with Muslims projected to

account for 30% of the world’s population by 2025, halal foods could easily account for 20% of

world trade in food products (Karim and Bhat, 2008: 643).

The Muslim population in the U.S. is developing a stronger market presence each year. Over the past 30 years, many halal markets and ethnic stores have sprung up, mainly in the major

metropolitan areas. Most of the 6 to 8 million Muslims in North America observe halal laws,

particularly the avoidance of pork, but the food industry has for the most part ignored this consumer group (Regenstein et al., 2003: 112).

Halal means lawful or permitted by Islamic law (Riaz and Chaudry, 2004: 20). Most of the

time “Halal” is position in people’s minds as something that is related to food. However, halal

products include cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, and may also refer to other aspects of Muslim law (Regenstein et al., 2003: 111). In addition to the halal requirements, Muslims also want their food to

be Toyyiban (i.e., wholesome and of good quality).

Halal food also very important for halal nutrition. Interests were related to halal food has emerged in Turkey in the 1970s. This orientation began with margarine suspicions by religious belief

peoples and it was continued to ensure that the daily meat requirement from religious butchers. For

these reasons, a devout Muslim has been in constant search for halal food. They refrained from suspicious circumstances. Halal foods are allowed under Islamic dietary guidelines (Batu and

Regenstein, 2014: 115-120; Batu, 2015: 72-80). Covering many sectors such as food, textile,

transport, finance and tourism “halal industry” has growed quickly. Muslim consumers’ expectations

of “halal food, halal finance, halal transportation and halal holiday” are one of the most important factors that lead to the growth of the halal market. Because of expectations such as Islamic lifestyle,

hygiene, security and the services just for women the concept of “halal tourism” has become more

demanded in the world and in Turkey. That is why it is need to define the concept of “halal tourism” with its elements such as “halal hotels, halal transportation, halal food, halal tour packages and halal

finance (Akyol and Kılıç, 2014: 175).

Food and consumer products can contribute either positively or negatively to social coherence in a diverse culture. Therefore, it is important that all members of society have products




that they can consume and ideally share with others. For Muslims, like many other religions, the

detailed interpretations of their laws may vary amongst Muslim for many different reasons. This requires a tolerance among different Muslim groups for each other and works to preclude developing

a single halal standard. Practicing Muslims follow the dietary laws written in the Quran. The Islamic

laws among their major points require Muslims to avoid eating or using products derived from pigs, to properly slaughter acceptable animals and to avoid alcohol.

There are many different ingredients used in foods (Nakyinsige et al., 2012: 210). Gelatin is

one of the most widely used ingredients and by definition is always of animal original. It is currently available commercially from cattle, pigs and various fish species. The main raw materials are bones

and skins of pigs and cattle (Boran, 2011: 98-101). For Muslim and normative mainstream Jewish

consumer pork gelatin or cattle gelatin not slaughtered following the religious requirements are

unacceptable.

2. What are Halal, Haram and Makbooh?

As a Muslim, it is an obligation to follow the Holy Quran and the Traditions (Sunnah) of the

Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him, pbuh). The halal dietery laws define food products as “Halal” (permitted) or “Haram” (prohibited) (Chaudry, 1992: 93). A few items may be classified as

“Makbooh” (questionable to detestable). The latter category although limited is subject to many

interpretations and require further research. Guidance on appropriate Islamic practices is sought from religious bodies or religious teachers with a thorough knowledge of the religious texts of Islam.

However, the Holy Quran and the Hadiths and Sunnah (the practices and statements of Prophet

Muhammad, pbuh) remain unchanged and unaltered. The Hadiths and Sunnah are an extension and

explanation of the Quran. However, in addition Islamic law works through Ijma or consensus (i.e., agreement of the Muslim community on a point of faith or action) and Qiyas or reasoning by analogy

(i.e., the decision of an expert on Islamic law on the basis of the known law of the Quran and the

Sunnah). These decisions may be open to interpretation to meet the needs of a particular time, place, and circumstance (Alhabshi, 2013: 851-853). According to the law, Muslim must only consume halal

foods and avoid haram ones. Halal and haram are Arabic words which means lawfull, valid; and

unlawfull and forbidden, respectively. To be halal in modern times requires a detailed understanding

of the components of food. For instance, the Quran and Hadiths clearly indicate the types of meat that are permissible for consumption such as cow, lamb, goat, camel and chicken, and then explains

how these animals are to be slaughtered. The halal method of animal slaughter involves a swift, deep

incision with a razor-sharp nick-free knife on the neck, cutting the jugular veins and carotid arteries on both sides along with the trachea and esophagus but leaving the spinal cord intact. The people

who slaughter the animal are preferably Muslims but people of the book (Christians and Jews) also

may be able to slaughter. During slaughtering "Bismillah-u-Allah-u-Akbar" (God is the one and the greatest) or only “Bismillah” must be said (Karaman, 2011: 4).

Allah (the Arabic word for “God”) in the Quran orders humans to eat things that are lawful

for Muslims and all mankind in versus such as: "You eat the lawful and clean foods that were given

you by Allah, and do your duty, you must fear from Allah to whom you have faith in him" (Al-Maide/88). All “carrion, blood, pork, animals slaughtered on behalf of a god other then Allah,

animals that are strangled or shot and killed rather than wounded” is haram. As a consequence pork

and pork products, ingredients made of blood and blood products, carnivorous animals, birds that eat meat, reptiles, dead animal parts, an animal where there was an interruption during slaughter, and a

failure to cut all the required pipes are haram. The gelatins produced from halal animals, such as

cattle, camels, sheep, goats, deer, chickens, ducks, and game birds when religiously slaugtered are halal. The problem is that most currently available gelatin is not produced from religiously

slaughtered animals.




3. What is Gelatin and its impact on Muslim Society?

Gelatin is a water-soluble functional protein that forms transparent gels on cooling. It is obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagen in animal skins, bones and tendons (Johnston-Banks, 1990:

233). It has been produced commercially from beef, pork, and fish. Gelatin is usually prepared from

bones, tendons, and cartilage by extraction in hot water, where collagen is hydrolysed to produce gelatin. The resulting solution is evaporated to concentrate, clarified, and chilled to create a gel,

which can subsequently be dried and then cut into sheets or powdered. The quality of gelatin obtained

is closely related to the raw material quality and the production techniques. Gelatins are classified according to whether an acid or an alkali is used in the final pre-extraction step. If an acid solution

is used as the final solvent, type-A (acid processed gelatin) is obtained. If an alkali is the final solvent

then type-B gelatin (alkali processed gelatin) is obtained. Type-A gelatin’s isoelectric point is higher

compared to that of type-B gelatin, as a mild acid process does not remove the amide nitrogen of the glutamines and asparagines (Verbeek, 2012: 85). Therefore, the resulting gelatin’s isoelectric point

is often around 9.4. If a more severe acid treatment is required, then some of the amide groups are

hydrolyzed and the isoelectric point would be between 6 and 8. Type-B gelatin’s isoelectric point might be as low as 4.8 (Boran and Regenstein, 2010: 121).

A good quality finished dry gelatin is tasteless, odorless, transparent, and almost colorless or

slightly yellow. It swells strongly in cold water and dilute acids, but does not dissolve. Upon heating, the swollen gelatin dissolves to form a viscous solution that is able to form a gel on cooling. Gelatin

forms cold reversible gels, forming and stabilizing foams, serves as a binding and emulsifying agent

and controls the crystallization of sugar (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 186). Gelatin has been used in

various food products for centuries because it can be obtained naturally as part of traditional cooking processes. In recent years, approximately 300,000 tonnes of gelatin are produced each year, of which

about 65% is manufactured in Europe. The actual production in 2007 was about 326 000 tons, of

which 46% was from pigskin, 29.4% from bovine hides, 23.1% from bones, and 1.5% from other parts and other animals (Gomez-Guillén et al., 2002: 28-33).

In recent years several new initiative have started to produce halal bovine gelatin in Turkey.

A factory stet up by a company called “Türkjel” was established in Tuzla, Istanbul and the successor

company “Halavet” is currently processing about 2000 tonnes per year of Type B beef hide gelatin. In addition, a factory in Gonen was founded in Balikesir province by a company called “Seljel” in

2010 to also produce cow hide gelatin. But their capacity is not enough to accommodate Turkey’s

needs (Yetim, 2011: 89-91).

As a raw material, gelatin may present issues for Muslim consumers. How does one know

that proper halal procedures were followed? And even if certified halal, was it really certified by a

halal certification organization and, if so, can the certifier be trusted? Because of the occurrence of mad cow disease in some European countries, particularly in the UK, and because of an increase in

pig production, the price of pork gelatin has fallen, often making it the gelatin of choice. And for

many Muslims, even beef gelatin is of concern if it was not from animals slaughtered halal, or

possibly kosher. The risk of potential contamination with viruses and prions, such as the BSE, which was responsible for the human Creutzfeldt Jacob disease (CJD) in the 1980s, causes concerns in the

ingredient and food-processing industries as well as in medical and pharmaceutical industries.

However, a study published in 2004, demonstrated that the gelatin production process destroys most of the BSE that may be present in the raw material (Karim and Bhat, 2008: 645). Although there are

some alternative gelling agents of plant origin, thousands of food products around the world use an

unlawful gelatin and unfortunately often try to sell these haram food products to Muslims.




4. Functional Properties and Uses of Gelatin

The properties of gelatin depend on the source and type of collagen. The functional properties of gelatin can be divided into two groups. The first group of properties is associated with gelling and

includes gel strength, gelling time, setting and melting temperatures, viscosity, thickening,

texturizing and water retention properties. The second group of properties relates to gelatin’s surface behavior, for example, emulsion formation and stabilization, protective colloid function, foam

formation and stabilization, film formation and adhesion/cohesion (Karim and Bhat, 2009: 567). The

most commonly used gelatin property is its ability to form thermoreversible gels. At a few percent gelatin in water, gelatin’s gel-melting temperature is below body temperature (<35oC), which can

provide gelatin products with a unique 'melt-in-the-mouth' quality. When gelatin gels are heated,

they soften and turn into a liquid. Being able to melt below human body temperature allows gelatin

to melt and release flavor when it is taken into the mouth, which is a desirable sensorial property for some food products (Choi and Regenstein, 2000: 198). Another important characteristic of gelatin is

that its gel strength is relatively higher than most of the other common gelling agents, which are

usually carbohydrates and obtained from vegetable sources (Badii and Howell, 2006: 635-638).

For food applications, the most important properties used commercially to characterize

gelatins are gel strength, viscosity, gelling, and melting points. These properties are affected by many

factors, such as the average molecular weight and size, distribution of the gelatin molecules, the concentration of the gelatin solution, gel maturation time, gel maturation temperature, pH, and salt

content (Karim and Bhat, 2009: 571). As both the Muslim and Jewish communities have an interest

in alternate sources of gelatin, a number of studies on the properties of fish gelatin have been

conducted and these papers have been reviewed (Norland, 1990: 328).

The physicochemical and functional properties of fish gelatins have been studied

extensively, especially with respect to its rheology (Jones, 2004:30-45). Liu et al (2008: 417)

published a critical review on key analytical issues affecting the study of gelatins. Overall, fish gelatins have lower concentrations of the imino acids proline (PRO) and hydroxyproline (HYP)

compared to mammalian gelatins, and warm-water fish gelatins (such as bigeye-tuna and tilapia)

have a higher imino acid content than cold-water fish gelatins. The PRO and HYP contents are

approximately 30% of the total amino acids for mammalian gelatins, 22–25% for warm-water fish gelatins, and 17% for cold-water fish gelatin (Muyonga et al., 2004: 591). During gelatin

manufacturing, the conversion of collagen to gelatin yields molecules of varying mass, due to the

cleavage of inter-chain covalent crosslinks and the unfavorable breakage of some intra-molecular peptide linkages (Zhou et al., 2006: 313-314). As a result, the gelatin obtained has a lower average

molecular weight than native collagen, and consists of a mixture of fragments (Karim and Bhat,

2009: 571). Liu et al (2008: 417) obtained gelatin from the skin of channel catfish. The gelatin showed high gel strength and has different amino acids compared to that of porcine skin gelatin. The

gelatin from channel catfish skin also has a higher gelling ability and a lower thermo-stability than

porcine skin gelatin.

Food safety/quality (Toyyiban) is also of concern to Muslims. Henson and Traill (1993: 154) define food safety as the opposite of food risk, i.e. the dangers posed by foods, which reflects the

probability of not suffering some hazard from consuming a specific food. It is important to ensure

that all food businesses produce food that is safe at the time of human consumption. In addition, food hygiene also plays an important role in avoiding food poisoning. Food hygiene is defined as keeping

premises, staff and equipment clean, and handling and storing food safely. However, most halal

supervisions do not take this into account when they certify food products as halal.




5. Potentional Solution of Gelatin Problems in Muslim Society

5.1. Gelatin manufacturing from mammalian gelatin

The manufacturing procedure for mammalian gelatins consists of cleaning, pretreatment,

extraction of gelatin, filtration, concentration, evaporation, sterilization and drying. Prior to

pretreatment, porcine skins and cattle hides are cleaned with water. Bones are crushed and soaked in 4-7% HCl (>2 days) to remove minerals like calcium carbonate resulting in a sponge-like bone

material called ossein. The raw material prior to gelatin extraction can be pretreated as mentioned

previously using either acid or alkali. Which pretreatment is applied depends on the collagen source, the number of covalent cross-linkages which increases with the age of the animal as well as the

desired quality of the final gelatin. A short pretreatment with dilute acid (mild pretreatment) is

typically used for the less covalently cross-linked collagens found in young animals while a more

intense alkali pretreatment (severe pretreatment) is usually applied for the more covalently cross-linked collagens found in older animals. The pretreatment methods bring about both physical and

chemical changes in the collagen molecules (Haug and Draget, 2009: 67-86).

5.2. Fish or Chicken Gelatins as an Alternative Gelatin

Besides the religious issues, the outbreak of mad cow disease (BSE, bovine spongiform

encephalopathy) in the 1980s accelerated the search for a mammalian gelatin alternative. Gelatin

produced from the skin of a tuna fish has different properties from that of a Nile perch or tilapia. At present, fish gelatin is considerably more expensive than gelatin that is produced traditionally. This

is mainly because of the high cost of transport and the low concentration of collagen in fish skins.

Fish gelatin is subject to different regulations regarding the need to declare it on a label because of

potential allergenic concerns (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 82).

Fish gelatin has been highlighted as a better alternative in some cases to mammalian gelatins,

particularly with qualities such as a lower melting point, resulting in faster dissolution in the mouth

with no residual ‘chewy’ mouthfeel. Fish skin, which is a major by-product of the fish-processing industry, causing waste and pollution, could provide a valuable source of gelatin (Nagai and Suzuki,

2000: 277). Fish gelatin is normally extracted from fish skin and can be pre-treated using both acid

and alkali. These skins can be frozen. The fish skins should then be thawed, cleaned thoroughly by

washing with cold water to remove any fat or muscle that may still be present and treated with alkali or organic acids, often both to remove proteins and to swell the collagen, respectively, for up to 24

h. The order may be based on the final optimization. The skins are then extract, most often with water

(over 40oC). This may be followed by various clean-up steps such as filtration and contact with activated charcoal. It can then be dried usually by vacuum drying (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 79;

Sebastian, 2014: 43-44).

The cold-water fish gelatins characteristically exhibit good film formation and have good emulsifying properties. As a result, the main application areas are currently the embedding of oil-

based vitamins during spray-drying or using other micro-encapsulation techniques. In contrast, the

gelatin produced from fish taken from warmer waters has good gelling properties; it is in fact very

similar in nature to the more common types of gelatin and is used in the food and pharmaceutical industries (Sebastian, 2014: 44).

Another alternative for mammalian gelatin can be chicken skin gelatin if it is slaughtered in

the Islamic way. Poultry skin and bones are expected to yield gelatin in the near future, but commercial production is currently limited due to low yields. However, there are few peer-reviewed

studies available on the production of gelatin from chicken skins and none on chicken bone gelatin.

Chicken gelatin has a chemical composition similar to bovine gelatin and better physicochemical




properties compared with those reported for fish gelatins. The gel strength of chicken gelatin was

significantly higher than that of bovine gelatin and both formed stable structures on cooling. Chicken gelatin showed higher gelling temperatures compared to bovine gelatin (Sarbon et al., 2013: 148).

5.3. Possible Approaches for Gelatin Alternatives

New approaches to develop gelatin alternatives for the food industry must be carried out (Morrison et al., 1999). Many gelatin alternatives proposed for the food industry are polysaccharides

where gelation is based on cation-induced junction zones, and which do not have the defined melt/set

characteristics of gelatin. Some examples are gellan, alginate or carrageenan-based gels. The polysaccharide-based gelatin alternatives generally have less flexible molecular backbones, leading

to higher viscosities than gelatin. Agoub et al (2007: 713) have suggested that mixtures of pyruvate-

free xanthan and konjacglucomannan (KGM) could provide a useful replacement in applications

where ‘‘melt-in-the-mouth’’ characteristics are important for product quality, and where moderate acidity is acceptable or necessary. Fruit gummies are an ideal example of what makes gelatin unique

as a gelling agent. In the mouth they absorb water rapidly, the melting point decreases to body

temperature, the gel melts, and the aromas and flavors are released. This behavior is not demonstrated to the same extent by any other hydrocolloid. Therefore, fruit gummies are composed of essentially

four ingredients: glucose syrup, sucrose, gelatin, and water (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 163;

Hasenhuettl and Hartel, 2008: 70).

6.Application of Gelatin in the Food Industry

Gelatin’s largest single food use is in water gel desserts. In some parts of the world, water

dessert gels are made from carrageenan and these have to be chewed as they do not melt in the mouth.

Thus, though both are called water dessert gels, they have very different sensory properties (Haug and Draget, 2009: 110).

6.1.Fermented Milk Products and Ice Cream

During yogurt and ice-cream processing or storage, casein may lose its stabilizing properties. Gelatin lowers the surface tension of the aqueous phase and surrounds the fat droplets of the milk

with an extremely thin film that renders them hydrophilic (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: ). Gelatin

is an ingredient compatible with milk proteins and improves the sensory perception by not masking

the product flavor as much as some other gums. The use of different concentrations of gelatin would provide the manufacturer with the possibility of obtaining a wide range of textures in food products.

Gelatin can essentially prevent whey from being expelled if such tensions occur. In ice cream, the

gelatin also influences the size and distribution of the ice crystals that are formed. It is only one of several colloids that can be used for the stabilization of ice cream (Sebastian, 2014: 10). However,

consumers have objected to the various additives so their use has decreased, especially for those

wishing to serve Muslim consumers (Demirhan et al., 2012: 686).

“Gelatin is used as a beverage clarifier, e.g., as a fining and clarifying agent for fruit and

vegetable juice. The object of fining a beverage is to produce a product that is near perfect in terms

of taste, color, aroma, and clarity. This involves the removal of unwanted color, haze, bitterness,

excessive astringency, off-flavors, unpleasant odors, etc. Gelatin is used in the production of fruit juices not just for clarification and the precipitation of substances causing turbidity, but also for

reducing the concentration of polyphenols such as tannins and anthocyanogens” (Schrieber and

Gareis, 2007: 218). Gelatin stabilizes and clears solutions by inducing a complete or partial flocculation or sedimentation of dissolved substances or particles in suspension, usually tannins.

Gelatin reacts with the tannins to form a sedmentable complex. The use of excessive amounts as well




as insufficient quantities of gelatin should be avoided during the clarification processes to prevent

overgluing or stabilization of the colloidal substances to be removed (Djagny et al., 2001: 482).

The absence of labeling of the source of the gelatin in the ingredient statement or even its

origin is a problem for Muslims and Jews to determine if unacceptable gelatins have been used.

Because gelatin may be classified as a processing aid in some applications, it is not subject to inclusion in the ingredient statement. Although many Jews and Muslims require proper certification

of food products, some Muslims and Jews try to determine what is acceptable by reading labels. But

the fact that some ingredients are classified as “processing aids’ means they are not found on the label (Al-Mazeedi et al., 2012: 110).

6.2.Soft Caramel Chews/Nougat/Caramel Candy Bar Fillings

“Soft caramel chews, nougat, and caramel fillings for candy bars would appear at first glance

to be quite different types of confectioneries. However, almost all of these have one thing in common: they contain fat emulsified in a supersaturated sugar solution. Air bubbles as well as solid

components such as nuts or sugar crystals may also be processed into the emulsion. The

confectionery industry uses gelatin principally to improve chewability, to control the recrystallization of sucrose, and to increase the emulsion and foaming capacities. In the confectionery industry, gelatin

is not only used for its thermoreversible gelling, but also for its foaming, foam-stabilizing, binding,

and emulsifying qualities as well as for its ability to control crystallization” (Sebastian, 2014: 10). Gelatin is used in desserts at 8-10% of the dry weight, in yogurt at 0.3-0.5% as a thickener, and in

confectionery products, including soft gummy type candies. Marsh-mallows usually contain about

3% gelatin (Igoe, 1983: 5). The foaming and foam stabilization properties of gelatin are utilized by

the confectionery industry in the production of extruded, molded, and recrystallized marshmallows, wafer and candy bar fillings, chews, and nougats. These products have a wide range of textures,

ingredients, dry substances, and degree of aeration. Depending on the final product and the sales

distribution channels involved, the most suitable gelatin must be selected from the point of view of foaming behavior, texture, and storage stability, and must be implemented in cooperation with the

gelatin manufacturer (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 200; Hasenhuettl and Hartel, 2008: 71).

6.3.Gelatin Desserts

“Water dessert gels are still the national dessert of the United States. The ‘‘Jell-O’’ (Kraft Foods, 2013: 1) products produced by the market leader alone are regularly used in about two-thirds

of all households. But even outside the United States, gelatin desserts represent one of the largest

application areas for edible gelatin. In western countries, gelatin jellies in a wide variety of forms, colors, and flavors are served for breakfast, eaten as snacks or as a dessert, or used for making fruit

cake” (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 182)..

6.4.Meat and Delicatessen Products

The meat industry uses considerable quantities of edible gelatin in applications such as

boned-cooked hams, meat loaves, sausages, canned hams, and meat jellies. Gelatin is used with the

ultimate aim of absorbing juices, which separate out during cooking processes and serve for coating

purposes. Gelatin provides the meat processing industry with many interesting possibilities to enable it to meet these requirements. Although many of these products are outside of the scope of kosher

and halal! There are, however, other applications for gelatin and gelatin hydrolysates in the meat

processing industry. The technological effects of the gelatin hydrocolloid are also important, e.g., its ability to bind water and meat juice in the package when being thawed or during cooking, and its

texturizing and taste-enhancing properties (Schrieber and Gareis, 2007: 203; Sebastian, 2014: 57).




6.5.Pharmaceutical Industry

Another field of interest besides the food industry, where the use of gelatin cannot be neglected, is the pharmaceutical industry. In developed countries, almost 10% of the edible gelatin

goes into this sector for use mainly in capsules and emulsions. Despite the fact that it was

demonstrated that the biological value of gelatin is zero, several medicinal effects, including beneficial serological specificity and surgical characteristics, have been associated with this protein

(Pilar et al., 1996: 1-3).

Approximately 90% of all pharmaceutical gelatin produced is processed into capsules. Gelatin capsules are found in single-dose solid drug forms. The capsule shell is made of gelatin

suitable for the application intended (Haug and Draget, 2009: 111). Schrieber and Gareis, 2007).

Gelatin capsules protect their contents to a large extent against the affects of light, atmospheric

oxygen, contamination, and microbial growth. There are two types of capsule – soft and hard. They differ in the composition of the capsule shell, the types of drug they contain, and the manufacturing

method used (Bhatt and Agrawal, 2007: 20-21).

7.Conclusions

Increasing demand for fish gelatin has paved the way for research and exploration of fish

gelatin as an alternative to mammalian gelatins, as it fulfills the majority of consumer needs and

complements the increasing global demand for gelatin while reducing fish processing wastes. However, there is an ever-growing concern among consumers regarding the origin of gelatins mainly

due to religious sentiments and the risk of potential contamination with viruses and prions as it is

widely extracted from animal sources. The current production of fish gelatin may not increase

significantly, at least in the foreseeable future, as the availability of raw material, coupled with the relatively low yield and high cost will be limiting factors (Karim and Bhat, 2009: 571).

Detailed investigations need to be carried out to characterize and standardize the properties

of the fish gelatins offered commercially. The use of physical, enzymatic, and natural crosslinking agents may enhance the gel strength of fish gelatin to allow it to better compete with mammalian

gelatin where those properties are important. However, although fish gelatin will never completely

replace mammalian gelatins, it is hoped that one day it might become a niche product offering unique

and competitive properties among other biopolymers, as well as meeting the demands of the global halal/kosher market (Karim and Bhat, 2009: 571). Extensive studies are also being undertaken

looking into the possibilities of using mixed gelling systems from plant-based source such as pectin,

agar, carrageenan, etc. that can duplicate gelatins unique properties.

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Citation Information/Kaynakça Bilgisi

Batu, A., Regenstein, J.M., Doğan, İ.S., (2015). “Gelatin Issues In Halal Food Processing For Muslim

Societies / Müslüman Toplumlarda Helal Gıda Üretiminde Jelatin Problemi”, TURKISH

STUDIES -International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic-, ISSN: 1308-2140, (Prof. Dr. H. Ömer Karpuz Armağanı), Volume 10/14 Fall 2015,

ANKARA/TURKEY, www.turkishstudies.net, DOI Number:

http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8928, p. 37-52.

https://www.academia.edu/8410348/Industrial_Gelatin_Manufacture-Theory_and_Practice

https://www.academia.edu/8410348/Industrial_Gelatin_Manufacture-Theory_and_Practice




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