Upload
jemmanelle-kris-cadaeg
View
234
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
1/28
Gender Differences in Parenting Styles and Effects on the Parent-
Child Relationship
Approved:
____________________________Dr. Heather C. Galloway
Director, University Honors Program
Approved:
____________________________
Dr. Shirley S. OgletreeDepartment of Psychology
Supervising Professor
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
2/28
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PARENTING STYLES AND
EFFECTS ON THE PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP
HONORS THESIS
Presented to the Honors Committee of
Texas State University-San Marcos
In Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements
For Graduation in the University Honors Program
By
Meredith Ashley Stephens
San Marcos, Texas
May 2009
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
3/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
1
Abstract
Thepurposeofthisstudywastodetermineiftherewereanygenderdifferencesin
parentingstylesandifso,measurehowtheyaffecttheparentchildrelationship.
Participantsweregivenasurveyaskingbasicdemographicquestions,questionsabout
whichparent/parentstheyhavelivedwiththemost,andquestionsthatrelatedtothe
genderrolesofeachparent.ParticipantswerealsogiventheParentalBonding
Inventorythatmeasuresmaternalcareandoverprotectivenessandpaternalcareand
overprotectiveness.Thereweresignificantgenderdifferencesinthewaysthatparents
interactedwiththeirchildren.Forexamplemostyoungpeoplehavebeenraisedby
traditionalparentsandfeltclosesttotheirmothers.Mothersonaveragespentmore
timewiththeirchildreningeneralthanfathers,spentmoretimetakingcareoftheir
children,weremorelikelynottoworkfulltime,wereseenasmoreoverprotectiveand
morecaring,spentthemostqualitytimewiththeirchildren,andstillspeaktotheir
childrenmoreoftentoday.Anothergenderdifferencebetweenfathersandmotherswas
thatfathersweremorelikelytobeoverprotectiveoftheirdaughtersthantheirsons.
Theresultssupportedtraditionalgenderexpectations,withmothersspendingmore
timewiththeirchildrenandchildrenfeelingclosertotheirmotherswhengrowingup.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
4/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
2
GenderDifferencesinParentingStylesandEffectsontheParentChildRelationship
Genderrolesarebeliefsaboutthewaysinwhichindividual,familial,community
andsocietalrolesaredefinedbygender(Slavkin&Stright,2000).Traditionalgender
roles,whicharecommonintraditionalfamiliesinwhichthemaleisthebreadwinner
andthefemaleisinchargeofchildcareandhousekeeping,definemasculinityasbeing
independent,assertive,andaggressive(Eagly&Steffen,1984;Eagly,1987).Femininity
isdefinedasbeingnurturing,sensitiveandemotional(Slavkin&Stright,2000;Bem,
1981).
Itiscommonknowledgethatthereareoftentwoseparatespheresinthe
household,especiallyinmanytraditionalmarriagesbetweenamanandawoman.The
manssphereisusuallyoutsidethehomeintheworkplace.Thewomanssphereis
insidethehometakingcareofhouseholdchoresandthechildren.
Familieshavechangeddrasticallyfromthestereotypical1950sstayathome
momandtheworkingdad.Gerson(2002)foundthatbothmenandwomenoften
expressedstronglyegalitarianattitudestowardparenting.However,eventhoughmost
mothersfromthe1980stotodayworkoutsidethehome,thereisstillwhatiscalledthe
secondshiftofhouseworkandchildcarewhenthewomangetshomefromafulldayof
work(Hochschild,2003).Mothers,onaverage,spendmoretimetakingcareofchildren
thanfathers(Craig,2006).Itmayfollowthatchildrenwouldfeelmoreemotional
closenesstotheirmothersthantheirfathersbecausetheyhavespentmoretimewith
theirmothers.
Folbreetal(2001)saidthattakingcareofchildrenisacomplicatedmixtureof
workandloveinwhichtherelationshipitselfisveryimportant.Researchershave
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
5/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
3
beguntostudytheaffectofthechildsattachmenttothefatheraswellasthemother
(Thompson,2000).Fathersrelationshipswiththeirchildrenareactuallyvery
important,despitewhatmanypeoplemaythink.AccordingtoDaltonIII,FrickHorbury,
andKitzmann(2006)reportsoffathersparenting,butnotmothers,wererelatedtothe
qualityofcurrentrelationshipswitharomanticpartner.Also,fathersparentingwas
relatedtotheviewoftheselfasbeingabletoformcloseandsecurerelationships
(Daltonetal,2006).
TheresultsofastudyconductedbyCraig(2006)foundthatmothersweremore
likelythanfatherstospendnotonlymoretimeoverallwiththeirchildren,butalso
moretimemultitasking,morephysicallabor,amorerigidtimetable,moretimealone
withchildren,andmoreoverallresponsibilityfortheircare.Craig(2006)alsofound
thatthesegenderdifferencesintheamountoftimespentwithchildrenaswellasthe
circumstancesstatedabovearethesameevenwhenthemotherworksfulltime.
Fatherswerefoundtobemorelikelytospendtimewiththeirchildrenbyplayingwith
them,talkingwiththem,engagingineducationalandrecreationalactivitiesmorethan
anyotherkindsofcaring(Craig,2006).Otherresearchhasconsistentlyfoundthat
mothersstillspendtwotothreetimesasmuchtimewithchildrenasfathers(Baxter,
2002;Yeung,Sandberg,DavisKean,&Hofferth,2001).
Thereasonforthegenderdifferenceinhowmuchtimemothersandfathers
spendwiththeirchildrenisprobablynotduetothefactthatfathersdontwantto
spendtimewiththeirchildren.Infact,Milkie,Mattingly,Nomaguchi,Bianchi,and
Robinson(2004)foundthatmensaidthattheywantedtospendmoretimewiththeir
children.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
6/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
4
Onecommonviewofmothersisthattheyareoftenoverinvolvedintheir
childrenslives,whilefathershaveamuchlessinvolvedapproach,beingmostly
playmatesfortheirchildren(Craig,2006).Also,perhapsitismoreacceptablefor
womentoshowaffectionthanmen,soitmightbemoredifficultformentoshow
affectiontowardstheirsons.
Womenareoftenperceivedasmorenurturinginoursociety,andmanypeople
thinkthatwomenarebetterattakingcareofchildrenthanmenare(Craig,2006).Men
andwomenareoftenbelievedtohavecertaintraitsthatmakemenmoresuccessfulin
theworkplace,andwomenarebetterattakingcareofchildren.Pohl,Bender,and
Lachmann(2005)foundthatwomentendtoshowmoreempathythanmen,andmen
tendtobemoreassertivethanwomen.Peoplemayassumethatthatfindingappliesto
allmenandwomenandthattherecannotbeassertivewomenandempatheticmen.
Therefore,societyoftentendstoassumethatallwomenshouldtakecareofchildren
andallmenshouldfocusonworkandleavethechildrearingtothemother.Itisalso
assumedthatmothersshouldhaveacloserrelationshiptotheirchildrenthanthe
fathersbecausemothersaresupposedtobemorefocusedontheirchildren.
FormyresearchIexpectthatmanyofthepeopleinthissurveywerenotreared
bytheirfathers,thattheydidnotspendmuchtimewiththeirfathersandthattheywill
havespentmoretimewiththeirmotherswhentheygrowingupthantheirfathers.I
expectthisresultbecausemanypeoplethinkthattakingcareofchildrenismostlythe
responsibilityofthemother,notthefather.Singlemothersaremuchmorecommon
thansinglefathers,andyouaremorelikelytohearofastayathomemomratherthana
stayathomedad.Inaddition,whentwoparentsofachilddivorceeachother,Ithink
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
7/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
5
thatitismorecommontohearofthemothergettingcustodythanthefather.Also,I
hypothesizethatbecausechildrenspendmuchmoretimewiththeirmotherswhen
theyaregrowingup,eveniftheygrowupwithbothparentsintheirlife,theywillbe
morelikelytofeelclosertotheirmothers.
Method
Participants
TheparticipantswereTexasStateUniversityundergraduates(N=302,95males,
207females)whoparticipatedforextracreditinasophomoreleveldevelopmental
psychologyclass.Theparticipantsrangedinagefromyoungerthan18toolderthan25.
Oneparticipantwasunder18,89were18or19,122were20or21,67werebetween
22and25,and23wereolderthan25.Asubset,the180participants(54menand126
women)whoindicatedthattheylivedwithboththeirmotherandfatherequallywhen
theyweregrowingup,werethemaingroupthatwasthefocusofthisstudy.The
materialandmethodswereapprovedbyTexasStateUniversitysInstitutionalReview
Board.
Materials
Thematerialsusedinthisstudywerefourstandardsurveyquestionsasking
abouttheparticipantssex,age,ethnicity,socioeconomicstatus,andonequestion
askingabouttheparticipantsparentsrelationshipstatus.Therewere13questions
askingaboutwhotheparticipantspentthemosttimewith,feltclosesttoowhile
growingupandcurrently,havethemostincommonwith,enjoyedspendingtimewith
themost,ect.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
8/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
6
Thelast50questionsweretheParentalBondingInventory(PBI;Parker,Tupling
andBrown,1979)whichisa50questionselfreportsurveyusingafourpointLikert
scale,rangingfromverylike(1)toveryunlike(4),designedtoassessthe
individualsperceptionofcareandoverprotectionfromeachparentduringthefirst16
yearsoftheindividualslife.Onesetof25questionswascompletedforthemotherand
thenanothersetforthefather.Careinvolvesmeasuringparentalaffection,warmthand
empathy.Alowscoreinthiscategorymeansthattheindividualsawhis/hermother
and/orfatherascaring;ahighscoremeansthemotherand/orfatherwasperceivedas
cold,indifferentandrejecting.Overprotectionmeasuressuchparentalbehaviorsas
intrusivenessandinfantilization.Ifthemotherand/orfatherreceivedalowscorein
thiscategory,theywereseenasbeingoverprotectiveand/orcontrolling.Highscores
forthemotherand/orfathermeanthattheparentorparentspromotedindependence
intheirchild.Twelvequestionsassessedcare,whichgivesamaximumscoreof48.
Thirteenquestionsmeasuredoverprotection,whichgivesamaximumscoreof52.The
PBIhasgoodpsychometricpropertiesandisinsensitivetotheeffectsofthe
respondentsmood(Parker,1989).Parker(1989)alsoreportedsupportforthePBIs
validityasameasureofbothactualandperceivedparentingbasedonstudiesusing
familycorroborativewitnesses,twinstudies,andstudiesusingindependentraters
(Parker,1989).AllquestionsinthesurveyarefoundintheAppendix.
DesignandProcedure
Beforethesurveywasgivenout,theparticipantswereinformedaboutwhatthe
surveywasaboutandabouthowlongitwouldtakethemtocompleteit.Therewere
consentformsthatwereavailablefortheparticipantstosign.Theparticipantswere
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
9/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
7
toldthattheydidnothavetocompletethesurveyiftheydidnotwanttoo.Theywere
toldnottoputtheirnamesanywhereonthesurvey.Therewasnotimelimitfor
completingthesurvey.
Afterthesurveywasfinished,theparticipantswerethankedfortheirtimeand
participationandgiveninformationaboutwhenandhowtheycouldfindoutaboutthe
resultsofthestudy.Theywerealsoallowedtokeepacopyoftheconsentformifthey
chosetodoso.
DataAnalysis
Datawereanalyzedusingthechisquares,ttests,andcorrelations.
Results
SurveyQuestions
Chisquaretestswereusedtoanalyzethefrequenciesofthequestionsbasedon
genderofthechildandgenderoftheparentforthesubsetofparticipantswholived
withtheirmotherandfatherequallywhilegrowingup.Outofthe302participants,180
livedwithbothparentsforthesameamountoftimewhengrowingup.Thisgroupof
180participantsmadeupthesubsetthatwetested.Thestudentsleftoutofthetest
were101studentswhospentmoretimelivingwiththeirmother,17studentswho
spentmoretimelivingwiththeirfather,and4studentswholivedwithneitherparent.
Regardingclosenesstoparentswhilegrowingup,81indicatedtheyfeltclosettotheir
mother,32closesttotheirfather,and63feltequallyclosetobothparts,X2(2)=20.94,
p
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
10/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
8
Seetableonnextpage:
Table1:Frequenciesofparentalrelationshipitemsforparticipantswhogrewupliving
withbothparentsequally
Item Mother Father BothEqually ChiSquare
Feltclosesttoo
growingup
81 32 63 20.94***
Caretakingtime
growingup
120 7 52 108.48***
Punishedmost 52 61 61 .93
*p
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
11/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
9
Regardingdifferencesinparentalcaring/overprotectiondependingon
participantsgender,onlyoneofthefourcomparisonsweresignificant.Womenwere
morelikelythanmentoindicatethattheirfatherswereoverprotective,t(168)=2.62,p
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
12/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
10
theirchildrenthanfathers.Stereotypically,afathersroleisoftenseenasaprovider
role,andamothersroleisseenasthecaretakersrole(Gerson,2002).Alsothefinding
thatmothersareperceivedonaverageasspendingmoretimetakingcareoftheir
childrenthanfathersevenwhenworkingfulltimesupportswhatweknowaboutthe
secondshiftandmenandwomensperceivedresponsibilityinandoutofthehome
(Hochschild,2003).
ThesecondshiftasdefinedbyHochschild(2003)iswhenawomancomeshome
afterafulldayofworkandhasasecondshiftofhousework,cookingandtakingcareof
thechildren,whileherhusbanddoesnotdomuchoranyofthiswork.Thesecondshift
accountsforanextramonthofhouseworkandchildcareayearforwomen(Hochschild
2003).Forparticipantsinmysubsamplewholivedwithbothparentsequallygrowing
up,themajorityhadmothers(93of179)andfathers(169of180)whoworkedfull
time.Manychildrenwhohavetwoparentsthatworkfulltimeareputintodaycareor
leftwithafamilymemberorbabysitter.Ifonlyoneparentworkedfulltimeitwas
probablythefather,givingthemothertheentiredaywiththechildren.Whenthe
employedparentscomehomefromwork,thesecondshiftbeginsforthemotherwho
spendsmuchofthistimecooking,cleaningandtakingcareofthechildren.Often,since
menusuallymakemoremoneythanwomen,womensincomeisseenassupplemental
andifachildissick,theresponsibilityusuallylieswiththemothertostayhomefrom
worktotakecareofthechild(Yaremko&Lawson,2007).
Thecorrelationsthatwerefoundinthisstudywerealsoveryinteresting.The
morecaringamotherorfatherwas,thelesslikelytheyweretobeviewedbytheiradult
childrenasoverprotectiveandviceversa.Itseemsthatbeingoverprotectivemaybe
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
13/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
11
theoppositeofbeingcaringformanyparticipantsandtheirparents.Another
interestingfindingwasthatifthemotherorfatherwasperceivedascaring,theother
parentwasalsoverylikelytoberegardedasbeingcaring.Alsoifoneparentwas
consideredoverprotective,theotherparentwasalsomorelikelytobeseenas
overprotective.Perhapsitislesslikelyforoneparenttobecaringandtheother
overprotective.Mostparentsappeartohavesimilarstyles,atleastintheeyesoftheir
collegestudentchildren,asfarascaringandoverprotectiongo.Also,averyinteresting
genderdifferencethatwasfoundinthissurveyisthatfemalestudentsweremorelikely
thanmalestudentstoindicatethattheyhadoverprotectivefathers.
Thisstudyhassomelimitations.Firstofall,thestudyshouldbereplicated.Even
thoughthisstudyusedafairlylargesamplesize(302undergraduatestudents),there
weretwiceasmanywomenthanmen(95males,207females.)Thisstudycouldhave
beenimprovediftherewereasmanymenandwomen,sothattherecouldhavebeena
morerepresentativesampleofmales.Also,thenumberofparticipantswasmadeeven
smallerbecauseweonlyanalyzedtheparticipantswholivedwiththeirmotherand
fatherequallywhengrowingup.Thisleft180participantsoutoftheoriginal302.These
resultsmaynotbereplicatedinthelargerpopulationandmayhavebeendifferentifthe
surveyhadbeengiventoadifferentagegrouportwoparticipantslivinginadifferent
areaofthecountry.
Also,perhapsasocialdesirabilitybiasaffectedthedata;itispossiblethatsome
participantsdidnotwanttosaythattheyfeltclosertooneparentthantheother.
Faultymemorycouldalsohavebeenafactorsincethestudywasdoneretrospectively;
perhapsparticipantscouldnotaccuratelyrememberthingsabouttheirparentswhen
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
14/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
12
theyweregrowingup.Anotherfactorthatmighthaveaffectedthesurveyisthatthe
participantstookthesurveyaftertakingatest,sotheymightnothavethoughtvery
carefullyaboutthequestionsandmightnothaveansweredthemasaccuratelyasthey
wouldhaveiftheyhadnotjusttakenatestthathadexhaustedthemmentally.
Inconclusion,mostyoungpeopleinthissubsamplehavehadtraditionalparents
andfeltclosesttotheirmothers.Mothersonaveragespentmoretimewiththeir
childreningeneralthanfathers,spentmoretimetakingcareoftheirchildren,were
seenasmoreoverprotectiveandmorecaring,andspentthemostqualitytimewith
theirchildren.Eventhough,intheParentalBondingInventory,motherswereseenas
moreoverprotective,femalestudentsweremorelikelytosaythattheyhadover
protectivefathersthanmalestudentswere.AlthoughIdidfinddatasupporting
traditionalgenderrolescontinuinginfluenceonparenting,someindicationwasalso
foundthatparticipantsfeelclosetobothparentsasadults.Oftheparticipants,76(of
176)indicatedthattheyfeltequallyclosetobothparentstoday,and69(of171)
participantsequallytalkedtoorsawbothparents.Also,overhalfoftheparticipants
indicatedthattheyenjoyedspendingtimewithbothparentsequally.
Inthefuture,itwouldbebeneficialtodomoresurveysaboutfemalesbeing
morelikelythanmalestoindicatethattheyhadoverprotectivefathers.Therehasnot
beenmuchresearchdoneinthisarea.Also,itwouldbebeneficialiftherewasmore
researchdoneonstayathomedads,becausetheyareanimportantandgrowing
population.Fromthesefamilies,itwouldbeinterestingtolearnabouttherelationships
betweenthefatherandchildren,andifitisverydifferentfromfathersthatwork
outsidethehome.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
15/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
13
Ithinkthatinthefuture,parentingwillbecomemoreequallydividedamong
mothersandfathersandinturnthiswillresultinchildrenfeelingsimilarlycloseto
bothparents.GanongandColeman(2001)believethatwearealreadymovingtoward
thesocialidealoffathersascoparentswithmothers.Fatherstodayarecaringmorefor
theirchildrentodaythaninthepast(Sandberg&Hofferth,2001).
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
16/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
14
References
Baxter,J.(2002,December).Patternsofchangeandstabilityinthegenderdivisionof
householdlabourinAustralia,19861997.JournalofSociology,38(4),399424.
Bem,S.(1981).Genderschematheory:acognitiveaccountofsextyping.Psychological
Review,88,354364
Craig,L.(2006,April).DOESFATHERCAREMEANFATHERSSHARE?AComparisonof
HowMothersandFathersinIntactFamiliesSpendTimewithChildren.Gender&
Society,20(2),259281.
Dalton,W.,FrickHorbury,D.,&Kitzmann,K.(2006,January).Youngadults'
retrospectivereportsofparentingbymothersandfathers:Associationswith
currentrelationshipquality.JournalofGeneralPsychology,133(1),518.
Eagly,A.H.(1987).Sexdifferencesinsocialbehavior:asocial-role
interpretation.Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.
Eagly,A.H.Steffen,V.J.(1984).Genderstereotypesstemfromthedistributionof
womenandmenintosocialroles.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,
46(4),735754.
Folbre,N.,Christensen,K.,Gringeri,C.,Matthaei,J.,Kornbluh,F.,Rose,N.,etal.(2001).
Theinvisibleheart:economicsandfamilyvalues.
Ganong,L.,&Coleman,M.(2001).Contentoffatherstereotypes.Contentoffather
stereotypes.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
17/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
15
Gerson,K.(2002,February).MoralDilemmas,MoralStrategies,andtheTransformation
ofGender:LessonsfromTwoGenerationsofWorkandFamilyChange.Gender&
Society,16(1),8.
HochschildA,MachungA.(2003).Thesecondshift[ebook].Availablefrom:Family&
SocietyStudiesWorldwide,Ipswich,MA.
Milkie,M.,Mattingly,M.,Nomaguchi,K.,Bianchi,S.,&Robinson,J.(2004,August).The
TimeSqueeze:ParentalStatusesandFeelingsaboutTimewithChildren.Journal
ofMarriageandFamily,66(3),739761.
Parker,G.,Tupling,H.,andBrown,L.B.(1979).AParentalBondingInstrument.British
JournalofMedicalPsychology,52,110.
Parker,G.(1989).TheParentalBondingInstrument:psychometricpropertiesreviewed.
PsychiatricDevelopments,7(4),317335.
Pohl,R.,Bender,M.,&Lachmann,G.(2005,September).AutobiographicalMemoryand
SocialSkillsofMenandWomen.AppliedCognitivePsychology,19(6),745759.
Slavkin,M.,&Stright,A.(2000,January).GenderRoleDifferencesinCollegeStudents
fromOneandTwoParentFamilies.SexRoles,42(1/2),2337.
Thompson,R.(2000,January).TheLegacyofEarlyAttachments.ChildDevelopment,
71(1),145.
Yaremko,S.,&Lawson,K.(2007,November).Gender,InternalizationofExpressive
Traits,andExpectationsofParenting.SexRoles,57(9/10),675687.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
18/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
16
Yeung,W.,Sandberg,J.,DavisKean,P.,&Hofferth,S.(2001,February).Children'stime
withfathersinintactfamilies.JournalofMarriageandFamily,63(1),136154.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
19/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
17
Appendix
Pleasefillinyourscantronwiththeappropriateletterforeachitem.
1.Yoursex a.Male
b.Female
2.Age a.Youngerthan18
b.18or19
c.20or21
d.2225
e.Olderthan25
3.Ethnicitya.Caucasian/White
b.AfricanAmerican
c.Hispanic/LatinAmerican
d.Asian
e.Other
4.Howwouldyoudescribeyoursocioeconomicstatus?
a.Upperclass
b.Uppermiddleclass
c.Middleclass
d.Lowermiddleclass e.Lowerclass
5.Parentsrelationshipstatus a.Biologicalparentsmarried
b.Biologicalparentsdivorcedfromeachother c.Biologicalparentswerenevermarried
d.Motherisawidow
e.Fatherisawidower
ParentingQuestions
6.Whichbiologicaloradoptiveparentdidyoulivewiththemostwhenyouweregrowingup?
a.Biologicalmotherandfatherequally
b.Biologicalmother
c.Biologicalfather
d.Neitherbiologicalparent
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
20/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
18
7.Whichbiologicaloradoptiveparentdidyouspendthemosttimewithwhenyou
weregrowingup?
a.Mother
b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally
d.Didnotlivewitheitherparent
8.Whichbiologicaloradoptiveparentwouldyousayyoufeelclosesttoowhenyou
weregrowingup?
a.Mother b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally
d.Didnotfeelatallclosetoeitherparent
9.Whichbiologicaloradoptiveparentspentthemosttimetakingcareofyouwhenyou
weregrowingup?(Cooking,cleaning,takingyoutoschool,ect.) a.Mother
b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally
d.Neither
10.Mostofthetime,didyourmotherworkwhileyouweregrowingup?
a.No
b.Yes,fulltime
c.Yes,parttime
d.Doesnotapply(livedwithfatherorotherfamilymember)
11.Mostofthetime,didyourfatherworkwhileyouweregrowingup?a.No
b.Yes,Fulltimec.Yes,Parttime
d.Doesnotapply(livedwithmotherorotherfamilymember)
12.Whichparentpunishedyouthemostasachild?a.Mother
b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally d.Neither/doesnotapply
13.Whichparentspentthemosttimeplayingwithyouasachild?
a.Mother
b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally
d.Neither
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
21/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
19
14.Whichparentdoyouthinkthatyouspentthemostqualitytimewithasachild?
a.Mother
b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally
d.Neither
15.Whichparentdoyoufeelclosesttootoday?
a.Mother
b.Father c.Bothparentsequally
d.Neither
16.Whichparentdoyoutalktoorseethemosttoday?
a.Mother b.Father
c.Bothparentsequally d.Neither
17.Whodoyouhavemoreincommonwith?
a.Mother
b.Father
c.Ihavethesameamountofthingsincommonwithbothparents
d.Neither
18.Whodoyouenjoyspendingthemosttimewith?
a.Mother
b.Father c.Bothparentsequally
d.Neither
ParentalBondingInventory
Thisquestionnairelistsvariousattitudesandbehaviorsofparents.Asyouremember
yourMother/Fatherinyourfirst16years,wouldyoupleaseindicatethemost
appropriateresponsecategory.(Ifyoudidnotgrowupwithyourmotherorfather,
pleaseleavethatsectionblank.)
Pleaseanswerthesefirst25questionsaboutyourmother.
Responsecategories:
a.VeryLike
b.ModeratelyLike
c.ModeratelyUnlike
d.Veryunlike
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
22/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
20
19.Spoketomewithawarmandfriendlyvoice.
20.DidnothelpmeasmuchasIneeded.
21.LetmedothosethingsIlikeddoing.
22.Seemedemotionallycoldtome.
23.Appearedtounderstandmyproblems&worries24.Wasaffectionatetome.
25.Likedmetomakemyowndecisions
26.Didnotwantmetogrowup.
27.TriedtocontroleverythingIdid28.Invadedmyprivacy
29.Enjoyedtalkingthingsoverwithme
30.Frequentlysmiledatme.
31.Tendedtobabyme.
32.DidnotseemtounderstandwhatIneededorwanted33.Letmedecidethingsformyself
34.MademefeelIwasntwanted35.CouldmakemefeelbetterwhenIwasupset
36.Didnottalkwithmeverymuch.
37.Triedtomakemedependentonher/him
38.FeltIcouldnotlookaftermyselfunlessshe/hewasaround
39.GavemeasmuchfreedomasIwanted
40.LetmegooutasoftenasIwanted.
41.Wasoverprotectiveofme
42.Didnotpraiseme
43.LetmedressinanywayIpleased
Pleaseanswerthesesecond25questionsaboutyourfather.
Responsecategories:
a.VeryLike
b.ModeratelyLike
c.ModeratelyUnlike
d.Veryunlike
44.Spoketomewithawarmandfriendlyvoice.45.DidnothelpmeasmuchasIneeded.
46.LetmedothosethingsIlikeddoing.
47.Seemedemotionallycoldtome.
48.Appearedtounderstandmyproblems&worries
49.Wasaffectionatetome.50.Likedmetomakemyowndecisions
51.Didnotwantmetogrowup.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
23/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
21
52.TriedtocontroleverythingIdid
53.Invadedmyprivacy
54.Enjoyedtalkingthingsoverwithme
55.Frequentlysmiledatme.
56.Tendedtobabyme.
57.DidnotseemtounderstandwhatIneededorwanted58.Letmedecidethingsformyself
59.MademefeelIwasntwanted
60.CouldmakemefeelbetterwhenIwasupset
61.Didnottalkwithmeverymuch.62.Triedtomakemedependentonher/him
63.FeltIcouldnotlookaftermyselfunlessshe/hewasaround
64.GavemeasmuchfreedomasIwanted
65.LetmegooutasoftenasIwanted.
66.Wasoverprotectiveofme67.Didnotpraiseme
68.LetmedressinanywayIpleasedThankyouforparticipatinginoursurvey.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
24/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
22
AuthorsNote
Iamverygratefultomythesissupervisor,Dr.ShirleyOgletree.Withoutherhelp,
Iwouldnothavebeenabletodothisthesis.Iamveryappreciativeforthetimeand
effortthatshespenthelpingmeontheresearchandthewritingofthisthesis.Iwould
alsoliketothankherforlettingmegivemysurveytoherclassforextracredit.
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
25/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
23
FigureCaptions
Figure1:Whichparentwastheparticipantclosesttoowhilegrowingup?1.00,themost
commonchoiceisthemother(F=81).2.00,theleastcommonchoiceisthefather
(F=32).3.00isbothparentsequally(F=63).
Figure2:Whichparentdoestheparticipantfeelclosesttootoday?1.00,themother
(F=73),2.00,thefather(F=27),3.00,bothparentsequally,(F=76).
Figure3:Whichparentspentthemosttimetakingcareoftheparticipantwhenthey
weregrowingup?1.00,themother(F=120).2.00,thefather(F=7).3.00,bothparents
equally(F=52).
Figure4:Didtheparticipantsmotherworkwhiletheparticipantwasgrowingup?1.00,
No(F=51).2.00,Yes,fulltime(F=93).3.00,Yes,parttime(F=35).
Figure5:Didtheparticipantsfatherworkwhiletheparticipantwasgrowingup?1.00,
No(F=6).2.00,Yes,fulltime(F=169).3.00,Yes,parttime(F=5).
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
26/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
24
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
27/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
25
7/30/2019 Geder Diff
28/28
GenderDifferencesandParenting
26