GCSE Food Technology Revision notes 2015

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Contents Ingredients and Nutrition .................................................................................................................... 3

Functions of ingredients ...................................................................................................................... 3

Nutrition ................................................................................................................................................. 4

Packaging, Preserving and Food Poisoning ...................................................................................... 7

Food packaging ..................................................................................................................................... 7

Preservation of food ............................................................................................................................. 8

Food poisoning .................................................................................................................................... 11

Systems and Control .......................................................................................................................... 15

Food Production Systems .................................................................................................................. 15

Sensory Evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 17

Producing a New Product .................................................................................................................. 19

Specifications ....................................................................................................................................... 19

Development of a new product ........................................................................................................ 19

Packaging and labelling of a food product ..................................................................................... 20

Risk assessment .................................................................................................................................. 20

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Ingredients and Nutrition Functions of ingredients

Flour:

Provides fibre (especially if wholemeal)

If Self-Raising, makes mixtures rise

Thickens sauces

Forms the bulk of bread, pastry and cake mixes

If wholemeal, provides colour and texture

Gluten in flour produces a stretchy dough

Provides carbohydrate, Vitamin B, calcium and iron

Sugar:

Provides sweetness

If brown, provides colour and texture

Large amounts prevent micro-organism growth (for example, jam/marmalade)

Caramelises to produce a brown colour

Retains moisture

Helps to trap air in cake mixtures

Provides carbohydrate

Eggs:

Hold air when beaten

Coagulate (sets) when heated

Add colour to mixtures

Thickens sauces, custards, etc.

Glaze bread, scones and pastry

Bind ingredients together

Provide protein, fat, iron and Vitamins A, B, and E

Fats/Oils:

Provide flavour

Keep products moist and extend shelf-life

Add colour to foods

Make pastry 'short' by coating the flour to stop gluten developing

Hold air when creamed with sugar

Oil forms an emulsion with liquids (for example, mayonnaise)

Provide energy and Vitamins A and D

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Nutrition

Fats:

Gives energy and vitamins A, D, E and K

Found in oils, solid fats, fatty meat, cream, cheese and nuts

Animal fats and some vegetables oils contain saturated fat, which may raise blood cholesterol levels

Vegetable fats such as sunflower and soya and those in oily fish are polyunsaturated and better for the heart

Gives a rich source of energy that can be converted into fat in the body, which protects organs and gives heat

Carbohydrates:

Provides energy and fibre

Found in cereals, vegetables, sugar, rice, pasta, bread and pastries

If the body receives more energy than it needs, it stores it as fat

Wholemeal/wholegrain cereals are a richer source of fibre than white/refined ones

Vitamins B and E, calcium and iron are also provided by bread

Proteins:

Enables the body to grow and repair

Found in milk, meat, fish, eggs and cheese

Also in soya, beans, cereals, pulses and nuts

If more protein is eaten than is needed for growth and repair, the excess is converted into glycogen in the liver

and used as energy

Animal foods and soya beans are used most efficiently by the body

Many protein foods also provide iron and B vitamins (especially B12)

Tofu (soya bean curd), Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP) made from soya flour, and Quorn (fungus) can all be

used to replace animal proteins

Vitamins:

A: Fat-soluble

Helps with night vision. Keeps the linings of the nose, throat and digestive system moist. Found as carotene in

orange and red fruits and vegetables. Found as retinol in oily fish, liver, butter, margarine, cheese and eggs.

Other sources include: mango, spinach, carrot, sweet potato. Excess may lead to liver damage.

B: Water-soluble

Thiamin (B1), Riboflavin (B) and Niacin are involved in the release of energy from foods, healthy nervous

system and skin. B12 helps prevent birth defects, such as Spina Bifida and is needed for red cell production.

Found in marmite, meat, nuts, green leafy vegetables, yeast and dairy products.

C: Water-soluble

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Needed for the formation and maintenance of connective tissue. Helps wounds to heal, helps prevent infections

and aids iron absorption. Found in fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, potatoes, broccoli, blackcurrants

and kiwi fruit.

D: Fat-soluble

Produced by the action of sunlight on the skin. Needed for the absorption of calcium in the bones and teeth.

Found in butter, margarine, cereal, milk and fish. Excessive intakes can be dangerous.

E: Fat-soluble

May be necessary for reproduction. Helps keep skin healthy. Found in eggs, wholegrain cereals, almonds,

sunflower seeds, vegetable margarines and oils.

K: Fat-soluble

Involved in the clotting of blood. Found in green vegetables, meat, beans, fruit and cereals.

Minerals:

Needed for: Found in:

Calcium Clotting of blood

Cheese, milk, bread, canned fish, green vegetables

Strong bones and teeth

Healthy muscles and nerves

Iron Healthy red blood cells

Red meat (especially liver), green vegetables, egg yolk,

bread, fortified breakfast cereals

Transporting oxygen around the

body

Vitamin C helps iron to be

absorbed by the body

Phosphorus Strong bones and teeth Milk, cheese, eggs, fish and nuts

Iodine Healthy thyroid gland Seafoods, vegetables, iodised salt

Hormone production

Sodium

Correct concentration of bodily

fluids

Salt, most ready-prepared foods, soya sauce, cheese,

bacon

Healthy nerves and muscles

The amount of nutrients required depends on 4 factors:

Sex

Age

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Activity

Special conditions

Measuring the amounts of nutrients needed...

DRV (Dietary Reference Values): Estimates of the nutritional requirements of different groups of healthy

people of different ages.

EARs (Estimated Average Requirements): Estimation of the needs of most people in a particular group.

RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance): Often used on packaging to indicate whether or not a food product

is a good source of a particular nutrient.

RNI (Reference Nutrient Intake): Amount of a nutrient, which will satisfy 97.5% of the population in a

particular specified group.

Healthy eating targets...

1: Energy obtained from total fat intake should be no more than 35% of the total energy intake.

2: The energy obtained from saturated fat should be reduced to 11%.

3: Obesity in people aged between 16-64 years should be reduced by a quarter in men and a third in women.

4: Blood pressure should be reduced by people cutting down on their intake of salt and alcohol.

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Packaging, Preserving and Food Poisoning Food packaging

Gives food a longer shelf-life.

Protects food during transportation and storage.

Keeps food clean from dirt and bacteria.

Provides information.

Advertises the product.

Holds the food in place.

The following table is a list of the different packaging types and their advantages and

disadvantages

Material: Source: Advantages: Disadvantages: Used for:

Paper Wood Can be waxed to

make it waterproof,

easy to print on,

cheap, can be

recycled.

Not very strong. Flour, sugar,

loose fruit

and

vegetables.

Cardboard Wood Lightweight, easily

shaped, easy to

print on, can be

recycled.

Soggy if wet. Frozen foods,

cereals,

cakes, fruit

juice.

Glass Sand See-through, can

be coloured, cheap,

can be recycled,

easily moulded.

Can break easily. Often

needs a paper or plastic

film label. Heavy.

Jam, wine,

pickles, milk,

cooking

sauces.

Metal

(Tinplate and

aluminium)

Ores Heat treated to

preserve the

contents, can be

recycled, strong,

lightweight.

Can rip (foil lids), often

needs a utensil to open it,

needs a paper label. Heat

treatment can alter

texture and taste.

Yoghurt lids,

tinned foods,

bottle tops.

The UK Food Labelling Regulations 1996 state that the following information must be shown...

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1. Food Product Name.

2. List of ingredients.

3. Storage conditions.

4. Shelf life.

5. Instructions for use.

6. Name and address of manufacturer.

7. Place of origin.

8. Weight or volume.

The following information is voluntary

1. A picture.

2. Recipe ideas.

3. Bar codes.

4. Environmental and recycling information.

5. Nutritional information.

6. Lot or batch mark.

7. Opening instructions.

8. Special information.

Preservation of food

Food needs to be preserved...

So that surplus foods from good harvests can be stored and then used in times of shortage.

So that we can enjoy seasonal fruits and vegetables all year round.

To enable it to be transported long distances without it decaying (and spillage!).

To allow it to be stored in the home for long periods without going off.

There are six main ways in which food can be preserved...

1. High temperatures

Canning

Bottling

Pasteurisation

Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT)

Sterilisation

2. Low temperatures

Freezing

Chilling

3. Removing moisture

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Drying

Accelerated Freeze Drying (AFD)

4. Use of chemicals

Pickling

Salting

Smoking

Sugar

5. Controlling the atmosphere

Vacuum Packing

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

6. Irradiation

Methods of preserving food...

Method and

How it works:

Advantages: Disadvantages: Used for:

Canning:

Heat kills bacteria

and enzymes.

Lasts for many

years.

Can cause

changes in colour

and texture. Loss

of Vitamin C.

Fish, meat,

fruit,

vegetables,

milk.

Bottling:

Heat kills bacteria

and enzymes.

Lasts for many

years.

Can cause

changes in colour

and texture. Loss

of Vitamin C.

Fruit and

vegetables.

Pasteurisation:

Most bacteria

killed at 72

degrees Celsius.

Little effect on

flavour.

Not all bacteria

killed.

Milk, cream,

orange juice.

UHT:

All bacteria killed

at 132 degrees

Lasts for

several

Changes taste

slightly.

Milk, fruit

juices.

10

Celsius. months.

Sterilisation:

Food is heated to

104 degrees

Celsius for 40

minutes.

Extends life of

milk to about

10 days.

Gives a creamy

flavour and colour.

Milk, fruit

juices.

Freezing:

Stops bacteria and

enzymes activity.

Domestic freezers

are at -18 degrees

Celsius.

Foods can be

frozen for

many months.

Little loss of

vitamins.

Slow freezing

breaks down cells

and changes the

texture of foods.

Ready

prepared

meals, fish,

meat,

vegetables,

fruit, ice-

creams.

Chilling:

Temperatures of 1

to 8 degrees

Celsius slow

bacteria growth.

Good colour

and flavour

kept.

Short storage life. Ready

prepared

meals, such

as Lasagne.

Drying:

Removal of

moisture stops

bacteria growth.

Last for long

periods of

time.

Most Vitamin C

lost. Must be kept

dry.

Soups, pasta,

beans packet

desserts.

AFD:

Food is frozen and

then dried quickly.

Good colour

and flavour.

Can be expensive. Coffee.

Pickling:

Increases acidity

of food.

Long shelf life. Very strong

flavour.

Onions,

cabbage,

olives.

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Salting:

Reduces water

content by

osmosis.

Long shelf life. Food needs to be

soaked before

cooking.

Meat, fish,

green beans.

Smoking:

Slow method,

which prevents

bacteria growth.

Adds flavour. Kills Vitamins B

and C.

Bacon,

cheese, fish.

Sugar:

More than 60%

will stop micro-

organism growth.

Long shelf life. High temperatures

in jam making kill

Vitamin C.

Jams,

marmalade,

crystallised

fruits.

Vacuum packs:

Removes all

oxygen.

Retains

vitamins.

Often still needs

refrigeration

Bacon, fish.

MAP:

Replaces oxygen

with nitrogen and

carbon dioxide.

Colour and

flavour are

good.

Expensive. Meat, salads,

minced beef,

and bacon.

Irradiation:

Radiation kills,

bacteria and pests.

Delays ripening

of fruit and

sprouting of

vegetables.

Not in general

use. Consumer

safety worries.

Strawberries,

vegetables

and spices.

Food poisoning

10 main causes of food poisoning

Cause: Prevention:

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Preparing food too far in

advance.

Prepare food as close to consumption

as possible.

Food cooled too slowly before

being refrigerated.

Food must be refrigerated within one

and a half hours.

Food not reheated enough to

kill bacteria.

Reheat food until it is piping hot all the

way through.

Contaminated food eaten. Do not consume food after its eat-by

date, and store correctly.

Food undercooked. Cook food thoroughly - use a

temperature probe.

Poultry not thawed properly. Make sure no ice crystals remain.

Cooked food cross-

contaminated by raw food.

Use separate equipment for raw and

cooked food.

Hot food kept warm at less than

63 degrees Celsius. Check food with a temperature probe.

Food handlers passing on

infection.

Remove jewellery, wear aprons, wash

hands, report illnesses, etc.

Left-overs reheated. Use quickly, store below 5 degrees

Celsius, reheat thoroughly.

Micro-organisms

There are 3 types of micro-organism...

Moulds

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Yeasts

Bacteria

This table shows the most common types of food poisoning bacteria...

Bacteria: Incubation: Symptoms: Found in: Important

points:

Bacillus cereus 1-6 hours Nausea,

vomiting,

diarrhoea.

Cooked rice,

especially if

kept warm.

Cool pasta and

rice quickly.

Camploybacter 2-10 days Diarrhoea,

abdominal

pain.

Meat, shellfish,

milk, untreated

water.

Most commonly

reported cause

of food

poisoning.

Clostridium

botulinum

12-48

hours

Paralysis.

Can be

fatal.

Canned food,

especially dish,

meat and

vegetables.

Water and soil.

Rare form of

poisoning.

Bacteria

produce spores,

which survive

high

temperatures.

Clostridium

perfringens

10-24

hours

Diarrhoea,

abdominal

pain.

Raw meat,

cooked meat

and products.

Soil.

Very common

cause of

poisoning. Most

active at 45-50

degrees Celsius.

Escherichia coli

(E-Coli)

1-2 days Diarrhoea

with blood,

vomiting

Raw meat,

untreated milk

and dairy

products.

Drink bottled

water when

abroad.

Listeria

monocytogenes

Up to 70

days

Flu

symptoms,

blood

poisoning,

meningitis.

Soft cheeses

made with

unpasteurised

milk, pate,

cook/chill

Dangerous to

pregnant

women.

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foods.

Salmonella 12-48

hours

Diarrhoea,

fever,

vomiting,

abdominal

pain.

Meat, raw

eggs, cream,

seafood.

Babies, the

elderly and

pregnant

women should

not eat raw

eggs. Poultry

must be

defrosted well

before cooking.

Staphyloccus

aureus

1-8 hours Vomiting,

diarrhoea.

Meat and meat

products, eggs.

Nose, throat

and cuts of

food handlers.

Personal

hygiene is very

important.

Enzymes

Enzymes can cause undesirable changes in foods that make them unsightly. This is called browning and is

caused by the action of an enzyme called polyphenol oxide in the presence of oxygen. Enzymatic browning

can be reduced by:

1. High temperatures.

2. Acidic conditions.

3. Other methods.

Symptoms of food poisoning

1. Diarrhoea.

2. Vomiting.

3. Abdominal pain can be very unpleasant and can even cause hospitalisation, or death, for vulnerable groups such

as:

Babies.

Young children.

The elderly.

People whose immune systems are damaged.

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Systems and Control Food Production Systems

A food production system has three parts

1. Input: The different ingredients, materials, machinery and items which go into the system.

2. Process: The different things that happen to the Input which change it into the Output.

3. Output: The finished food product.

This table shows you what precautions are taken during the food production process...

Production: Raw materials must be of high quality.

Storage: High-risk foods should be stored below 5 degrees Celsius

Preparation: Equipment and food handlers must comply with hygiene regulations.

Cooking: Food must be cooked thoroughly to prevent food poisoning.

Transportation: Temperature control may be necessary for high-risk foods.

Serving: Food must be kept below 5 degrees Celsius or above 63 degrees Celsius.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP)

If a food manufacturer wishes to produce products which are of high and consistent quality s/he will need to

identify areas of production where inaccuracies (hazards) could occur. These inaccuracies are known as hazards.

The food manufacturer must then design checks to be put into place to prevent hazards from occurring.

H - Hazard

A - Analysis

C - Critical

C - Control

P - Points

A team of people will identify the hazards, which could be from micro-organisms, chemicals, people or

machinery.

A CCP (Critical Control Point) could be any part of the production process, which could affect the finished

quality of the product. For example...

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Weighing of ingredients: Before and after preparation/cooking.

Time: Of cooking, chilling, mixing, etc.

Shaping: Of mixtures, division of dough, etc.

Temperature: Storage of foods, cooking and chilling.

Consistency of mixtures: During making and when cooked/chilled or stored.

Hygiene: Of raw ingredients, food handlers, machinery and the finished dish.

Each of the CCPs will have a tolerance level - for example, food could be cooked for between 20 and 22

minutes. These may also be known as critical limits.

Once these CCPs have been identified, checks can be put in place that will monitor a product's progress through

the production process.

These checks could be...

1. Visual.

2. Electronic.

3. Scientific.

Quality control

This is the method used to check and test a product as it is made.

When a product prototype gets into production, the following checks need to be made...

Quality of ingredients.

Working to designated tolerances (for instance, exact size/weight/viscosity/etc.).

Size/thickness/quantity.

Shape.

Texture.

Colour.

Uniformity.

You can show how quality control is achieved in your design folder by...

Identifying the stages in the production of your food prototype.

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Using the list given above to prompt ideas for checks.

Thinking about how you can carry out checks for quality at each stage.

Describing the checks that you will make.

Showing how you will correct problems after checks have been made.

Standard food components

These are ready-prepared ingredients used during the manufacture of the food products.

Advantages of using standard food

components: Disadvantages of using standard food components:

1. Products are of a constant quality, size,

shape and flavour.

1. Products must be available, in the right quality, whenever they

are required.

2. It saves time and therefore money. 2. Food producer has no input into the quality or production of the

standard food component.

3. Prices may rise without warning.

Sensory Evaluation

This process enables food manufacturers to find out what consumers think of their product and to ensure that all

the food produced by a production line is identical.

The food will be tested using organoleptic factors, meaning that they are using our different sense

organs. Such as:

Texture (mouthfeel)

Taste or flavour

Appearance or colour

Smell or aroma

In order to ensure that sensory testing is considered to be 'fair', it is important that conditions are

carefully controlled. This will involve:

1. Sipping water between each sample to remove the taste of the previous food.

2. Using separate booths so that testers are not influence by each other.

3. Labelling food with numbers or letters so that the tester does not recognise a brand name.

4. Having a well-lit room with the minimum of noise and smells.

5. Using clean cutlery and utensils for each sample.

6. Sometimes using blindfolds (blind-testing) so that the tester is not influenced by the appearance of the food.

7. Each sample of food being the same size.

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8. Having a minimum of 6 testers.

Testers must not be:

Suffering from a condition which would affect their taste (for example, smoking, a heavy cold, or taking strong

medication).

Allergic to foods or ingredients.

Different types of sensory tests

1. Difference or Discrimination Tests.

2. Grading Tests.

3. Profiles.

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Producing a New Product Specifications

Design specification: Written early on in the development of a product and is quite general and wide.

Product specification: More detailed specification, usually written when the final product has been decided

upon.

Manufacturing specification (Higher tier): Very detailed specification which would be given to the food

manufacturer so that identical products can be produced on a large scale.

How to design a manufacturing specification...

Here are some ideas of what to include to produce a successful specifications...

Specific dimensions (with a sketch).

Specific qualities of ingredients.

Names of ingredients with weights and proportions to use.

Specific tolerances.

The size to which ingredients must be cut.

Types of cooking methods and cooking temperatures with critical control points.

Cooling times and methods.

Finishing techniques.

Specific details of packaging requirements.

Wording for the label.

Sometimes a photograph is used to help a manufacturer to meet that specification...

Development of a new product

Stages in product development:

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Packaging and labelling of a food product

There are loads of different techniques designers use to sell a product - from bright colours, to simplistic text -

depending on the age group of the people they're trying to attract. However, there are some limitations involved

in the design process: the material used for the packaging needs to be suitable for the food product it is holding.

For example, if the product is a 'hand-held, take-away item', the packaging is likely to be...

See-through so the consumer can quickly see what they are buying.

Easy to remove.

An insulator if the product needs to be kept hot (Polystyrene, for example).

Grease and moisture resistant to keep hands clean.

Easy to dispose of and recyclable, ideally.

Suitable materials could be...

Plastic: This is lightweight, moisture-resistant and see-through, but can be difficult to recycle.

Polystyrene: This is lightweight, moisture-resistant and keeps food warm, but can be difficult to recycle.

Paper: Lightweight, easy to recycle and print on, but not resistant to moisture or grease.

Cardboard: Easy to print on, can be shaped to provide support, can be recycled, more moisture-resistant than

paper.

Take-away products will not always show details of ingredients, weight, storage details etc. However, if the

product is sealed in a wrapper, it should show the following legally required information:

Name and address of manufacturer/importer/retailer.

List of ingredients in descending order of weight.

Weight or quantity.

Storage/cooking instructions

An indication of when it should be consumed by (an 'eat-by', for instance).

Name or description of the product.

Risk assessment

Risk assessment means making an assessment of any risk to a food product during its production. This

involves working out what chances there are of a food product being damaged or made incorrectly.

Thinking about what could happen.

Planning how to prevent it from happening.

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These regulations involve identifying the Critical Control Points (CCPs) which could be any part that could

affect the finished quality of the product.

For example:

Weighing of ingredients.

Time - chilling, cooking, setting.

Shaping or division of dough.

Temperature - in storage, cooking, etc.

Consistency of mixtures.

Hygiene - of equipment, ingredients and handlers.

To establish a HACCP system for a product, a detailed analysis of the possible hazards needs to be undertaken.

Critical Control Points can then be identified and appropriate control and monitoring systems put in place. These

could include...

Thermometers on fridges/ovens.

Timing devices on ovens/chilling units.

Alarms which ring if any of these devices show a fault.

Visual checks

Micro-biological tests on food and equipment

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