GATEways to Teacher Education Journal of the Georgia Associatio~ of-Teacher Education

Published by GATE and Annstrong Atlantic State University

Volume XVII (2) Fall 2005

.. .t. .. Editor

John]. Hobe, Armstrong Atlantic Scate University

Design and editorial assistance

Joan Lehon, Armstrong Adantic State University

Officers President: Julie Dangel, Georgia State University

President .. elect: BeryLe Baker, Georgia Perimeter College Past .. president: Jennifer Harrison, laGrange College

Secretary: John Rhodes, Professional Standards Commission Treasurer: Sheryl Dasinger, Valdosta Scate University

Editorial Board Shirley Andrews, Valdosta State University (Georgia)

Deborah Bordelon, Xavier University of Louisiana (Louisiana) Patricia Brandt Armstrong Atlantic State University (Georgia)

Jo Ann Coleman Armstrong Atlantic State University (Georgia) Julia Dorminey, Georgia Southwestern State University (Georgia)

Linda Gowans Weber State University (Utah) Ethna R. Reid, Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction (Utah)

2 • GATEways to Teamer Education

'Appreciation I more than appreciate all who helped create this GATEways edition. Shirley Andrews, Deborah Bordelon, Patricia Brandt, Jo Ann Coleman, Julia Dorminey, Linda Gowens, and Ethna Reid worked incessantly editing the articles with an exactness that was more than impressive. Joan Lehon in the Office of University Relations at Armstrong Atlantic State University remembered every detail, always made the writing better with her never ending analysis, and did this while continually smiling. Maryellen Cosgrove at Armstrong Atlantic State University was ready always to answer detailed questions that helped form my thinking about this edition's organization. Further, she found time to submit an article to the Editorial Board. It is included in this edition. Ethna Reid at the Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction gracefully allowed us to use the school photograph covering this edition. Julie Dangel at Georgia State University strengthen our efforts with encour .. aging words. She too squeezed time into her schedule to send an article to the Editorial Board. It appears between these pages. We appreciate the persistent, positive support given us by Armstrong Atlantic State University. Harriet Bessette, Traci Redish, 'and Linda Webb at Kennesaw State University, Maryellen Cosgrove, Patricia Ann Norris .. Parsons, and Patricia Byers Brignati at Armstrong Atlantic State University, Julie Rainer Dangel at Georgia State University, and John D. King at Clark Atlanta University abundantly gave thei! thoughts and time to help us understand more about learning, schooling, and ourselves.

These are the types ,of people every editor hopes to meet, the types of friends we read aboutj and the types of professional colleagues we want next door on our floors.

Please visit the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators website at www.gaate.org

...... I.

The opinions expres.sed by the authors belong to them and may fail to reflect OPinions held by AnrutTOng Atlantic State UnitJersit) and the Georgia A.s.sociatian afTeacher Educators.

Nou: GATEways cover from Teaching New Words through the Word Strucrure Methods ( cover) , by Ethna R. Reid and Reid Associates,

1995 I Salt Lake Ciry, Utah: Cooe Publishers. Copyright 1995 fry Cove Publishers. Reprinted with pmni5sion.

GATEways to Teacher Education • 3

CONTENTS

Aspiring Administrators' Perceptions of Technology Use Among Principals

Harriet Bessette, Traci Redish, and Linda Webb Kennesaw Sta~ University

.5

Validation of a Teacher Efficacy Scale as a Predictive Instrument for Alternative Preparation Teacher Retention .

Maryellen Cosgrove, Patricia Norris .. Parsons , and Patricia Brignati Armstrong Atlantic St.a.t.f University

16 /.

Assessment: Building On Prior Knowledge and Personal Experiences-

Julie Rainer Dangel Georgia State Universit)

31

African American Males Needed in College and as Teachers: A Call for Action

John D. King Clark Atlanta Universit~j'

39

Aspiring Administrators'. Perception·s of Technology Use Among Principals

Harriet Bessette, Traci Redish, and Linda Webb Kennesaw State University

Do aspiring administrators view technology leadership as part of their future . role as principals 1 An empirical stud)' designed to uncover how educational

leadership candidates perceive £he role of the schoo! leader provided insight. into the perceptioru of aspiring administrators. The data suggest prospective administrators ma), not view technolog:y as a ke'J role within school leadership. Findings hold significant implications for policy, proctice t and educational leadership program improvement .

. . •.. ... The suggests the school principal is, in many ways, the most important and influential person many school (B1umberg and Greenfield, 1980). The principal responsible the morale of

climate for and degree of professionalism exhibited by all within the school. The principaPs leadership largely determines the success of school and the effectiveness of the faculty. and Baron (2000) assert that leadership is partially based on the positive feel~

that exist between leaders subordinates. Schools need who can change people in the organization and how they work together to accomplish it" (Fullan. 2002, p.19).

Wi thin the decade or tw0l expectations for school leaders have increasingly involved the use of technology. School systems are looking to technology, particularly in the areas of curriculum and instruction, to help increase student achievement and meet the demands of No Child Left Behind (2001). National for Education Statistics (2000) indicates that principal leadership has describe'd as one the most important factors affecting the effective use technology in

sroclms. School largely how technology is valued and have shown to be key ingredient in effective integration of technology by faculty and staff.

With the spending of billions of dollars to outfit their schools with desktop computers, laptops I servers, routers, software, Internet access, and other modem technologies, schools can no longer afford to ignore the importance of technology leadership-and neither can the schools of education that prepare our nation's principals. How are future princi .. pals being prepared to assume their technology leadership roles? How are educational leadership preparation programs addressing the knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed by administrators in the area of technol .. ogy? What messages are our preparation programs sending prospective school leaders about technology?

Purpose of Study The purpose of this study was to insight into the role that technol .. ogy plays in the work life of the school principal. This investigation, therefore, asks, how, and to what extent, cInes the school principal interact with technology! While much has been written about leadership, a paucity of research exists on leadership candidates' perceptions of the principal's role, and even less that addresses how aspiring administra# tors view the principars role as the technology leader in the school. The present study elicits the perceptions of leadership candidates who illustrate--literaUy-their principal in the course of a typical workday. From the enlightened perspective of these future administrators, we are shown how technology is viewed, how it is valued, and ultimately, what the principal's role is with regard to technology leadership.

Methods In the field of education, the qualitative researcher often pursues new ways of viewing educational phenomena, as the aim is seldom, if ever, a quest for certainty. but rather the enhancement of perspectives (Bar ... one & Eisner, 1997). An Arts .. based educational research methodology (ABER) served as the investigative method for this study, while both qualitative and quantitative methods were used for the analysis. No lon .. ger an "arm" of qualitative research, but rather an inquiry approach that is artistic and cutting .. edge in nature, Arts .. based educational research augmented traditional qualitative methods. This approach afforded us the opportunity to broaden and deepen our understanding of the inter ... section between leadership and technology use.

Participants The study was conducted over a four period from summer 2004 through summer 2005 and included 121 participants enrolled in gradu ..

Bessette, Redish, Webb • 7

ate courses in the Department of Educational Leadership (Educational Research, EDL 6750 and Portfolio Development, EDL 6797 and EDL 6798). These courses lead to either a master's degree or add .. on certifica .. tion in Georgia. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants, who ranged in age from 21 to 45 years. All of the candidates held a bachelor's degree and were employed in either a teaching or administra .. tive assistant capacity.

Procedures Leadership candidates were given the following prompt: "Draw what it looks like in your school when your principcUis working." Drawings were collected and analyzed by classifying/coding features present in each drawing. Tovey (1996) contends that drawings have the capacity to convey information that will contribute to our broader understanding of schools and how they work.. Lines of inquiry, which have previously seemed uninviting, now seem to offer the promise of orderly data and re .. liable conclusions through the use of drawings (Haney, Russell & BebeH, 2003). For the purpose of this investigation, what kinds of technology are candidates highlighting in their drawings when they draw their prin .. cipals 7 What is being used by the school principal, and how it is being used? What do candidates' drawings infer about the role of principal-as the technology leader in the school? By uncovering this infonnation and working directly with schools and principals, we have a chance to examine the role of the principal as technology leader.

Emergent analytic coding was used by three investigators to develop an initi.allist of features present in the drawings. The lists were then corn .. pared and condensed into a master list of features to be used as a draft coding sheet. Fonnal descriptions were developed for each feature on the sheet. Features that showed low levels of inter .. rater reliability (e.g" less than 80% agreement) were removed from the list and accompanying descriptions were then used to score the full set of drawings.

Analysis Holistic coding was used to analyze drawings at a higher level of ab .. straction, based on an overall judgment about how good or bad a per .. son, idea, or environment was depicted. To do this, a rating rubric was developed by the investigators themselves. Four local school principals (elementary, middle and secondary)-not in professional affiliation with the candidates supplying data-provided feedback on sets of drawings by answering three key questions:

8 • Aspiring Administrators' Perceptions

• What themes or patterns do you perceive in the drawings? • Why do you think these patterns occur? • What do you think might be done differently in your school as a

result of what you see in the drawings?

Interview data were transcribed for emerging patterns. The reason for focusing on themes in sets of drawings rather than on elaborating the meaning behind individual drawings lies in (1) the absent opportunity to speak directly with each artist, and (2) an attempt to avoid unclear, doubtful, or incorrect interpretation or meaning. In this way, the data not only have the potential to unveil assumptions, they provide a trian­gulated lens from which investigator, aspiring administrator, and practk .. ing administrator can draw inferences about leadership practice and the ways in which it can be improved.

Emergent data analysis of students' drawings took place on three levels: (a) a Features-Checklist, (b) an Interpretive Checklist, and (c) a final Themes Matrix. Transcribed interview data of practicing principals' interpretations of the draWings were examined for links to characteristics or themes present in aspiring administrators' drawings. A final matrix was created showing the intersection of practicing principals' percep .. tions and characteristics/themes present in the drawings.

Findings A number of themes emerged in this study, generated by characteristics displayed in aspiring administrators' drawings, practicing principals' per­ceptions and interpretations of the drawings, and practicing principals' reflections on current practice. The level of detail and accuracy with which teachers drew their schools and principal actions was impressive to investigators. Detail could be seen in the ways in which aspiring ad­ministrators portrayed placement of papers, computers and office equip­ment, school floor plans, and people. The following are theme-embed­ded examples -taken directly from our data sets:

Presence of technology Technology was present in approximately twenty five percent of the drawings rendered. They varied in terms of where the computer was 10" cated; whether or not the computer was powered onj and how the school principal was interacting with it. As evident in the following draWing, a principal is reading her "Faculty Meetingll schedule, just one of the ways in which the principal is interacting with technology. (see figure 1)

Bessette, Redish, Webb • 9

Figure 1

The presence of technology was addressed by one practicing principal (seven1year veteran) who viewed the drawings. He remarked:

I think thaes interesting how many of them [drawings] depict computers at their desk, because it's different from maybe 15 years ago--in fact, even 5 years ago, you wouldn't have seen a computer in this drawing .. .I see the principals itting at a COffil

pu ter-Joes that mean principal spends a lot of time doing that? (Transcribed Interview, 4 .. 05 .. 05).

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Figure 2

This principal further noted a "prevalence of the principal in his office," in particular. "working on the computer a lot" (Transcribed Interview,

10 • Aspiring Administrators' Perceptions

4-05-05), suggesting that the principal was probably spending an in­ordinate amount of time at the computer (see figure 2). His comments may also suggest that the time spent on the computer is not entirely voluntary-that the principal is often "trapped" into communication via e .. mail with faculty or other stakeholders in the nonnal routine of the school day (see figure 3). This principal may also have been reflecting on his own computer use, the time he spends at the computer or pos­sibly how his computer savvy or productivity stacks up against his fellow principals.

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I FiguTe 3

Pe-rsonal vs. Professional Use A number of drawings depicted the principal using his/her computer in a professional way (e.g., viewing faculty schedules, responding to faculty via e .. mail); several, however, depicted the principal using technology for personal reasons, purposes or enjoyment. In one drawing, for example, the principal is depicted shopping on-line at a popular on .. line retailer clearly depicted on the screen (see figure 4).

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Figure 4

Bessette, Redish, Webb • 11

In anomer drawing, not only has the candidate .drawn the principal checking e~mail, but has labeled it as such for the reader. It is not clear whether the principal is viewing profe~ionai or personal e-mail. (see figure 5). "

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Figure 5

In yet another drawing, the principal is shown coming to the aid of a faculty member who needs technology assistance. What is unclear is whether the teacher in the drawing needs hardware or software assis~ tanee. The principal, however, is there to "fix" the teacher's computer (see figure 6).

Figure 6

This last drawing is significant as it suggests the key role of the school principal as technology "expert." In other words, the principal has been depicted in the siruation as the "g'o,to" person for computer repair or' technical support, depending upon one's interpretation.

12 • Aspiring Administrators' Perceptions

Absence of technology The absence of technology, either in the form of desktop or laptop computers in the viciriity of the principal's office, was staggering. Nearly three .. fourths (.74) of aspiring administrators failed to depict a computer as part of the principal's workday in the 121 drawings analyzed. Of the one .. fourth who did, the computer was represented clearly as being "on" in 76% of the drawings, with less than half of the principals shown actu ... ally working on the computer (see figure 7) .

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Discussion Overall, the iindings suggest a lack of technology use and/or integra .. tion by the school principal. Possible reasons include: 1) principals do not use technology; 2) technology is not viewed prominently b) the aspiring administrator as compared to other leadership responsibilities; 3 ) technology has been accurately depicted by the aspiring administrators and principals seldom use technology in their daily work; 4) leadership preparation pr~ may not be emphasuing technology leadership; 5) technology leadership role is delegated (or "relegated" depending upon value system) to another or other persons (e.g., "tech" specialist, instructional lead teacher, media specialist, assistant principal, "district level technology coordinator)i 6) the practicing school principal has not taken ownership of the technology leadership responsibilities in the building, or; 7) the sch.oollacb resources and computer technology is scarce.

Of the technology depicted in the drawings, most computers were drawn fairly primitively, lacking discemable screen images. This may be due in part to (a) some candidates' reluctance or inability to draw; (b) lack of

Webb. 13

knowledge of software applications actually ~d by or available to school principal, or; (c) disinterest on the pari: of the artist.

Leadership candidates depicted their current principals interacting with technology the following ways: {a} checking (b) keyboarding; (c) writing or reviewing a "faculty meeting schedule;" (d) on .. line shopping, or; (e) repairing a teacher's computer. These interac .. tions suggest that principals engage in a variety of different ways with technology. .

Auxiliary emerging from candidates' drawings include: showing the principal acting a professional way (communicating with faculty via e .. mail); engaged in a variety of tasks, from cafeteria supervision to paperwork, to talking with teachers, students and parents, and even sprinting into action during stressful events (e.g., principal running down a hall with a radio in his hand and a balloon caption: "Mr ....... , there's a fight science hall. lI

)

Most signmcandy, drawings showed principals actively working irn .. prove teaching/learning. Slogans, banners, signs and quotes were often preSent including: "Learning is our #1 priority;" "School Goal: Student Achievement," and; "Let's dance" under a sign IICelebmte Achieving our Goal."

Whtle a minority of drawings depicted isolation, nearly one .. third of the candidates saw their school principals working alone, with the most frequent depiction solitary work showing the principal at a computer.

interesting to note that second most frequent depiction had the principal doing paperwork, and the third most frequent depiction showed the principal talking on the telephone.

Limitations WhUe there is much support the literature for data generated by and within Arts"based educational research (ABER), the methodology is not without its critics. If qualitative research "messy," ABER has the potential to further blur the lines of concrete meaning. We .. therefore, acknowledge that interpretations can vary and that drawings are only one tool to be used in exploring the relationship between leadership and technology. Despite this, ABER provides a visceral glimpse into a part of human functioning that other qualitative methods do not.

14 .. Aspi"ring Administrators' Perc~ptions

Another limitation relates to the scope of the present study. Future re .. search conducted on a greater number of candidates from a wider range of school districts would provide a broader data base from which mean .. ings could be extrapolated.

Implications and future Directions Based on the findings, a number of future directions for research, prac .. tice, program improvement, and development appear warranted.

Research Questions posed by furure studies could be designed to include inquiry specifically relating to technology use (e.g., «<Draw your principal while s/he is engaged in technology integration"). Research could be augment* ed by surveys, questionnaires and/or opinionaires, and could include participant reflections and journal entries.

Practice Principals could use the findings to gauge their own technology use and that of their faculty. This has the potential of increasing technology use and integration among school leaders and faculty. As the research rug· gests, school leaders who model the intentional use of technology during the work day send an important message to faculty.

Program Improvement and Development Educational leadership programs need to emphasize the role of the principal as technology leader by cultivating the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of aspiring administrators to effectively establish and imple ... ment technology programs in today's schools. Todey's school adminis­trators face technology requirements under standards set by National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators (ISTE NETS-A. 2001). A focus on in-service is not enough; we need the proactive unifi­cation of programs in education leadership dedicated to cultivating the technology potential of preservice candidates before they assume their roles as school leaders and guarantee their personal dedication to its ben ... ent to their own productivity.

Bessette. Redish, Webb .. 15

References Barone, T. &. Eisner, E. (1997). Am"based educational research. In R. M.

Jaeger (Ed.), Complementary Methods for Research in Education, Third Edition (pp. 75 .. 116). Washington, OC: American Educational Research Association.

Blumberg, A. &. Greenfield, W. D. (1980). The effective principal: Perspectives on sdwolleadership, Boston: Allyn &. Bacon.

Greenberg, R. A. &. Baron, J. (2000). Behavior in organi~,(7th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Fullan, M. (2002). The change leader. Educational Leadership, 50,8, 16 .. 20.

Haney, W., Russell, M. &. SebeH, D. (2003). Drawing on education: Using drawings to study and charige education and schooling. Harvard Edu.a:v tional &ww. 2: 12. 1 .. 50. .

International Society for Technology in Education National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators (ISTE NETS-A) (2001). Retrieved August 1, 2005 from http://cnets.iste.org/administtatoci/ a_stands.html

U.S. Department of Education. (2002). No Child Left Behind Act of200l. Retrieved July 27,2005, from www.ed.gov/legislation./ESEA02/.

The National Center for Education Statistics (2000) National Center for Educational Statistics. (2000). Stats in brief: Teacher use of computers and the Internet in public schools. Washington, DC: Author. Available online (June 30, 2005) at http!/lnces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000090.pdf

Tovey. R. (1996, November/December). Getting kids into the picture: Student drawings help teachers see themselves more clearly. Harvard Educational utter, 5 .. 6.

Author Note Harriet Bessette and Linda Webb, Department of Educational Leadership, Kennesaw State University

Traci Redish, Educational Technology Training Center, Kennesaw State University

Correspondence concerning this artide should be addressed to Harriet Bessette Department of Educational Leadership Kennesaw State University Kennesaw, Georgia 30144 <

E·mail: hbessett@kennesaw.edu

Validation of a Teacher Efficacy Scale a Predictive In .. strument for Alternative Preparation Teacher Retention

Maryellen S .. Cosgrove, Patricia Ann Norris .. Parsons, and Patricia Byers Brignati

Armstrong Atlantic University, Savannah GA

This article presents an ooenAew of the development validation of Annstrong Atlantic State Uniuersit) (AASU) Efficacy Sco.le and the s'Uhse ... quent retention rate of the Georgia Teacher Alternative Preparation Program (GTAPP) candidates. A vanet) of tla1id irutrumen.ts were examined and modified. and the draft AASU Scale was pilot tested for the 200 1.-2002 academ.ic 'jellr. FoUow..-up observations and interviews of subjects determined that minor revisions were needed. final version based on reten~ tUm data coUected since 2001 wiU verify that the Efficacy Scale is one predictor of alternative preparation teacher retention .

... ••• • II

Statement of the Problem ""'::Irn.,.1I" shortages across country in

of Education and State Legislatures' endorsement of non ... traditional methods to attract, prepare, and retain new to meet increas-ing demand (Bradshaw Hawk, 1996; Darling .. Hammond, Chung & Frelow, 2002; Guyton, & Bullard, 1993). Demographic shifts, including immigration, high birth rates, and large scale

diminished of the teaching profession have combined to _ .. _ .......... a shortfall of proportions Rainer & 1993; Hussar, 1999; Young, 1992). Furthermore, increasing migration and high birth rate are combining to increase number of in the nation's schools. In many parts of this country, especially urban and

.................... rural areas, the teacher shortage is acute (Neuman, 1994). With .. .... ...,........ new teachers to current student need,

coupled by the continued retirements large of early "baby boom" teachers, this problem will continue to plague nation

the future.

It has been reported that the nation will need" to hire 2.5 million public school teachers over the next ten years '(Hussar, 1999). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Projections teachers win need to be replaced at an approximate rate of 4001000 per year. While enrollment in the nadon's schools continues to grow, number college gradu .. ates with a major in education has declined (Snyder, 1999). Institutions of higher learning are challenged to seek the best way provide teacher education while attracting and retaining more qu~ified tea,cnc;:r

One possible solution to this crisis may be to offer alternative routes to teacher certification. Since the brst state .. sponsored alternative certifica .. tion in the early 19808, there has been tremendous growth of programs as compared to traditiona.l university .. based teacher education programs which are typically comprised of a of courses and a student teach .. ing experience leading to a B.S. degree in education (Feistritzer & Chester, 2000j Flores, Desjean .. Perrotta & Steinmetz, 2004; Zeichner & Schulte, 2001). Over the last twenty years, the issue of alternative teacher certification programs has been a controversial confusing topic in the discourse of quality teacher preparation. In 1983 only eight states allowed alternative routes to teacher preparation but by 1999, more than 40 states permitted one or more of the alternative certitica .. tion models in addition to the university baccalaureate programs (Sny .. der, 1999), Interest and participation in alternative certification pro ..

continue to grow.

With the CUllent shortage of teachers additional states are trying inno .. vative ways fill empty classrooms with good teachers. In April 2001 the Professional Standards Commission endorsed an internally developed alternative route to certification - the Georgia Teacher Al .. ternative Preparation (GTAPP). This program requires three graduate education courses during the summer with ongoing coursework over the next two to years leading to a Masters in Education De .. gree. Armstrong Atlantic State University (AASU) College of Educa .. tion and the Savannah Chatham County Public School District jointly initiated this model during the summer of 2001, resulting in the hiring of 80 new teachers in Chatham County the following school year. How .. ever, initially there was speculation if the alternatively prepared teach .. ers would positively impact their students' learning as well as concerns about the retention of these new teachers.

Quality teachers has always been far more important than other variables such as class sue, books, and technology. Sanders and Hom (1994) and Sanders (2001) indicated that students who were classes that were taught by under qualified for several years a row, demonstrated significantly lower achievement than similar students who were taught by effective teachers. According to Stoddart (1993), most traditionally prepared teachers have a cultural deficit perspective on student achievement. and that their and minority students lack emiching life experiences, making it difficult for them to function as autonomous learners or understand higher order concepts. In contrast, the alternatively certified novice teachers may have higher expectations for low income and minority students attempt to develop CUlTiculum and instructional practices responsive to the needs of diverse learners. These divergent expectations relate directly to the concept "efficacy" and its relationship to teacher performance.

There is a strong belief that teacher efficacy, defined as the belief that the teacher is a positive influence on student learning and students are not limited by circumstances outside the control of the school, a required characteristic for a truly effective teacher (Ashton & Webb, 1986). Consequently, many university teacher education programs ques-tion pre-service in alternative teacher preparation programs

the same sense of efficacy as that of pre-service teachers tra .. dirional teacher preparation programs (DarLmg .. Hammond, Chung & Frelow, 2002; Noms .. Parsons, 2003). Because teacher efficacy has been found to playa pivotal role in the learning environment, efficacy must be evaluated in both the alternative as wen as the traditional teacher preparation programs.

The impetus for the development of the AASU Efficacy Scale is rooted in research consistently validates that teacher quality and efficacy playa pivotal role in the learning environment which significantly impacts teacher .. leamer Informal conversations between school system mentors, university supervisors, and instructors indicated a concern about the efficacy of alternative preparation candidates selected for the initial GTAPP program. This was in spite of comprehen­sive recommendations, scrutiny of transcripts, and an intensive inter .. view. Thus, it was determined that a valid efficient efficacy scale was needed to cross validate the admissions requirements.

Review of the literature Teacher efficacy as a construct was first introduced into educational research in two Rand Corporation evaluations of projects of the 1970s funded by Title HI of the Elementary and Secondary Act (Annor, Conroy .. Oseguera, Cox, King, McDonnell, Pascal, Pauly Zellman, 1976; Berman, Mclaughlin, Bass, Pauly & ZeHman,1977). Subsequently, Gibson and Dembo (1984) developed a 30 .. item Likert Scale to assess ef .. ficacy. A factor analysis of the responses of the instrument c;onfirrned the two relevant factors: personal teacher efficacy and general teacher effi .. cacy. Subsequently, Guskey (1998) assessed a new instrument and found that teachers' sense of teacher efficacy may be divided into separate dimensions of responsibility for positive student outcomes and responsi ... bility for outcomes.

]n a subsequent assessment of the measurement of teacher efficacy, Gus .. k.ey (1998) observed that most of the items on the Gibson and Dembo (1984) and Guskey (1998) scales labeled "personal efficacy" used the term "1 can" whereas most of the items labeled "teacher efficacy" use the term "Teachers cannot." fu a consequence Guskey varied the items used by Woolfolk and Hoy's (1990) Teacher Efficacy Scale and Gibson and Dembo's scale (1984) to represent the missing combinations of "I cannoe' and "'Teachers can" to conclude that distinction between the two factors of teacher efficacy (general teacher efficacy and personal teacher efficacy) is "an internal versus external distinction found in measures of casual attribution" (p. 637).

Bandura (1977) also introduced the notion of self .. efficacy over 30 years ago. The operational definition of efficacy used for the purposes of his research was the belief one's ability to perform a particular behavior. Self-efficacy is also defined as " ... beliefs in one's capabilities to. organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attain .. mentsU (Bandura, 1993, p. 3). Bandura further separated efficacy into distinct sub..sections in the instrument he developed to measure teacher efficacy. His sub-sections included instruction efficacy, disciplinary efficacy, efficacy to create a positive-school climate, efficacy to enlist parental involvement, efficacy to influence decision making, efficacy to enlist community involvement, and efficacy to influence school resourc­es. Since teaching is a performance .. based profession, each component of efficacy also have implications for the preparation and retention of teachers (Guyton, Fox & Sisk, 1991).

Anderson, Green, and Loewen (1988) define general teacher efficacy as the belief that teachers in general have the ability to have influence on student learning and are not limited by circumstances outside the control of the school such as home environment! parenting strategies, or neighborhood conditions. They define upersonal teacher efficacy" as a teacher's expectation that "1 II win be able to perform the actions that lead to student learning. Personal teacher efficacy is the confidence that a person has in his or. her own capabilities to skillfully instruct any and aU students and is a belief that "my" teacher .. self will impact student learning because of a sense of Urn y" competence.

Teacher efficacy has been linked to a number of desired performance factors among teachers. Such factors as achievement, motivation, ingenuity, diversity, innovation, and the willingness to work harder for success in the classroom have been attributed to a high degree of self .. efficacy (Anderson, Greene & Loewen, 1998; Flores, Des;ean .. Perrotta & Steinmetz, 2004; Guskey, 199B; Midgley, Fieldlaufer & EccLes, 1989; Norris .. Parsons, 2003; Ross, 1992; Woolfolk Hoy, 1998). Since efficacy is both a personal perception and a condition of object reality, it may be a critical factor in the selection of individuals into teacher education programs, as wen as a subject of training so that teacher candidates can

taught strategies to increase their own efficacy.

There seems to be no doubt that when a teacher believes that he or she can effectively impact the students in the classroom, remar'kable success is achieved (Tschannen .. Moran, Woolfolk & Hoy, 1998), Those who feel they can make a difference in the lives of their students approach their work differently from those who believe that the locus of control over their efforts and their students resides outside themselves. Teachers' perceptions of their efficacy particularly influence their expectations for student learning and the potential value of their instruction, thus this perception becomes a critical dimension of teaching.

In summary, teacher efficacy is a core value to education. It is one's per .. ception of mediating between the strength of the internal and external influences in teaching and learning situations for all students regardless of ethnicity, gender, religion, socioeconomic background, or special needs Oerkins, 2001). Indeed students who have well .. trained and conti .. dent teachers demonstrate higher academic achievement than students with teachers who lack efficacy (Ashton, 1986),

Cosgrove, Norris-Parsons, Brignati • 21

Validation of the AASU Efficacy Scale as a Predictor of Retention fu a result of concerns expressed by principals, mentors, and sppervisors regarding efficacy of the first cohort of GTAPP candidates, we decided to create an efficacy scale as another component of the admission proce .. dure in an effort to ensure teacher retention and, hopefully, improved student leaming. The procedure to design the scale included a thorough review of the literature and examination of existing efficacy instruments with a subsequent pilot during the 2001 .. 2002 academic year. The scale was administered to 55 traditionally prepared student teachers immedi .. ately prior to the student teaching experience. Consequently, their uni .. versity supervisors noted behaviors that indicated a high sense of efficacy as well as the student teachers' written comments in their journals. The . scale was re .. administered at the end of the student teaching experience. Fifty-seven GTAPP candidates also completed the scale immediately prior to their first day of teaching. Two subsequent administrations--at the end of their first semester and at the end of the first year-indicated consLstency in their responses. There was a slight decrease in their scores on the second administration but the difference was not statistically significant. A sample of both the traditionally prepared and alternatively prepared candidates also participated in a focus group session during which time each item was analyzed for clarity. The participants identi .. fied severalltems which were open to a variety of interpretations. An analysis of their written responses also indicated that there was inconsis­tency so these items were rewritten. The revised scale was then admin .. istered during the 2002-2003 academic year to 100 teacher candidates (Norris .. Parsons, 2003) (Appendix A).

The fmal scale consisted of 25 items on a six-point scale, and included three subscales---Personal Efficacy, Home Influence, and Student Place .. ment. Items 1,3,5,9,10-13,15,16 .. 18,21-25 dealt with Personal Effica­cy; Items 2,4, 6, 7, 14, 19 and 20 dealt with Home Influence, and Item 8 dealt with Student Placement. Personal efficacy (I can) and teacher efficacy (I cannot) items were also randomly mixed to help ensure valid .. ity. (Appendix B).

The reliability of the Teacher Efficacy Scale was evaluated through measures of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and inter .. rater reliability. Co-efficient alpha was used. ~ shown in Table I, tests of in .. ternal consistency revealed moderate reliability (.7453) for the Personal ·

Efficacy scale and low reliability for the Home scale (.3069). The full scale .6609 is moderately reliable and was affected by the home scale

Table 1. Reliability Results

Fun Efficacy

Home

25 . 17

7

.6609

.7453

.3069

There was a combined correlation of .84 during all administrations indicating a substantial predictive reliability. comparison of supervi .. sors' evaluations with the efficacy scale also indicated that candidates' responses matched their behaviors resulting in the following break .. down of points - highly successful candidates scored between 125 .. 150; moder­ately successful candidates scored between 1 DO .. 124; candidates who did not complete or 'failed' student teaching/internship scored less than 100. As already noted, the screening process for GT APP candidates included recommendations, transcript analysis, and a rigoroU8 interview but 'something' was missing capture the candidates I efficacy. In year twot

the AASU Efficacy Scale was added to the process. Using the results from this instrument as one of components in ielecting candi .. dates, two outcomes were demonstrated. The first was the decline in the number of candidates accepted into the program as indicated by Tables 2 and The second was the dramatic increase in the retention indi .. cating a more qualified applicant pool (Cosgrove & Bri.gna.ti, 2004).

Table 2. Retention Rate of GTAPP Candidates

Total number of candidates 32 21 23 21

Candidates who did not return to teaching the second year 6 3 2 0

Candidates who did return teaching in the second 26 18 21 21

Percentage of retention 81% 86% 91% 100%

Cosgrove, Norris-Parsons, 8rignati • 23

Table 3. Retention Rate of Middle Grades GTAPP Candidates

CQhQJl GIOU~ 1 , J ~

Total number of candidates 19 18 38 21

Candidates who did not return to teaching in the second year 4- 1 3 0

Candidates who did return to teaching in the second year 15 17 35 2i

Percentage of retention 78% 94% 92% 100%

Recommendations for Further Study Based on the findings and conclusions of the development of the AASU Efficacy Scale, five recommendations for foUow .. up studies are offered. Among these recommendations is the suggestion for additional qualita­tive, rather than quantitative, research because of the greater insight that qualitative research can provide on emotional expressiveness in adults. 1. To support the empirical findings of the present study, it is recom ..

mended that follow .. up studies be conducted with larger and more di .. verse samples. This would also serve to further validate this scale and provide additional and substantial support about teachers' perceptions of efficacy and the relationship to student achievement.

2. A deeper analysis between the personal versus general efficacy needs to be examined in an effort to isolate the most relevant characteris­tics needed for improved teacher retention.

3. In addition to replication within a larger sample and a focus on personal versus general efficacy, it is suggested that preservice teach .. ers' efficacy be examined. Previous studies have shown that general teaching efficacy appears to increase during college coursework. As the realities of teaching set in; however, young teachers' enthusiasm wanes and efficacy declines. The results of fall ow .. up study can help determine how to enhance and maintain efficacy within the teacher education program.

4. It is recommended that the survey be administered after several years of teaching experience to take into consideration other contextual factors such as principal support, number of students and class prepa .. rations, and diversity of students in the class.

5. A correlation between teache,rs' efficacy scores and students' achieve­ment test scores would also be beneficial.

24 .. Validation of a Teacher Scale

I mpli cations A number of studies have indicated that teacher efficacy is a factor that has a high impact on increased student achievement. Students who are well prepared and become confident teachers typically demonstrate high levels of efficacy. According to Sanders (2001) and Gibson and Dembo ( 1984) teachers with higher levels of efficacy typically demonstrate a greater impact on student achievement than who have lower levels of efficacy. OVerall research supports the equivalence in quality and performance outcomes between traditional and alternative pre para ... tion candidates. Hutton and Lutz (1990) determined that alternative certified compared favorably to first teachers on their ability perform in the classroom. Thus with few exceptions, teacher preparation research is consistently favorable toward alternative routes to teacher certification citing innovation, wider pool of enthusiastic motivated educators and the impOrtance of meeting local and state demands.

With the combined challenges of teacher shortages and difficulties retaining teachers, we must reconsider the screening and admissions procedures particularly for the alternatively prepared The high turn .. over of teachers is costly in terms of students' learning as well as 00# ministrators' time and school districts' money. The AASU Efficacy ...... "'-"0 .......

which was piloted by several different groups for two has proven to be a valid and reliable instrument as indicated by the increased reten .. tion rate of the alternatively prepared teachers after it was implemented. Furthennore, this instrument is efficient to administer and score. Cau .. tion must be taken, "though, that the AASU Efficacy Scale is only one important element in the screening process.

References Anderson, R., Green, M. M. & Loewen, P. (1988). Relationships among

teachers' and students' thinldng skills, sense of efficacy, and student achievement. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 34, 148 ..

Armor, D., Conroy..oseguera, P., Cox M .• King. N., McDonnell, L., Pas .. cal, A" PaulYI E. & Zellman, (1976). AMl)sis of the school preferred 'fending programs in seluted LDs Angeles minorit) schools (REPORT NO. R .. 2007 .. lAUSD). Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation. (ERIC Doeu .. ment Reproduction Service No. 130 243)

Ashton, P.T. & Webb, R.B. (1986), Making a difference: Teachers sense of ef .. ficac::; and student achievement. New York: Longman.

Cosgrove, Norris-Parsons, Brignati .. 25

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. P5'Ychological. Reww, 84. 195 .. 215.

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived seIf .. efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117 .. 148.

Berman, Mclaughlin, M., Bass, G., Pauly, E. & ZeUman, (1977). Federal programs supporting educational cMnge. VoL VII. Factors af" fecting implementation and continuation (Report No. R .. 1589/7 .. HEW). Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation (ERIC Document Repro .. ducrlon Service No. 140 432)

Bradshaw, L. & Hawk, (1996), TeacheT certification: Does it reall) nwke a difference in stuclent achieuement? Greenville, NC: ENCCARE (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 281853)

Cosgrove. M. & Brignari, (2004, October 16). An prepara .. tion interview protocol to ensure learning for aU. Paper presented at the 5 Annual Conference Southeastern Regional Association of Teacher Educators. Orlando, FL.

Darling .. Hammond. L., Chung, R. Frelow, R (2002). Variation in teacher preparation: How wen do different pathways prepare teachers to teach? Jou:mnl afTeacher Education, 53(4),286 .. 302.

Feistrltzer, E.E. & Chester, D.T. (2000). Alternative certification: A state by state analysis. Washington DC: National Center of Education Information.

Flores, B. Desjean .. Perrotta, B. &. Steinmetz, L. E. (2004). Teacher ficacy: A comparative study of university certified and alternatively certified teachers. Action in Teacher Education, 26(2) t 37-46.

Georgia Professional Standards Commission, (2001 1 April). www.gapsc.com

Gibson, S. & Dembo, M. ( 1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Joumol of Educationa1. Ps-ycholDgy, 76(4),569 .. 582.

Gwkey, K. (1998). Teacher efficac:J measuTe:ment and change. Paper pre .. sented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Diego, CA.

Guyton, Fox, M. C. Sisk, K. A. (1991). Comparison of teaching at .. titudes, teacher efficacy and teacher performance first year teachers prepared by alternative traditional preparation programs. Action in Teacher Education, 13(2), 1 .. 9.

GuyranJ E., Rainer, J. & Bullard,!. (1993). An alternative preparation program in early chi.ldhood education: Description and comparison of alternative and traditional students. Teacher Education and Practice, 9(1). 21-29.

Hussar, G. (1999). The U.s. OOE:Center for Education Statistics. Washington, U.S. Gov. Printing Office.

26 .. Validation of a Teacher Efficacy Scale

Hutton, J.B. & Lutz, R (1990). Otaracreristics, attitudes, and performance of alternative certification intems. Education Research Quarterly J 14( 1 ), 34-38.

Jerkins, G.L., (2001). The implicatioru of a field .. based teacher prepara­tion program on the teacher efficacy of a pre .. servic.e educator; Bell and Howell Infonnadon Learning Co., UMI Dissertation Services, (UMI No. 3004076)

Midgley, C., FieLdlaufer, H. & Eccles, J. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self .. and task .. related beliefs in mathematics during t.ra.rui .. tion to junior high school. Jou:rnlJl ofEdw::at:Wnal P!'ycholng'J, 81,247 .. 258.

Neuman, R. A" (1994). Recoruidering emergency teaching cenmcations and alternative certification programs as resporues to teacher shortages. Urban Eduauion. 29(1),89 .. 108.

Nortis .. Parsoru, P. (2003). A comparison in teacher effictJCJ between tradition~ ally prepared and alternatiuel) prepared pres .. senrice teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of Sarasota, FL

Ross, J.A. (1992). Teacher qualifications. Georgett::lU1nJoumal on PO\lerry Law & Policy, 8(2),523 .. 526.

Sanders, W. L & Hom. S. P. (1994). The Tennessee value .. added assessment system (1VAAS): Mixed .. model methodology in educational assess.­ment. Journal of Personnel Ewduation in Education, 8, 299 .. 31l.

Sanders, W. (2001, March 2). Measurement and analysis to facilitate aca .. demic growth of student populations. Paper presented at the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education Annual Conference, Dallas, TX. Stoddart, (1993). Who is prepared to teach in urban schools. Education and. Urban Societ), 26( 1), 29-48.

Snyder,1:D. (1999) .. Digest of Educational Statistics (NCES 1999r(36). US Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

Stoddart, T. (1993). Who is prepared to teach in urban schools. Education and. Urban Societ), ~6( 1), 29-48.

·Tschannen .. Moran, M., Woolfolk, A. & HOYI W.K. (1998), Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research. 68, 202 .. 248.

Woolfolk, & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers' sense of efficacy and belief about control. Journal of Educational Ps,chology, 82,81 .. 91.

Young, B. L. (1992). Regular" and altematiuel) credentialed beginning teachers: Comparison and contrast of their deuelopment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research'Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED353290)

Zeichner, K.M. & Schulte. A.K. (2001). What we know and don't know from peer ... reviewed research about alternative teacher certification programs. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(4), 266 .. 282.

Cosgrove. Norris-Parsons, Brignati • 27

Author Note Maryellen S. Cosgrove, Department of Early Childhood Education, Armstrong Atlantic State University

Patricia Norris .. Parsons, Department of Early Childhood Education, Armstrong Atlantic State University

Patricia Brignati, Department of Middle Grades, Secondaryl and Adult Education, Armstrong Atlantic State University

We thank the Armstrong Atlantic State University Research and Scholarship Foundation for funding the initial development of the Efficacy Scale. .

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Maryellen Cosgrove, Early Childhood Education Department Armstrong Atlantic State University 11935 Ahercom Street Savannah, Georgia 31419 .. 1997 E .. mail: cosgroma@mail.armstrong.edu

28 • Validation of a Teacher Efficacy Scale

Appendix A

Teacher Efficacy Scale Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below by circling the appropriate numeral to the right of each statement.

KEY: 1 IE Strongly Agree 2 s:: Moderatdy Agree 3 IE Agree slightly ~ore than disagree 4 = Disagree slightly more than agree 5 = Moderately Disagree 6 = Strongly Disagree

1. A student shows improvement academically 1 2 3 4 5 6 because I exerted more effort to teach him/her.

2. The time spent in school has less influence on 1 2 3 4 5 6 students than the time they spend at home.

3. When parents mention that their children are 1 2 3 4 5 6 better behaved in school than at home, it may be due to my classroom mangagement techniques.

4. How much students learn is directly related to their 1 2 3 4 5 6 family background.

5. With adequate skills, teachers can motivate even 1 2 3 -4 5 6 the most difficult students.

6. Students will not accept any discipline if they are 1 2 3 4 5 6 not disciplined at home.

7. Many teachers fail to. help students because of a 1 2 3 4 5 6 lack of community support.

B. Some students must be placed in 'slaw' grcups so 1 2 3 4 5 6 they are nct subjected to unrealistic expectations.

9. Differences among teachm' abilities account for 1 2 3 4 5 6 variations in students' learning.

10. If a student has problems learning a concept, 1 2 3 4 5 6 I adjust my teaching to meet his/her needs.

Cosgrove, Norris .. Parsons, Brignati • 29

11. If a student does not remain on task, there is little 1 2 3 4 5 6 that I can do to improve his/her attention.

12. When a student does better than usual, it is 1 2 3 4 5 6 because I found a better way [0 teach him/her.

13. When I really try to motivate students, I usually 1 2 3 4 5 6 reach even the most difficult students.

14. Since students' home environments are a strong 1 2 3 4 5 6 influence, there is very little teachers can do to influence achievement.

15. With all variables considered, teachers are not 1 2 3 4 5 6 powerful i.n1luences on students. .

16. If the class is particularly disruptive, [ usually 1 2 3 4 5 6 reflect on what I could have done differently.

1 7. When the class grades improve, it is usually 1 2 3 4 5 6 because I found a more effective way to teach.

18. When students master new concepts quickly, 1 2 3 4 5 6 it is because I knew how to teach it.

19. Parent conferences he Ip teachers determine if 1 2 3 4 5 6 the parents value education.

20. When parents help their children, I can 1 2 3 4 5 6 accomplish more in teaching them.

21. If a student forgets what he/she has learned 1 2 3 4 5 6 in a previous lesson, I know how to improve his/her retention in the next lesson.

22. When a student is disruptive, I know 1 2 3 4 5 6 how to quickly redirect him/her.

23. Negative home influences can be overcome by 1 2 3 4 5 6 effective teachers.

24. When a student can't do an assignment, I can 1 2 3 4 5 6 assess if it was at the student's ability.

25. Even effective teachers cannot reach all 1 2 3 4 5 6 students

30 • Validation of a Teacher Effica~ Scale

Data for Research Please check the appropriate box.

Sex o Male Race o White o Female o Black

o Asian Age o 21~29 o Native American

[]30~39 o Other (name) D40~49 050+

o I live in a rural area o I live in an urban area o I am a GaTAPP Candidate

Scoring Guide

Positive Items 1,3,5,9,10,12,13.16 17,18,19.21,22,23,24

Negative Items 2,4,6, 7,8. 11, 14 15,20,25

Predictive Scores Highly~Successful

Moderately Successful Unsuccessful

Appendix B

~ 1

2 3 4 5 6

Ka 1

2 3 4 5 6

125~150 points 100 .. 124 points

WeiKhted V@luc 6

5 4 3 2 1

Wei~tcd Value 1

2 3 4 5 6

less than 100 points

Assessment: Building On Prior Knowledge and Personal Experiences

Julie Rainer Dangel Georgia State University

We can all learn. from OUT assessment experiences whether they are positive or negative. As 21 teachers talked about memorable assessment experiences, 1 recorded their descriptions of experiences, questions and suggestions for ef· fective assessment. Together the group generated over 100 statements about the natuTe of effective assessment; some are related to assessment practices and others related to the assessor or the person being assessed. In an analysis of the teachers' memories and suggestions for improving assessment, I looked for themes in their writing and conversation that could inform our work. Prom their experiences, 32 key ideas characterite their thoughts and feelings about assessment practices. Three themes emerged: (a) assessment should be about !earning and changing, (b) assessment does not have to be stressful, and (c) perfection is not the same as excellence.

•• liii( • lE£ I.

It was a sunny day ... a day like no other. I sat down in a wooden chair, pencils sharpened and codes in hand. The room was sweltering, not due to anything but the anxiety level in the air. There was no noise; no one spoke. The room was filled only with impatience and a desire to succeed. Out carne the booklets and the timer was set. "You may begin. II

The above reflection is one kindergarten teacher's recollection of a memorable experience about assessment. What can we learn by tapping into our personal experiences and p·Tior understandings? How does this experience (and others like it) reflect what we know about authentic and respectful assessment and our assessment practices in university and pre .. school to fifth grade (Po'5) classrooms?

Darling .. Hammond, Ancess and Falk (1995) define authentic assessment as representative of performance in context. It evaluates essentials

32 III Assessment

agai.nst articulated standards, and includes self-assessment and public work. Wiggins (1993) offers principles of assessment for improving learning proposes that assessment should be respectful. According to Wiggins, it respectfuL to (a) be open with people about your intent

your methods; (b) give people timely, accurate and helpful feedback; (c) allow people to explain themselves when we do not understand their answers; and (d) give people amp]e opportunity practice, refute and master a task. Beyond these defuUtions, the literature on assessment rich with research and practical ideas about the role of assessment a culture of learning (Darling .. Hammond & Snyder, 2000; Delandshere, 2002; Shepard, 2004). Two key ideas that infonn this paper are that assessment and i.nstruction should be purposefully integrated (Marlowe and Page, 1998), and that existing knowledge st::rl:1ctures beliefs can enable or impede new learning (Shepard), These two ideas provide the basis for an assessment course and teacher assessment in an Educational Specialist Program early childhood education. I win return the practi .. cal ideas found in the literature in the discussion section of this article.

I in a graduate program guided by constructivist principles with a strong premise on building and extending prior knowledge within a learning community. Assessment in our graduate program is based on constructivist principles that that "create knowledge the interaction their existing knowledge or beliefs and the new ideas or situations they encounter' (Airasian & Walsh, 1997, p.445). As a precursor discussing assessment practices in graduate program, I ask 21 educators (P .. 5) to reflect on a memorable assessment experience, one that informed thinking. It should noted of educators is an experienced teacher who met rigorous assessments to be admitted to the graduate program (e.g., ORE, interview, writing sample), so all of them have been successful in situations that call for traditional educational assessments.

These teachers wrote briefly about their experiences, shared them with group, and made suggestions that learned from that experience

(I collected them and passed them out again so each shared another person's experience). The conversation that ensued was one of the most informative and emotion .. laden discussions in which I participated as an educator. My intention was to use personal experienc .. es of students to elicit prior understandings and inform our discussion on assessment; the result went beyond the academic nature of assessment to include a shared experience that contributed to the learning community we developed.

Julie Rainer Dangel ,. 33

In the conversation among the 21 educators who shared their personal experiences and feelings about assessment process, they recalled comprehensive eXaDlB {yom graduate school, Western Civilization courses, the President's Physical Fitness Test, the Graduate Record ....... "',,....,. (ORE), interviewing for jobs, Algebra II, PRAXIS, the National Teacher Exam (NTE), and even a combat setting (one of the teachers had a miH-

background). While a few experiences (four) were positive, adjec­tives such as "apprehensive, unsure, stressful, humiliating, frustrating, aggravating, competitive, sterile, heartbreaking, anxietY provoking' described the majority of the assessment experiences. Negative feelings were provoked by timed tests, results of assessment made public, high stakes, memorizing facts, missing a grade, an honor, or an opportunity by one point, and instructors themselves. These recognized that even today sttong emotions were evoked by blue books and Colonel Blackman Algebra H. They acknowledged that assessments shook their confidence, caused them to be frustrated with themselves, dis* couraged them from taking future courses (with. math a particular theme). While as students they may have passed many evaluations, they described negative and disappointing elements of the assessment process. The following comments taken from their written thoughts some of the ideas and questions raised these educators. One teacher wrote, "Throughout academic career, I've probably received a thousand grades or so it seems. Almost one hundred percent of these have been subjective in nature!' Another teacher said j "Why did I get a on that ECON 101 paper? What did it meanr I would have greatly benented from having a rubric or some other form of feedback to become a better student." A third teacher lamented. "My life been trying determine what the teacher wants:'

What Can We learn from our Experiences with Assessment Practices' We can allieam from our assessment experiences whether they are positive or negative. As these teachers talked, I recorded their descrip" tions of experiences, questions and suggestions for effective assessment. Together the group generated over 100 statements about the nature of

assessment, some related assessment practices and others related to the assessor or the person being assessed. In an analysis of the teachers' memories and suggestions for improving assessment, I looked for themes in their writing and conversation that could inform our

together. From their experiences, 32 ideas characterized their thoughts and feelings about assesSment practices. Using an inductive

34 It Assessment

approach, I coded and categorized the key ideas three themes emerged: (a) should be about learning and changing. (b) as .. sessment does not have to be stressful, and (c) perfection is not the same as excellence. key for planning assessment experiences aTe listed below to define the themes.

Assessment is about learning and Changing. Standardi2ed do not define/describe how we have grown as

learners. You want a chance to do something authentic/performance.

based rather than spitting back infonnation. 'Knowing infonnation does not mean you understand. Second chances are important to learning and growing. You have to get up and try again.

Assessment does not have to be stressful. Not knowing evaluator makes assessment more difficult. You need guidance and encouragement in the assessment pro-

cess. Tlffie limits add pressure to assessment. There is such an emotional component to assessment; it can

sterUe and impersonal or personal and inviting. Assessment can bring energy to learning if done properly. Fear shuts down your mind. It helps to be comfortable with your peers.

Perfection is not the same as excellence. There is a fine line between competition and public humiliation. Competition is created by traditional assessment practices. Assessment should take into account individual needs. Getting 98 out of 100 can be heartbreaking. I missed by two seconds; pn never forget how disappointed I was. If you try to give what the teacher Wants, then whose goal

being met?

The teachers also had suggestions for assessors and persons being assessed: Suggestion for persons being assessed: Learners should share their needs with instructors. Ask yourself, "What could I have done differently?" Keep a good attitude. It matters. Do your best.

Take time organize process what you learn. Receiving feedback beneficia1i

Suggestions assessors: Assessors to listen to student consider all

and evidence. Be about the purpose of assessment. Content should more important than spelling/grammar. The assessment should match the outcome the instruction. A rubric and/or giving and detailed feedback are beneficial.

The also raised important questions that we can consider as educators, for example, "How did memorizing the answers to questions show that I would be a good teacher?" Another teacher asked, UWhat makes a 3 hour an appropriate measure my growth learning?" and 4'How can one test play such a large role passing or failing gradu .. ate schoolr Another teacher asked questions that to the ...... .,., .. ,,1"\ .......

al assessment: "Why do I get grades but freeze completely when I take tests like the ORE? Why do I feel heartbroken when I receive 98 of 100 on a Almost all teachers questioned why assessment seemed to be a documentation of passing or failing rather than a demonstration knowledge gained?

A fLnal anecdote provides an example of the power of using prior under-standings and personal not only to analyze assessment but also to create shared understandings that enhance a learning commu-nity. (pseudonym used) shared, "When I was in seventh grade our physical education teacher had us complete a physical fitness test that was part of the national movement. child was to a special patch sew on school jacket they passed. I wanted that patch so badly! I passed test the 50 yard dash. I missed the set for aU by 'two bloody seconds'. I will never forget how disappointed I was and I still want that patch." A couple of weeks later, as we began with sharing our thoughts, J essie presented to Leslie a "Presidents' Fitness" patch and certificate of her very own. Leslie's disap .. pointment and Jessie's empathy became a learning experience that of us will carry our work as

Discussion Even with proliferation of recommendations on leamer~centered

the of shifti~g to a new conceptualization of

36 • Assessment

assessment is difficult. It involves examining practice, taking risks, trying new approaches, and trusting the teachers with whom we work. Several authors offer suggestions for developing a new perspective on assessment. Greeno, CoLLins, and Resnick (1996) and Delandshere (2002) suggest that assessment practices should be based on the cognitive perspectives that inform practice. For example, teaching and learning from a con# structivist view should involve participants in the assessment process and assess learning through participation in inquiry and social practices of learning. Greeno, Collins, and Resnick also suggest the I'development and support of commtmities of practice in assessment" (p.39). Marlowe and Page (1998) suggest that in constructivist teaching, teachers help students establish criteria for learning and quality work, devise their own plans, .and monitor themselves and their own progress. They state,

Assessment is not separate from instruction, assessment is a con# tinucus process that drives instruction and is embedded within it. Assessment does not bring an end to learning; it provides information about how to continue with respect to learning and curriculum requirements" (p. 61).

The democratic assessment paradigm of Lieber, Mikel & Pervil (1994) provides a philosophical base for rethinking assessment and the prin .. ciples of constructivist assessment proposed by Daniels and Bizar (1998) provide guidelines for practice. Huba and Freed (2000) identify is# sues in rethinking assessment and conclude that "making a paradigm shift means becoming a leamer, asking better questions, and opening ourselves to new opportunities" (p. 272). For those interested in assess# ment strategies, Angelo & Cross (1993) provide a useful compilation of techniques for assessing course related knowledge and skills, including strategies for assessing prior knowledge, recall, understanding, critical thinking and problem solving, creative thinking and application and performance.

This literature has a lot to offer us as educators but we need to remem .. her the power of reflecting on and thinking metacognitively about our experience. As educators, we al11mow that practices such as handing out papers from highest to lowest scores to accentuate public.y those who did well and those who did poorly or using a high stakes evaluation to decide if a student passes fifth grade or receives a degree are not defen# sible. From teachers' collective experiences and the literature, we have key ideas for rethinking assessment and questions to ask ourselves (and

Julie Rainer Dangel • 37

policy makers) as we continue our work. These ideas extend our under .. standings but the power of the discussion i~ felt in the emotions evoked by teachers' prior knowledge and experiences with assessment.

Conclusion and Implications The teachers' ideas listed above provide many thoughts to consider as teacher educators think about assessment in their practice. For ex .. ample, teachers can consider the emotional component of assessn:tent, provide guidance and encouragement in the assessment process, and analyze the importance of providing clear and detailed feedback. From my experiences, I also offer three practical strategies or suggestions to other teacher educators. Then I add what happens to teachers because of these strategies. (a) Teachers can share their experiences with assessment and reflect on what they learned from their experiences. This elicits teachers' understandings and beliefs about assessment and provides topics for later discussions. (b) Listen to the content and the emotion in the discussions, and acknowledge the learners' ideas are important. These conversations are rich with ideas. My students and I now have a better understanding of as .. sessments' effects. When I provide time for conversations and recording their thoughts about assessment, learners see a broader picture of assess­ment. This picture goes beyond study guides and quizzes. (c) Build your assessment plans on the teachers' key ideas and encourage teachers to consider this inforrru:uion in their classroom assessment approach. Most teachers in my course had not been asked about their perspectives on assessment nor had they asked the children's perspectives in their classrooms. In build .. ing our assessment plans together, teachers experienced a different (and powerful) approach to the assessment process they could use in their schools. An unintended impact of these three strategies happened. It was seen that teachers in conversations about assessment can improve the learning community. We all became more understanding of and sensitive to other perspectives about the assessment process. We became more willing to support each other about assessment. This may lead to responsive teaching, a collaborative assessment model, and a culture of inquiry.

References Angelo, T. & Cross, P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook

far college teaChers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey .. Bass. Airasian, P. & Walsh, M. (1997). Constructivist cautions. Phi Delta

KAPPAN J 18(6), 444A49.

38 .. Assessment

Daniels, H. & Bizar, M. (1998). Methods that matter. York, MA: Stenhouse Publishers.

Darling .. Hammond, Ancess, J. & Falk, B. (1995). Authentic assessment in action. New York: Teachers College Press.

Darling .. Hammond, L. & Snyder. J. (2000). Authentic assessment of teach~ ing in context. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 523·545.

Delandshere, O. (2002). Asses.sment as inquiry. Teachers College Record, 104(7). 1461 .. 1484.

Greeno, ]., Collins, A. & Resnick, L. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. Berliner and R. Calfee (Ech.), Handbook of Educadoru:U Psychology, (pp. 15..-46), New York. NY: Macmillan.

Huba, M. & Freed,]. (2000). Leamer.-centered assessment on college campuses. Boston, MA: AUyn & Bacon.

Lieber, C., Mikel, E. & Pervil, S. (1994). Radical change in assessment. In J. Novak (Ed.), Democratic Teacher Education, (pp. 229 .. 251).

,Albany. NY: State University of New York Marlowe, B. & Page, M. (1998). CreLJrlng and sustaining the constnlCtiW!

classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Shepard, L. (2004). The role of assessment in a leanUng culture. Educational

Researcher, 29(7), 1 .. 14. Wiggins. O. (1993). Assessing student performance. San Francisco, CA:

J ossey .. Bass.

Author Note J uHe Rain~r Dangel. Depar1;ment of Early Childhood Georgia State University

I would like to acknowledge the teachers in the 2005 Educational Specialist Program who provided their perspectives on assessment.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Julie Rainer Dangel, Department of Early Childhood Georgia State University P.O. Box 3978 Atlanta, Georgia 30302 .. 3978 E~rnail: jdangel@gsu.edu

African American Males Needed in College and as Teachers: A Call for Action

John D. King Clark Atlanta University

There has been a stagnation or decrease from year to year over the past decade in the enroUment of African American men in post .. secondary institutions. African American women in colleges across the country outnumber Afri~ can American men by more than a 2 to 1 ratio. This phenomenon has been discussed, but very limited research has been conducted and few initiatives and programs have been implemented to provide possible solutions to the prob .. lem. One reason gi4Jen for the low enroUment in higher education for African Arn.erican males is the lack of African American male role models in educa .. tum, especially as grade school teachers. It is time 1104.lJ to provide solutions to

address the problem and not simply discuss it.

•• :a::tla I.

For more than a decade, there has been concern about the low percent~ age of African American males attending post~secondary institutions. What particularly alarms African American leaders and higher educa­tion officials is that while African American females are thriving on college campuses, the progress for African American males has either stagnated or decreased from year to year over the last decade. This pat­tern in African American college attendance has occurred despite the fact that African American males are graduating from high school at rates similar to White males and that they are perfonning comparably well to African American females in the classroom and on standardized tests (Roach, 2001).

low African American Male College Enrollment in Georgia The national problem of low enrollment in college for African Arned, can males is also a concern in the state of Georgia. In 1997, 23.5 per .. cent of the African American males who graduated from Georgia high schools went on to college. By 2001,·that percentage had dropped to 20.8. In the fall of 2002 more than 233 1000 students were enrailed in

40 III African American Males Needed in"College

the state's 34 public colleges and universities. There were only 52,000 Africii,n American students enrolled, ai}d of those, 17,068 were African AmeriCan males. African American females outpaced African American males by a more than 2 to 1 ratio (Suggs, 2003).

Recently, there has been much discussion about the reasons for the dis­parity between the attendance of African American males and females in post .. secondary education. In 2001, scholars and administrators gath~ ered for a symposium entitled, "Reconnecting Males to Liberal Educa .. tion: A National Symposium on Higher Education's Shifting Gender Balance" to discuss why African American males are not choosing to pursue college at rates comparable to African American females. Some reasons presented were the high incidence of African American males entering the military, the availability of employment after high school, the high ~evels of incarceration among young African American males I and the lack of familiarity with the college environment (Roach, 2001). A 52 member task force in Georgia, called the "African American Male Initiative" identified several key mctors of why African American men lag behind in the college environment. Peer pressure, lack of parental support, disparities in funding between majority .. white and majority .. Ai", rican American schools, a teaching force under.-represented by African American men, under .. prepared teachers in high minority areas, and low expectations for educational achievement by educators and the commu .. " nity are some of the major factors given in a report by the Georgia Board of Regents (Suggs, 2003). These factors also included low aspirations among males who have few male role models and whose parents may not have attended college.

Retention of African American Males While the task of recruiting African American men to college has grown increasingly complex, higher education officials continue struggling to increase the retention of those students who do enroU in college. Afri .. can American males also experience lower retention rates than females. Statistics compiled by the Georgia Board of Regents' African American Male Initiative shows that the graduation rate" for African American males is 21 percent, compared with 35 percent for African American females, 47 percent for White females, and 42 percent for White males (Simmons, 2003). Research has suggested that African American males in academic trouble are less likely to seek help than African American females. Dr. Cuyjet, an associate professor in educational and counseling psychology at the Univel1lity of Louisville, states that "What happens

John King • 41

is that women are more likely to collaborate. Men haven't learned to be collaborative. Women are more likely to get help from others. Men are conditioned to go it alone" (RQach, 2001, p. 18). Michael Lomax, former president of Dillard University in New Orleans, stated that popular culture is also playing a role in the recruitment and retention of African American men in colleges. "Some of the peop~e young African American men look up to are not sending the message that college is the thing to do" (Roach, 2001, p. 19). This lack of positive African Ameri, can male role models emphasizing higher education is exacerbated by the extremely Jow percentage of African American males as elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers.

The Need for African American Male Teachers Across the country, only nine percent of teachers are men and only two percent of teachers are African American men. Okezie (2003) found the following:

This trend is perhaps more problematic in urban environments, where the challenge of reaching students has become more diffi, cult for teachers who are often cultures and generations removed from their students. In a society where many women are single parents and positive male presence is lacking in the lives of some urban youth, the lack of male teachers is even more profound. (p.43)

Some reasons cited for the lack of African American males in the teach .. ing profession include: (a) the watered down education that minority students receive in elementary and secondary schools, (b) strong com .. petition from non' teaching professions that offer higher salaries and better status to top graduates, (c) the increase in testing requirements in many states, which effectively discourages some African American men from pursuing teaching careers, and (d) the heavy reliance on loans in college financial aid packages. Each of these factors can discourage African American males from pursuing careers as teachers. However, the presence of African American males in our classrooms can be a signifi, cant factor in improving the educational outcomes for minority students, especially African American males, since these teachers can serve as important role models (Okezie, 2003).

In an article titled, "Black Boys Bettling the Biases of American Educa, tion," Alexander (2003) discusses the biases facing African American

males in school. These biaser-fueled largely by media stereotypes pur, that African American boys are more frequently trouble and

education problems. Consequently, African American boys are disci .. plined far more harshly and more often than other students. In addition, they are guided toward remedial or specia1 education classes. Researcher/ author Robert Hill believes in Alexander (2003, para. 5) that

African American male school teachers are needed desperate]y to break the female wall of authority sends African Ameri .. can boys through a gauntlet that begins with school suspensions and culminates with dropouts, and often, prison. The teach .. ers have low expectations for the males because they can't relate to them.

Hill states further that "Black male teachers are the answer. They to see someone who looks like them in front of the classroom." (Alexan .. der, 2003, para. 6) Therefore, more programs are needed to recruit and retain more African American males in higher education in general, and in teaching profesSion specifically.

The Need for Solutions Although, recently a wide range of research been conducted about the social dilemmas of African American males, the efforts toward study· ing African American males are believed to be lagging analysis proposed solutions. We need more research, programs and initiatives to

propose solutions t~ increasing the number of African American males education and the teaching field. Only a few programs are designed

to specifically recruit and retain more African American in the teaching field. The "Griotsn (Okezie, 2003) program at Marygrove College in Detroit and the "Call Me Mister" (Smiles, 2002) program in U'I...II .......... Carolina are examples.

The Marygrove "Oriors" program's goal is train African American males to become teachers in metropolitan Detroit. The students ulate through a six semester program in order to onI y gain teacher certification, but also develop peer leadership and professional growth relationships. The first three classes of "Gnats" have already graduated and now work the K .. 12 urban schools in Detroit (Okezie, 2003). The "Call Me Mistertl program began as a collaboration between Oemson University and historically Black institutions, Clafl.in University, Benedict College and Morris College. all in the state of South Carolina.

mission is to recruit, train, and secure employ-for 200 Black males as elementary in South Carolina's

public schools. The program offers tuition assistance and an academic support system as well as and cultural support systems (Smiles, 2002). The program is well on to completing its mis .. sion. The first class of "Misters" They are teaching in South Carolina's elementary schools. The Marygrove "Odots" and the "CaH Me Mister" programs are two examples of solutions to the lack of African American males in .

Conclusion: A Can to Action low enrollment of males in post .. secondary

institutions and the need for American men as teachers have been well documented. research into the reasons for this phenomenon and initiatives programs to address this limited. Time is up for discussing the problem. It is now take action. The lack of well .. educated African American men models for our school not only affects African but also affects all of society. people contribute positively families, communities,

References Alexander, W. (2003) .......... , ...... boys battling the biases of American .......... ,-4 .... '"

rlon. Retrieved 20, 2004 from www.bet.com/articles/O.c3gb 7128 .. 794 7 ,OO.html

Okezie, C. (2003). American future version]. Black

Roach, R. (2001), Black male research Black Issues in Education, 18, 22-24.

Roac~ R. (2001). Where are the Black men on Black 1 ssu.es in Higher Education I ] 8! 18~ 21.

planning for me Education, 20,43.

[Electronic version].

Simmons, 1<. (2003). Regents adopt ideas to male enrollment. The Journal and Constitution. December 20,2004 from http://aad.english.ucsb.edu/docs/xmay3.html

Smiles, R. V. (2002). Calling all potential [Electronic version]. Black Higher Education. 19,26 .. 28.

E. (2003). Georgia initiative puts on college campuses version}. Crisis (The New) I 110, 10 .. 11.

44 • African American Males Needed in College

Author Note John D. King, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, School of Education, Clark Adanta University

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: John King, School of Education Department of Curriculum and Instruction Clark Atlanta University 223 James P. Brawley Drive Adanta, GeoIgia 30314 E-mail: jkingl@cau.edu