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PlanningMaterialPrinciplesanddesignofwatersupplysystems
1. firstmodernwatersupplyandsanitaryschemeswerestartedin1800.(UK,US)2. Firstwatersupplysystem,inIndiawasforCalcuttain1870.3. Watersupplylayoutcollectionfromsources.
Treatmentplants Sedimentationsuspendedsolidsareremoved. Filtrationcolloidalmater,bacteriaareremoved. Disinfectionremovingbacteria,addingchlorine Distributions.
4. Thequalityofwaterrequireddependsonrateofdemand Designperiod. Populationtobeserved.
5. Percapitademand= Q/P*365,lit[Q=qualityP=population]6. Watersupplyschemesarefor30yrsperiod.7. Factorseffectingrateofdemand.
Climate Costofwater Habitsofpeople Efficiencyofwatersystem Meteringofservices Presenceorabsenceofindustries Qualityofwater Presenceofabsenceofsewagesystem System
8. Waterrequirements (200li)Domesticneedsdrinking,washing,cooking,bathing,flushingoftoilets,gardening,air
conditioning. Commercial,institutionShops,hotel,cinemahouses,schools,offices,hostels. Industrialsmall,largescale. Publicusewashingstreets,flushingofsewers,parks(25li) Firedemand10li/day Loss2030%
9. QualityofwaterforatownDomestic 135LPCDIndustrial 40Publicuse 25Firedemand 15Losses55
TOTAL 27010. Sourcesofwatersurface,groundwater.11. choiceofthesourcedependson,locationofsource,qualityofwateravailable,qualityofwater,costof
entirescheme.(surfacewater)12. Determinationofyielddependson
13. Intensityofrainfall14. Runofffromthegivencatchments.15. Actualgivingofflowinstreams.
13. Q=CMpow(3/4)dickenssformulaQ=CMpow(2/3)ryvesformula
Q=124M/(Msq(2)+10.4)pow(1/2)Q=max,flooddischargeM=catchmentareaC=coefficientofnatureofcatchment
14. Yieldfromwelldependson
i. Qualityofwateravailableinthequalifier.
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ii. Depthofthewell.iii. Porosityofaqualifier.iv. Locationofnearbywells.v.Rateofpumpingwater.vi. Slopeofwatertable.
15. FormulaflowintoagravitywellQ= Pi[k](Hsqhsq)/LogbaseN(R/r) flowintopressurewellQ=2Pi[k](Hsqhsq)/LogbaseN(R/r) Q=rateofflowintowellinmcube/day K=permeabilityconstantinm/day m=depthoftheconfinedaqualifierinm H=depthofwaterinwellbeforepumping H=depthofwaterinwellafterpumping R=radiusofinfluenceinm R=radiusofwellinm
16. Methodsofdistributionfromreservoir Gravitysystemeconomical Pumpingsystem Dualsystem
17. Systemofsupply Continuoussystemadvantageous Intermittentsystemdisadvantageous
18. Waternetworksystemi. Deadendortreesystem
a) Advantagesdischargecanbeeasilycalculated Diameterofthepipesissmaller Fewervaluearerequires.
a) Disadvantagesrepairsmakeinconvenienttopeople Adequatewaterforfirefightingmaynotbeavailable Contaminationmayoccur
ii. GridIronsystema) Advantagesduringrepairs,watercanbesuppliedfromotherpipelines
Incaseoffire,waterisavailableAstherearenodeadends,watercirculatesfreelyLossisminimum
b) DisadvantagesExactcalculationisdifficult longerpeoplesarerequired Morevaluesarerequired
iii. Circularorringsystema) Advantageeverypointreceivesfrom2directions
duringbreakdownwatercanbesuppliedfromotherpipes forfirefightingwaterisavailable Designofpipesisregarded. Largernumberofpipesregardisdisadvantage
iv. Radialsystema) Calculationofpipesizeseasyb) Quickserviceareadvantages
19. Pressurerequireddependsonheightofthehighestbuilding Distanceofthepointfromreservoir Thepressurerequiredforfirehydrants
20. Theresidualpressureatferrulepointsa) Singlestorey7mofwaterb) Double12mc) Three17md) Six22m
21. Themaintaingoodpressureindistribution Servicereservoirshouldbelocatedinacentralplace Shouldbebalanced Boosterpumpswhichmaybeprovidedfordistantlocalities.
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22. Thevalueinflowpipewhichpreventswaterfromreturningintopipeisairvalue.
23. Thevaluethatregulateswaterinanoutflowpipeofanoverheadreservoirisgatevalue.24. thevaluethatrelieveshighpressureinpipelinesandplumbingfixturesinabuildingsafetyvalue25. Thevaluethatprovidedateverydepressionanddeadendsofwaterdistributionsofsystemiscalled
scorevalve.26. Valvewhichallowsapipetoflowinonedirectionisrefluxvalve.27. Dividedusedinthiscaseoffireishydrant.28. Dividedusedformeasuringamountofwaterthroughpipeiswatermater.
Seweragesystems
1. Sewage combination ofdomestic sewage, industrialwaste,stormwater
2. Sullagewaterfromkitchens,baths,sinksfrombuildings,excepthumanoranimalexcreta3. Refusedryrubbishfromstreetandhousesweeping.4. GarbageAlltypesofsemisolidandsolidwastefoodandproductssuchasvegetables,wastemeats.5. SewerPipecarryingsewage6. SewerageSystemofpipeslaidforcarryingsewage.7. Methodsofdisposalofsewageconservancysystem
Carriedoutbybuckets. Sullagesledintonearbystream Organicwasteisburnorburied Watercarriagebyconveyedundergrounddesignedsewers
8. SystemofsewerageSeparatesystemSewage,stormwaterisseparate. Sewagetotreatmentplant Stornwatertonearbywatercourse Combinedsystembothfortreatment Partiallyseparatebothfrombuildingsarecombined Stormwaterfromroadsisseparate.
9. Qualityof stormwaterdependson
Catchmentarea Impermeabilityfactor(runofcoefficient) Intensityofrainfall
10. run off Q in m[cube]/s isQ=CAR/360,Rationalmethod
C=runoffcoefficientA=catchmentareainhacR=intensityofrainfallinmm/hr
11. Emprical formulaQ=CiA/14.158[(S/A)pow(1/4)]
cnstantdependsongroundsurface(0.50.9)=Cmax.rainfallinmm/hr=iareainhac=AS=slopeinm/1000m,lengthofsewer
12. memaths formula Q=CiA/14.835[(S/A)pow(1/5)]
13. fanningsQ=3125Mpow(5/8),M=areainkmsq
14. TalbotsQ=87000Mpow(1/4)15. dicketsQ=14=14cmpow(3/4)16. ryvesQ=15cmpow(2/3)17. Selfcleaningvelocities
Diameterofsewer Selfcleaningvelocity150250mm 1.00m/sc
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300600 0.75Above600 0.6
18. design of sewers Q=A*V,Q=discharge,Vvelocity, A=areaofcrosssection
19. qualityoesewagedependsonareatobeserved
arrangementofsewage typeofsystem
20. population peakfactor
Upto20000 3.520,00050,000 2.5500007,50,000 2.25Above7,50,000 2.0
21. velocityofflowchezysformula,V=Cmi[pow(1/2)],m=hydraulicmeandepthinm22. Bazins formula
C=157.6/[1.81+k/m pow(1/2)],k=constant
23. crimps and burges formulaV=83.45mpow(2/3)Ipow(1/2)
24. mannings formula V=1/n mpow(2/3)ipow(1/2),m=A/P
25. hazan and Williams formulaV=0.85 cm pow(0.63) i pow(10.54)
26. thequalityofliquidwastethatflowsthroughacombinedsewerindryweatherincludingstormwaterinthesewerisdryweatherflow.
27. theminimumvelocityisrequiredtobemaintainedtoavoidsillingiscalledselfcleaningvelocity.28. theweatherthatenterssewerthroughpoorjoints,crackesiscalledinfilteration29. inseparatesystem,stormwaterandsullageareconveyedinsurfacedrain.30. thetimerequiredfordevelopingmaximumratioofrunoffiscalledtimeofconcertration31. aandbareconstantsdependingonfrequency,tthedurationofstorminminitstheintensityofrainfallin
mmhouris25.4a/t+b32. shapesofsewers
rectangular circularmosteconomical,onlyforseparatesystem semielliptical horseshoeforlargedischarge eggshapedforcombinedsystem,moreselfcleaningvelocity
33. Meterialsforsewers
StonewearY.Tjunctionforms forcommonuse,housedrainandlaterals cementconcreteforstormwater R.C.Cforstormwater Precastforwatertightjoints Castinsituformakingsemielliptical,horseshoesewers ACpipesdomesticsanitarydrainage Castironpipelonglife Stulpipe
34. Sewersuitableforcarryingoverpipesacrossbridgearecastiron35. Suitablematerialforasewertocarrysewageunderpressuresteel36. Jointusedforjoiningstonewarepipeisspigotandsocket.37. Sewerappurtenances
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Manholesspacingpipediameter(mm) spacing(m)Upto300 45301500 75501900 90Beyond900 asapprovedbyauthority
38. Whena sewer connectswith another sewerwhich is at amaterially different level, dropmanhole isadopted
39. Anopeningthroughwhichstormwaterfromastreetisallowedtoenterastromseweroracombinedseweriscalledastreetinlet.
40. small chambers constructed to prevent the entry of grit, sand, debris into the sewer lines are catchbasinorpits
41. Whereitisnotpracticabletoobtainagradientinthesewertogiveaselfcleaningvelocityof0.75m/s,flushingtankswillbeprovided
42. Portionofsewerconstructedlowerthantheadjacentstretch,topassbeneathavalley,watercourseorotherobstructionisinvertedsiphon
43. Highstormwaterfromheavyrainfallisdisposedoffromthesewersbymeansofregulators.44. Properlocationofflushingtankisleadofsewerline.45. Anopeningthroughwhichstormwaterisadmittedandconveyedtothestormsewercalledintercepting
chamber.46. Changeindirectionofsewersisgenerallymadeatmanholes.47. Automaticflushingtanksworksontheprinciplesosiphon.48. Theslopingconcreteonthesidesofthechannelinamanholeiscalledbunching.49. Thespaceinthelowerpositionofmanholeprovidedforinspectionisworkingchamber.50. Flushingtankisdividedtoflushwaterintoaseweronceinaday.51. Deviceusedinapumpingstationtomeasurethequalityofflowofseweriscalledflowrecorder.52. Sewagewhichisundergoingtreatmentiscalledsepticsewage.53. Thefunctionsofgritchamberistoremoveinorganicsubstances.54. Finegritinthesewageisremovedindetritustank.55. Thefunctionofskinningtankistoremoveoilandfattysubstances56. Settledpracticalsofsewageinthesedimentationtankaresludge.57. chemicalsusedfordecomposingorganicwasteinthepresenceofairisflocculation58. Processofdecomposingorganicwasteinthepresenceofairisoxidation.59. Biologicaltreatmentofsewagetakesplaceintrickingfitter.60. Functionofsedimentationtankinsewageworkistoremovesuspendedsolids.61. %ofsludgemixedwithsewageinprimarysettingsis2040%62. Largesizedfloatingobjectscanberemovedfromsewagebyscreening.63. Liquidsewagecomingoutofsedimentationtankiseffluent.64. Theconversationofwastewaterfromanindustrycanbedonebyrecycling.65. Whensewageisdisposedofintowaterbodiesiscalleddilution.66. Broadirrigationisanexampleoftreatingsewagebylandtreatment.67. Theburningofsludgeisincineration.
Solidwastemanagement
1) RefuseAlltheputrescribleandputresciblesoildwasteexceptbodywaste.2) Rubbishnonputresciblewasteincludespaper,pins,glass,wood.3)Garbagerejectingfoodconstituents.4) Inlandfillingwasteisdepositedin0.94.5mthicklayers.5) Biologicalcompositionofaganicsubstancesiscomposing.6) Burningofrefuseundercontrolledmannerisincineration.7) Incinerationisgenerallyforrefuse.8) Theprocessofstackingrefuseinpiles,frequentlyturningandderating.9) Suitablygivesaproductknownascomposting.
Sanitaryfittingsandfixtures
1. DrainAnypipewhichconveysdischargesfromsanitaryappliances
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2. buildingdrainpartofthelowesthorizontalpipingofdrainingsystemwhichreceivesthedischargefromsoil,wasteandotherpipesinsidethebuildingandconveysittothebuildingsewerwhichbeginsImoutsidethebuildingwall.
3. Buildingsewerpartofhorizontalpipeofadrainagesystemwhichextendsfromtheendofthebuildingdrainreceivesdischargefromitandconveysittopublicsewer.
4. Soilwastedischarewaterclosets,urinals,slopsinks,andsimilarappliances.5. Soilpipepipethatconveysthedischargeofwaterclosetsoffiatureshavingsimilarfunctions.6. Wastewaterdischargefromwashbasinssinks.7. Wastepipereceivesthedischargeofanyfixturesexceptwaterclosets8. stackmainverticaldischargeorventilatingpipe9. Trapfittingdeviceprovidealiquidsealtopreventthebackpassageofairwithoutaffectingtheflowof
sewageorwastewaterthroughit.10. Gullytraptocollectwastewaterfromkitchen,sink,washbasins,baths,andrainwaterpipes.11. Floortrapwastewaterfromfloorsofbathsandkitchensintodraing.12. Interceptingtrapplacedwherethehousedrainjoinsthemainsewer13. Inspectionchamberreceivesthewastesfromgullytrapsanddisposesitofftomanhide.14. Pipesystems
Twopipesystemoneconveyssoildirectlytothedrainotherconveywastewatertothedrainfromdiff.floor.
Onepipesystemwasteconnectionsfromsinks,baths,washbasinsandsoilpipebranchesarecollectedintomainpipe.
Singlestacksystemonepipesystemwithoutventilationpipework.
15. sanitaryfittingusedtoreceivethehumanexcretadirectlyfromuseriscalledwatercloset16. Appliancesusedtoflushwaterclosets,urinalsareflushingcisterns.17. Thepipethatconveysthedischargeofwaterclosetsorfisturesiscalledsoilpipe.18. Thewatersealsinthetraparepreventedfrombrakingbymeansoftheventilatingpipe.19. AlldrainagepipeshouldbecoveredwithaG.Iwiredome.20. Minimumselfcleaningvelocityforhousedrains0.75m/sec.
Principlesofcityplanning1. Urbanareaisprimarilytheseatofpolitical,religious,commercialandculturalleadersofthesociety.2. Village Humansettlementnotexceeding5000population.
Principleoccupationisagriculture3. Towns principlesoccupationisotherthanagriculture
500020000Mediumtown2000050000Largetown50000100000
4. Centralvillage Morethan2000populationSupplies,trade,institution.
5. Newtown newlyestablishedforthepurposeofspecificeconomic activities,fordeconcentrating the population of large urban settlement and reconcentrating in aseparatelocation.
6. City population>100000Newtowns
1. Townplanningisascienceconsistsincollecting,correlatingandanalyzingthefactsaboutatown.2. Theartliesinarrangingthecomponentsofatowninsuchawaythatthefinalresultisintheformofa
beautiful,convenient,economicalandefficientunit.3. Thetownplanningexpressthelifeofanareaandthearchitecturerevealsitsspirit.4. Mohanjodarowasdiscoveredbybritisharchaeologistsirjohnmarshallin1922.5. populationofmohanjodaro(2600BC)wasestimatedas40000600006. Objectsoftownplanning
Beauty Convenience Environment Health
7. Principlesoftownplanning Greenbelt Housing
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Publicbuildings Recreationcenters Roadsystem Transportfacilities Zoning
8. topologicalfeaturescontributingtotheoriginoftownsare Conditionsfavorableforindustrialunits. Hillyareastoachievetheobjectofsecurity. Plainareasusefulforbusinessactivities. Riverbanks Seaoroceanfronts.
9. functionalaspectsresponsiblefortheoriginandtownsare education healthresorts political religious
10. growthoftowns1. naturalwithoutanyfutureplanning
concentricspread Ribbondevelopmentalongmainroads Satellitegrowthindividual scatteredgrowthirregular
2. Plannedgrowthcontrolled rulesandregulation distribution
Siteplanning
x Principles1. Keepinginviewthepurposeofbuilding2. Fastdeveloping,socialandfriendlyneighborhood3. Wherecommunityservices,utilities,amenities,meansoftransportareavailable4. Withinthelimitsofarea,buildingbyelaws5. Withpossibilitiesoffutureextension6. Situationonelevatedplace,withuniformslopes7. Goodsoilsurfaceforfoundation8. Naturallybeautifulandmanmadeenvironment9. Goodlandscapeandawayfromquarries,kilns,factories10. Considerlegal,financialaspects.(ownershiprights)
x Siteplanshouldincludetheinformationof1. Theboundaryoftheplot,shapeofthesiteandexteriorhousedimensions2. Setbacklineatthefront,backandsites3. Anypermanentboundariesormarks4. Namesandwidthsofexistingstreets,gradeelevationatcentreline5. Sizeandlocationofgarages6. Numberofplot,block7. Directionsofprevailingwindsandnorthline8. Footpaths,widthsandkinds9. Zoningandbuildingrestrictions10. Sizeandlocationdetailsofgasline,undergrounddrainage,watermines,manholes,ventilating
pipes11. Locationoffirehydrant
Planningregulationsandbuildingbyelaws
1. Linesofbuildingfrontages
Buildingline lineuptowhichtheplinthofabuildingadjoiningastreetoranextensionofstreet.
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Control line extra margin from building line which attracts vehicleparking.
Typeofroad ActuallimitsinurbanareasBuildingline Controlline
Nationalandstatehighways 30m 45mMajordistrictroads 15m 24mOtherdistrictroads 9m 25mVillageroads 9m 15m
2. Builtupareaofbuildings
Builtuporcoveredarea=plotareaopenspaces
Floorarearatio,FAR = coveredareaofallfloorsx100Plotarea
Inabusinessarea,thecoveredareashallnotexceed75%ofplotareaInanindustrial,thecoveredareashallnotexceed60%Inaresidentialarea,
AreaofplotLessthan200SQm 60%200500 50%5001000 40%Morethan1000 33.33%
Arch.Developments
1. Architectureisanartoforganizingspacenotonlyfunctionallybutalsobeautifully.2. Theconstituentsofbeautyarestructure,utilityandaesthetics.3. Egyptianarchitecturereflectstheabsolutepowerofthepharaohsandslaveryofthepeople.4. GreekarchitecturewastheproductofthedemocraticbeliefofGreekcivilization.5. Romanarchitectureromanimpericalpower.6. basilicanchurchesreflectreligiousenthusiasm.7. Gothicreflectstheconditionofpassionateenthusiasm.8. Frenchrenaissanceshowsthepompouslifeofmonarchs.9. Indianarchitectureshowsitsspiritualcontentandrepresents.10. principlesofarchitecturegoodnessorconvenientarrangement.
beauty truth
11. qualitiesofarchitecturestrength,vitality,restraint,response,grace,breadth,scale,goodpictoralsetting,expressionofpurpose.
12. factorinarchitecturemass,form,proportion,balance,symmetry,contrast.13. alltheprehistoricremainshavereligiousrelationship.14. thedevtofhistoricarchitectureisarecordofcontinuationofevolution,beginningwiththeEgyptian
architecture.
Influenceofmodernartonarchitecture
Sevenwondersoftheancientworld1. ThepyramidofEgypt.2. HanginggardensofBabylon.3. ThetempleofartemisatEphesus.4. Thetombofmansolusathalicarnassus.5. TheColossusofRhodes.6. ThestatueofzeusatOlympia.7. ThepharosatAlexandria.
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Basicprinciplesofarch.Acoustics1. Def:Thescienceofsound.2. Soundisproducedwhenpartofatmosphereiscompressedsuddenly.3. Soundcanttravelinvacuumitrequiresamediumfortransmission.4. Thespeedatwhichthesoundwavestravelorpassthroughanymediumistermedassoundvelocity.5. soundwavesstrokedonthewallsofanenclosedroomwillbe
a. Someisreflectedback.b. Someisabsorbedbythesurfaceandlisteners.c. Somearetransmittedoutsidetheroomthroughvibration.
6. Concave surface leads to concentration of reflected sound waves and are provided to work as thereflectors.
7. Convexsurfacetendstospreadthereflectedwaves.8. Defectsdevelopedduetothereflectionofsoundare
a. echoes therepetitionofsoundbyreflectionofsoundwavesb. Reverberation thegradualprocessoftransformationoperatesoveracertainintervaloftime.
9. Absorbentmaterialsaresoftandporousa. Workingprincipleisthesoundwavespenetrateintotheporesandinthisprocessthesound
wavesareconvertedintootherformofenergybyfriction.b. Theabsorbingcapacitydependsonthickness,densityandfrequencyofthesound.c. Thesuspendedabsorbersintheformofinvertedconesmakethehallacousticallygood.d. Lowfrequencyabsorbentmaterialshouldbeusedtoachieveoptimumreverberationtimeovera
widerangeoffrequencyofsound.
10. typeofabsorbentmaterialsa. hairfelt 0.60(25mm)b. acousticplaster 0.150.30(20mm)c. acousticaltilesd. strawboard 0.30500(13mm)e. pulpboards 0.17f. compressedfiberboard 0.300.52g. compressedwoodparticleboard 0.40(13mm)h. perforatedplywood 0.950.20i. woodwoolboard 0.20(25mm)j. quiltsandmats
Airpollution,control1. Airpollutionismainlycontributedbyindustry,fastmovingvehicles,andautomobiles.2. factorsresponsibleforairpollution dustfertilizerproducerindustries
CementdustThermalpowerstationsNucleicondensationIndustriesAeroplanesGasesHydrogensulphideNitrogenFluorideNitricacidAmmoniahydrocarbonsRadioactivesourcesCarbonmonoxide.
3. Airpollutantsenterhumanfoodandaggravaterespiratoryailmentssuchasbronchitis,asthama, lungcancer.
4. Airpollutioneffectsstones,metals,mortar,woodetc.
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AmmoniaeyesBestoslungcancerBariumheartmusclesIronsonintolungs
5. 40%ofairpollutioniscausedbyautomobiles(CO,hydrocarbons,andoxidesofnitrogen).6. controltechniques
a. Gas absorption effluent gasses are passed through the absorbers containing liquidabsorbentswhichtreattheoffendingconstituents.
b. Gas adsorption passing effluent gas through solid absorbers contained in anadsorptioncollectingdevice.
c. Combustion d. Gascleaninge. Sourcerelocationf. Fuelsubstitutiong. Processchangesh. Goodoperatingpracticei. Sourceshutdownanddispension.
Noisepollution,control1. Thepathsoftransmissionareairorsolidpartsofbuildingconstructionandaquipment.2. Thegreatestqualitywillflowthroughthepathofleastresistance.3. Noisesoriginatingwithinaroomwillbeairborne.4. Noisesoriginatingwithoutaroomwillbeairandsolidborne.5. Iftwopartitionsterminateattheceilingsoundwilleasilypass6. Degreeofnoise reduction isachievedby thediff. in sound levelproducedat thesourceand the level
desiredatthelistenersposition.7. Instrumentformeasuringthesoundissoundlevelmeter.8. Itconsistsofmicroscopicphonewhichfeedsonelectricalsignalintoanamplifier.9. Airoutletsandunitheatersusuallyhavesoundlevelsspecifiedfortheairconditionsofoperation.10. Weshouldobtainthenoisereductionofdiff.betweenprobableorexistinglevelanddesirablelevel.11. Abnormally highlevel are associated with industries where as speech interference is influenced by
durationanddistanceofcommunication.
12. Accordingtoinversesquarelaw,adoublingthedistancebetweensourceandlistnerwillcauseasoundpressurelevelreductionof6db.
13. Winddirectionandvelocity,temperatureandgradientsaffectssoundattenuationinair.14. Soundtraveloutdoorswillbeinfluencedbyreflectivesurfacesofthegroundandbuildings.15. Poor of adequate weight must close tightly against rubber gaskets on stops and be sealed at the
threshold.16. Doubledoorsmaybeusedforadditionalinsulation.17. Thetransmissionlossofthematerialwithwhichthedoorismadeandoftheinstalleddoorarenotsame.18. Wegaininsulationbyassumingtightfitofsashandbyusingheavierglassindoubleoreventripleplans.19. Mainintersuptionsinbuildingconstructionwhichcauseinsulationarepipesleeves,electricalraceways,
backtobackelectricaloutlerboxesinwalles,ductopeningsandrecessedpanelboards.20. Maximumpossiblereductionofsoundwithadditionaltreatmentis6db.21. Reflectivesurfaceswillsustainthenoise.22. Noisereduction=estimatedorobservedleveldesiredlevel.23. Comparedtoairbornesound,solidbornesoundisapttocontainmoreenergy.24. Theenergymayberelatedbythevibratingstructureatsomedistancefromthesource.
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25. Airbornebecomessolidborneifitsetsconstructioninmotion.26. Thepathofsoundtravelingfromtheroom,abovetotheroom,belowthroughsidewallsiscalledflanking
transmission.27. Residentfloorfinisherprovidesvaryingdegreeofimpactinsulation.28. Thincompositiontilesonconcretefloorsreducetransmittedsoundto25db29. Corktile,5/16inchesthickprovides10db.30. Thickcarpet20db31. Aflooronbatlens67db.32. Resilientstripsofone inchmineralwoodor fiberglassunder thebattenswillaboutdouble in insulation
value.33. Semidiscontinuousconstructionsarealsogoodairbornesoundinsulations.34. An excellent solution is the use of a foundation for equipment which rests on the ground and is
independentofthebuildingstructure.35. Isolatorelementslikesprings,rubber,mayalsobeused.36. Highvelocityandturbulentflowcontributetohighnoiselevels.
Principlesoflightingandillumination1. artificiallightinginindependentoflocation,climateorevenofthebuildingfabric2. whichitbrightsunshinetheilluminationisaround100klux3. theintensityofthermalradiationislikelytobeabout1kw/msq4. Whatweperceiveaslight,isanarrowwavelengthbandofelectromagneticradiationfromabout380to
780.5. Itconsistsofenergyparticlesphotons.6. Thewavelengthdeterminesitscolor.7. Lightcontainingallvisiblewavesisperceivedaswhite.8. thehumaneyessensitivityvarieswiththewavelength,itisgreatestaround550nm.(yellow)9. Velocityoflight3*10pow8(air,vaccum)
2.25*10pow8(water)1.98*10POW8(glass)
10. lightincidentonanobjectcanbedistributedasReflectancerAbsorbanceaTransmittancet
r+a+t=111. incaseofopaqueobjects,t=0,r+a=112. surfaceswithneutralreflectionpropertieswillbeseeninwhitelight
White,ifrisabove0.75Greyifrisbetween0.05and0.75
Blackifrbelow0.0513. inmixingcoloredpigments,theabsorptionsareadditiveandreflectionswillbesubtractive
Yellowpaint absorbblue reflectsred,yellow,greenBluepaint absorbred,yellow reflectsblue,greenMixtureoftwo absorbblue,red,yellow reflectsonlygreen
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14. Amixtureofallkidsofpigmentwillbeblack,asitabsorbsallwavelengths.15. Colorswhichaddupfromwhitelightaretermedcontemporarycolors.
E.g.redandgreen,yellowandblue16. Hue the concept of color, using the common color terms: red, yellow, green, blue and purpose, but
furthersubdividingeachinto5categories.17. Value the subjective measures of reflectance, light or dark appearance according to scale from
0(absoluteblack)to10(absolutewhite)convertibleintoreflectancer=v(v1)18. Chromathedegreeofcolorfullnessorintensityofcolor,distinguishing14classes.Alowchromawould
bealmostgreythebrightestcolorshaveachormaof12to14.19. Theintensityofalightsourceismeasuredinunitsofcandela(I).20. Theflux(flow)oflightismeasuredinlumens(F).21. Onlumenistheflowoflightemittedbyaunitintensitypointsource,withinaunitsolidangle.22. Illuminationismeasuredastheamountoffluxfallingonunitarea,(E)Im/msqwhichisthelux,theunitof
illuminationinthesysteminternational.23. Luminanceisthemeasureofbrightnessofasurface.(L)24. Illuminationfromapointsourcereduceswiththesquareofthedistance.E=1/dsq25. Illumination of a surface from several sources will be the simple sum of component illumination
E=E1+E2+..26. Solarilluminationistheaverageilluminationreceivedonthesurfaceofasmallspherefromalldirections.27. The purpose of lighting practical to facilitate the performance of a visual task and ensure visual
comfort Artistictocreatecertainemotionaleffects
28. Visualacnity=1/visualangle(P)Contrastsensitivity=leastperceptibleluminancedye.*100%/lowerofthetwo
(L2L1)*100/L129. visualperformanceisthetomerequiredforseeing30. theeyerespondstoarangeofilluminationlevelsextendingoveramillionordersofmagnitudefrom0.1
lux(fullmoonlight)to100000lux(brightsunline)31. WhendeltaE(max)/E(s)=4,wehaveacompletelymenodirectionallight.32. Ebeta=E(n)*cos(beta)
Ebeta=illuminationonaplanefitledbybetadegreeE(n)=illuminationonanormalplaneBeta=angleofincidence
Roleofmicroclimateindesign1. Microclimateimplylocaldeviationfromtheclimateofalargearea.2. topographySlope,orientation,exposure,elevation,hillsorvalleys3. Adifferentialof7to8minheightcancauseadifferentof5to6degCinairtemperature.4. Stone, concrete, asphalt surface can reach a temperature up to 44 deg C than the surrounding air
temperature
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5. By covering the ground with vegetation, the surface of contact is transferred to a higher layer and isincreased4to12times.
6. thefactorscausingdeviationsoftheurbanclimatefromtheregionalmacroclimateare
x changedsurfacequalitiesincreasedabsorbanceofsolarradiationreducedevaporation.x Buildingsx Energyseepagex Atmosphericpollution
Thermalcomfort1. Theprocessinvolvedinconvertingfoodatsunlightintolivingmatterandusefulformofenergyareknown
asmetabolism.2. Themetabolicheatproductioncanbedividedinto
x Basalmetabolismproductionofvegetative,automaticprocessx Muscularmetabolismproductionofmuscles.
3. Ofalltheenergyproducedinthebody,onlyabout20%isutilized.4. 80%issurplusheatandmustbedissipatedtotheenvironment5. Thedeepbodytemperaturemustremainbalancedandconstantaround37degC6. Body can release heart to its environment by convection, radiation and Evaporation, and to a lesser
extentbyconduction.7. Convectionisduetoheattransmissionfromthebodytotheairincontactwiththeskinorclothing8. Radiationheat lossdependson the temperatureof thebodysurfaceand the temperatureofopposing
surfaces.9. Evaporationdependsonthehumidityofair(thedryertheair,thefastertheevaporation)10. Conductiondependsonthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthebodysurfaceandtheobject,thebodyis
indirectcontactwith11. MetEvap+orcond+orconv+orrad=012. Therateofsweatingmayvaryfromabout20g/hto3kg/n13. Ina temperatureclimate, indoorswhentheair temperature isaround18Cwhentheair isclam i.e.,air
velocity does not exceed 0.25 m/sec. when the humidity is bdt 40 and 60%, a person engaged insedentaryworkwilldissipatethesurplusheatwithoutanydifficultyasby
x Radiation45%x Convection30%x Evaporation25%
14. Normalskintemperatureisbetween31degCand34degC.15. Thermalpreferencesareinfluencedbyclothing,acclimatization,ageandsen,bodyshape,subcutaneous
fat,stateofheath,foodanddrink,skincolour.16. NdegC=N+273.15kelvin17. Thegreaterthetemperaturedifferentthefastertherateofheatflow
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18. Thermalconductivitytherateatwhichmolecularmovementspreadsvarieswithdifferentmaterials.(k=w/m.degC)
19. Itsvaluevariesbetween0.03w/mdegCforinsulatingmaterials,andupto400w/mdegCformetals20. Thelowertheconductivity,thebetterinsulatoramaterialis21. resistivity1/k22. Betterinsulatorswillhavehigherresistivityvalues.23. ResistanceofabodyisR=b/k(b=thicknessinm)24. Lowthermalcapacitystructureswarnwpquicklybutalsocoolrapidly25. Constructionwitha lowUvalue(air toair transmittance)will reduceall formsofconductionheat
transfer.EgyptianArchitecture(3000BC100AD)
1. Columnarandtrabeatedstyle(trab=beam)2. Mainlytombsandtemples.3. contrasttowestAsiaticarchitecture(palaces)4. EgyptianMassivewalls,madeofsundriedmudbricks5. HousingOneortwostoreyhigh,livinghallincentre.6. Templesrectangularplan,frontedbymonolithicpillars,orientedtowordnile.7. Columnsvegetableoriginlikethelotusstalk,tiedintervalsbybands.8. Advancedinuseofcolors,blue,red,yellow9. TombwasaneternalhometoEgyptians.10. 3typesoftombsmastabas,royalpyramids&rockcutcaves.11. Mastabacentralspacesarcophagus12. Pyramidsonlyforpharaohsmassive&impregnabletombs.13. MaterialusedforcoreLimestone.14. Graniteforkingschamber,passages.15. Entrancefromnorth.16. GreatpyramidofcheopsatGiza(230.5m*230.5m),146mheight.17. BuiltinsolidstoneswithacasingoffinallydressedTuralimestones&theapexstonewasoncecoated
withgold.18. Rockcuttombseg:TritAukhAmonatThebes.19. temples2typesMortuary,Ministrationtopharaohs(cult)20. MortuarySeriesofrooms,pillaredcourt,phypostylehallthedarkmysteriouschamber,chapel.21. Onlytheroyal&privilegedpersonswereadmittedforstately22. Religiousfunctions.23. Inculttemples,theprocessionswereuniquefeatures.24. Sphinxes&obelisksweresetupinpairstodignifythetempleentrances25. egofculttemple,templeofkhonsatkonark.26. Obelisksarelargesizesmonolithssquareinplan(sunworship)27. Heightofobeliskis9or1timesitslowerdiameter.28. 4sidesofbasearecutwithfingersofhieroglyph.
Greekarchitecture(650BC30BC)
1. Greektemplesweresurroundedbyopencolonnadesinfullviewofcommonpeople2. Orientedtowordseast(sun)3. Civilizationspreadmainlyduringbronzeages.4. Hellenic(650323BC)5. Columnar&trabeatedstyleevolvedfromwoodenhutofuprightposts&supportingbeam&sloping
rafters.6. twoperiodsHellenicperiod,Hellenisticperiod.7. Arches,domes,vaultswerenotusedbytheGreeks.8. Greekusedtimber&afterbuilt.9. In600BCMasonryfromcoursedrubbletofineashlars.
nomortarwasused.
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Minimizedthejointsbyusinglargesizedstones.
10. 3ordersofarchitectureDoric,Ionic,Corinthian.11. Hellenisticperiod(32330BC)12. InfluencedbyMiddleEasternculture.13. Religiouscharacterbutafter4thcenturyBC,publicbuildingsbegan14. Archesstartedappearingonwallopenings.15. 3rdcenturyBCrooftrussescametocoverlargerspaces.16. OrnateCorinthianorderwasmorepopularlyused.
Romanarchitecture(300BC365AC)
1. FollowedcolumnarstyleandalsoEtruscansarch&vault.2. Columnsweresuperimposesincaseofcolosseumofrome.3. Useoflimeconcretewasstarted(cement)4. Characterofromearchisthecapacitytospanoverlargespaces.5. Romanbuildingswereofseveralstoried,ornamentedbyhalfattachedcolumnssuperimposedone
abovetheother.6. arch.ofromeswasessentiallyanartofshapingspacearoundrituals.7. Manystructureswereutilizationtypesuchasacqueducts&bridges.
Medievalperiod
1. EarlyChristianarchitecture(313800AD)
i. Fallowedromanstyle.ii. Columnswereeithercloselyspacedtocarryentablatureorwidelyspacedtocarrysemicirculararches.
iii. Thebasilicanchurcheswererenderedspacious,graceful,impressiveanddignifiedbyarrangingthecolumns&rows.
iv. Mainentrancewasprovidedinoneshorterside.v.Biblicanscenesbecomeusualfeaturesofdecoration.vi. Architecturerepresentstheirfantacism,passionsearchformysteryoftherealpresence.
2. Byzanticarchitecture()3301453AD)
i. Characterizedbythenoveldevtofdomecoversquareorpolygonplansofchurchesandtombs.ii. Varioustypeofdomesusedwere,simple,compound,melonshaped,onionshaped.iii. Domeswereconstructedwithoutcenteringwiththinradiatingbricksorlightweightfumic
stones.iv. Usedthecolumnsdecoratelyaswellasstructurallytosupportgalleriesandsemicircular
arches.v. Wallswerefullycoveredwithmarblemosaicsandfrescodecoration
3. Muslimarchitecture7thcenturyi. Majorconstructionsmosque,tombs,palaces.ii. ConstructionsJamamasjid madrassah rauza dargah khans thepointedarchitecture thedome arabesque
4. Romanesquearchitecture(9to15thcentury)
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i. IsdirectmodificationofromanarchitecturewhichgrewinItaly,France,Germany,centralEurope,Spain,andBritan.
ii. Usedlightermaterials.iii. Stainedglasswaslittleused.
5. Gothicarchitecture(12thcentury)
i. Introductionofpointedarchitecture,buttressandhighpinnacle.ii. Inventedflyingbuttressinplaceofvaultstosupportwalls.iii. Gothicstyleisasynthesisofaestheticandtechnicalqualities.iv. Inventedstainedcoloredglass.v.Designedtownhalls,royalplaces,courthouses,hospitals.vi. Churcheswereconvenientratherthansymmetry.
renaissanceperiods
6. Renaissancearchitecture(15th19thcentury)
i. IstherevivalofclassicGreekandromanarchitecture.ii. Largesizedstoneblackswereusedtodignityiii. Buildingswerearrangedwithspecialregardtosymmetry.iv. 5orderofarchitecturewerestandardizedandusedbothconstructivelyanddecoratively.
v.Ornamentationwasbasedonclassicalmethodologyandpagansubject.vi. Statuswasneitherproportiontohumanscalenoranintegralpartofthebuildings.vii. Inplaceofstainedglass,frescopaintingswereused.
Buddhistarchitecture(300BC820BC)
1. Majorfeaturesstupasortopes,stambhasorlats,chaityas,viharasormonasteries.2. stupamonumentpropagatestheDoctrine.3. stupacircular,sectionandthetotalformofwhichwereallderivedfromcircle.4. eg:stupas,sanch(250BC), Saronath(7th century), Amaravath(3rd c,AD), bar hut(2rd c,AD),budh
gaya(75BC)5. Column2typespersepolitantype,graecoromantype.6. Firstoctagonal,bellshapedcapital.7. graecoromantypeisrectangularwithshallowflucts.8. Eg:ashokapillars(274237BC)9. chaityastempleaswellasassemblyhallscreatedoutofparticulardemandsofBuddhistregion.10. Eg:Bhaja,kondane,karle,ajanta(2ndC,BC),tllora.11. VihararesidentialplacesofBuddhistpriests.
Indusvalleycivilization(Harappan)(3000)Indianarchitecture(500BCtopresent)
1. 5000yrsago,peoplefromSumerianorigincameandsettlednearestriverIndus.2. IsacontemporaryofancientMesopotamia.3. citiesweresystematicanddividedinto12blocks(365*244meach)4. Englishbondsinwalls.5. Streets9mwide.6. Undergrounddrainagelineswithinspectionchambersatregularintervals.7. housesconsistedofroomsaroundacourtyardandstaircase.(kilnburntbricks)8. Oxdrivencartsoflargesolidwhetsfortransportation.9. Toolsofstoneandcopperwereinuse.10. Potsweremadeofclay,wood.
Vedic(15001000BC)
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1. DravidiansThebuildersofthecitycivilizationofIndusvalley.IndoAryan(1500BC)
1. Aryanvillagewasmadeoftimberandthatchhuts.2. Protectedbytimberfenceconsistingofrectangularwoodenposts.3. Gatewayatentrance.4. AllIndianartisderivedfromtheAryanvillage.
Dravidianarchitecture(600AD1000AD)1. Templeconsistsofgarbhagritha(wombhouse)withamandopeortheopenporch.2. Mainlyadoptedtrabeatedsystemofconstruction.3. Noarches,avoidmortar.4. Templeswereexpandedwithcourtyardscalledprakarasenclosinggopurams.5. Templesonhilltops,situatedamidstbeautifulsurroundings.6. 5typespallava,chola,pandya,vijayanagar,latepandya/madhura7. pallavarockcuttemple,structuraltemples(shoretemple)8. chola: temple consists of usual compartment suchas a pillared halls attached to the vimanaor the
toweroverthesanctum.(brihadeshwartempleoftanjavur)9. Pandyapracticeofconstructingthevimalaoverthecellaimportancetothetempleentrancegopuram.10. Vijayanagarstyletempleofmodulatesizes,richinbeauty,form,proportion,
Inadditiontomaintempleincentre,therewereseparateshrines, pillaredhalls,andpavilions.11. Anotherimportantiskalianmantapa.12. Latepandyan/madhurastyle
Templeswithvastsizeandimpressiveappearance. Pillaredhalls,parkaresoutside. Eg:Ranganath,Madhura,Rameswaram,Tirupathi.
Conceptofshelter1. AgglomerationAnurbanregionwhoseboundariesmayexceedthoseofone,usuallylargecity.2. PrimarycityOneormoreofthelargestcitiesinacountrythatholdsarelativelyhighpercentageof
thetotalurbanpopulation.3. Urbanpopulationgrowthreferstotheincreaseintheabsolutenumberofpeopleresidingincities.4. Urbanizationreferstotheproportionoftheoverallpopulationthatresidesinurbanareas.5. Decentralizationtheprocesswherebygrowthinurbanpopulationandemploymenttakesplacein
secondarycitiesthatmaybe150kmawayfromthemetropolitanareaandbeyond6. Deconcentrationtheexpansionofemploymentandpopulationinperipheralareasaroundacity.7. Housingisamediumforselfexpressionaswellasasanctuaryforoldage.
Concrete1. Cementconcreteisamixtureofcement,water,fineaggregate,courseaggregate.2. theproportionofcement,sandandaggregatesis1:2or3:4or63. Limeconcretemixtureofslakedlime,fineaggregate,courseaggregate.(1:2:4),water.4. R.C.Ctheconcreteandreinforcingmetal.
Roleofgovernmentagencies1. Cooperativehousingsocietiesarehelpedbythegovt.in
a. Acquiringlandatcheapratesb. Providingfinancialhelpatreasonablerates
2. First1915SaraswatCoop.HousingSociety,Bombay.3. HUDCO(1970)HousingandUrbandevelopmentcooperation:aimstohelpbackwardclasses,
SC,ST
Category Costceiling Rateofint. Repaymentperiod %ofloansfromHUDCO
EWS 8000 5% 20yrs 30
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LIG 18000 7 15 25
MIG(I) 25000 9.5 1225
MIG(II) 42000 10.5 12HIG 100000 11.5 10 20
4. CIDCO(CityandIndustrialDevelopmentcooperation),Bombay.a. MRT(massrapidtransit)throughcancroidsofresidentialandindustrialnodesb. Eachnodehaving1lakhpopulation
Housingpoliciesanddesign1. constraintsofhousingcommodity
a. immobilityb. initialinvestmentsc. finance,transport,landpolicy
2. housingpoliciesinIndiatwoapproachesarea. demandledhousingapproachruraldevelopment
BringdownthemigrationsEncouragingsmallandmediumtowns
b. supplyledapproach maximizethenoofdwellingunitsImprovethequalityofenvironmentPromotelowcostalternativesUseofvacantlandTaxationpoliciesSuitableamendmentsforrentcontrol
3. housingactivitydependsona. availabilityoflaborb. availabilityofcheapfinancec. availabletransportfacilitiesd. methodsofconstructione. rateofinterestorinvestmentf. predictionsoffuturedemandsg. developmentofpopulationh. taxationpolicyonrealestatesi. Tourplanningandenvironmentalconditions.
4. Generalrequirementsofresi.Buildingsa. Heightwrtroad,street.b. Locationnearschools,amenities,awayfromnoise,smoke.c. Privacyd. Orientationwrtsun,winds.e. Securitysafeconstruction.
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f. Space4.56M2perperson.g. Utilitieselectricity,water,drainage,atreasonablerates.h. Ventilation.
5. classificationofresidentialbuildingsa. detachedhouses wherelandvalueislow
HouseandlittlelandsurroundingitMarginsonallsidesHighestformofhousing
b. Semidetachedhouses plotdividedinto2byawallAdvantageslikesharingofcosts
c. Rowhouses minrequirementswithregardstospaceSingleordoublestrayedYieldmorenetresi.densityPreferredforLIG
d. Apartments sharingthecostoflandandamenitiese. Skyscrappers similarasapts.
6. Designofresi.areasa. Aestheticsb. Basicmaterialsc. Housingunit 3001000peopled. Layout showingparks,schools,comm.centerse. Sizeandshape 300012000pop.Ofaresi.Unitf. Streetsystem
7. NationalhousingpolicyGovthaspassedtheUrbanlandact,1976forsecuringexcesslandfromprivatelandholders
fordevelopmentofhousingschemesfortheweakersections.Objectives
1. forincreasinghousingsupplytoweakersections2. tocheckthegrowthofpopulation3. properlandusepolicytopreventhaphazarddevelopment4. removalofslums5. encouragehousingcooperatives6. adequatefinancialprovisionsforhousing7. Propagationanduseofnew,cheaplocallyavailablebuil.Material.
1. Principlesoflandscapedesignandsiteplanning
2. Landscapeisareflectionofdynamicnaturalandsocialsystems.3. Landscapetheory naturalprocess,socialprocesses,methodology,andtechnologyofvalues.
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4. Goalsofartoflandscape Surprise,variety,concealment,thedevelopmentofidyllicprospects,lineofbeauty,manipulationofnatureundulatingcontours,eliminationofvisualbreakbetweengardenandlandscape.
5. Landscapedesign dealswith surfaces, edges and joints, steps and ramps, connecting specificdifferencesinelevation,pavinganddrainage.
6. Treesactasscaletransitionfromthemultiplebuildingtotheindividual.7. BEAUTYtheevidentharmoniousrelationshipofallsensedcomponents.8. VIEW Asceneobservedfromafinevantagepoint,
Isathemethatmaysuggestandgiveaddedmeaningtowillrelatedfunctions.
9. VISTA Anunframedsegmentofview,Isafunctionofaxis.
10. AXISalinearplanelementconnectingtwoormorepoints.11. HEIGHTconnectsattainment,potential,expansion,exhilaration,inspiration,thesublimeandrelease.12. DEPTHconnectsregression,concentration,confinement,shelter,theprofaneandweightofpressure.13. SEQUENCEasuccessionofperceptionhavingcounting.14. Thebestsourceofdesigncriteriaisfieldobservation.15. Thebesttestofdesignisperformance.
16. stagesoflandscapeplanning
x Surveyandanalysis:classificationoflandscapetypesx Evaluationx Policyordesignsolutionx Implementation
17. Trees entrapment, scale induction, backdrop, ornamentation, noise abatement, and shade groundspace.
18. treesarethebasis19. Grouptreestostimulatenaturalstand20. Usecanopytreestounifythesite21. Installintermediatetreesforunderstudyscreening,windbreak,andvisualinterest.22. Shrubsforsupplementarylowlevelbafflesandscreens.23. Treatvinesasnetsanddraperies.24. Installgroundcoversonthebaseplanetoretainsoils.25. Soilmoisture,definepaths,anduseareasandprovideturfwhererequired.26. Chooseasadominant themetreea typethat indigenous,moderately fastgrowingandable to thrive
withlittlecare.27. Exoticspeciestobelimitedtoareasofhighreinforcement.
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28. Usetreestosheathetrafficways.29. Giveemphasistotrafficwaysnode.30. Keepthesightlessclearatroadwayintersections.31. Arrangethetreegroupingstoprovideviewsandexpansiveopenspecies.32. Useplantingstoreinforcethealignmentofpathsandroadways.33. Concealingunwantedareas,unpleasantviews,eliminateglareandreducenoiselevels.34. Provideevolvingsequencesofspacetoencloseandlinkthevarioussiteuseareas.35. Strengthentheprotrudingpointsofmassplantingwithdominantplants.36. Establishvegetationalongthemallsandwaterways.37. Complementthetopographicalform.38. Useplantsasspacedefines.39. Createaharborlikeentranceportaltoeachneighborhood.40. Siteplanningprocedure
o Definitionofintento Procurementoftopographicalsurveyo Programdevelopmento Datagatheringandanalysiso Sitereconnaissanceo Organizationofreferenceplansetandfileo Preparationofexploratorystudieso Comparativeanalysisarevisionofstudiesleadingtoanapprovedconceptualplano Developmentofpreliminarydevelopmentplansandestimateofcostso Preparationofconstructionplans,specificationsandbiddingdocuments.
41. Methodsofplanting
x TransplantingfromNurseriesx Propagationbycuttingx Graftingx Layering
42. roadsidetrees
x suitedtoclimateandsoilx hardlyandrobustx shadingbutnotsendingoutlargebranchesx evergreen/beinleafduringsummerx deeprootedx Specieshavinglargeandthicklavestobeavoidedaretheyrequiremovemoisture.x Inheavyclaysoilskeepfastgrowingtreesatleast15mawayfromtheroad.x Shouldbeplanted1.8to3mawayfromtheouteredgeofthesidewidth.x Suitablespacing9to15m
43. criteriaforplantationontheroadside
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x habitualx rootsystemx startofcanopyx densityoffoliagex formx periodofleaffallx nuisancefromfruitx lifespanx rateofgrowthx resistancetowindx spreadheightratiox soiltypex depthofgroundwater
44. CoinageoftermlandscapearchitectbyFrederickLawOlmsted.45. CarlessofVersaillesbyAndreLeNorth(orderedlandscape)46. PhiladelphiawaslandscapedbyWilliamPenn47. BirkinheadParknearLiverpoolJosephPaxton.48. Theprocessbywhichanindividualmaintainsitsinternalenvironmentinanapproximatelypermanent
stateiscalledhomeostasis.49. ComfortZoneconceptbyVictorOlgag.50. SiteplanningbookKevinLunch.51. Turfingisartificiallyplantinggrassonoutsideslopesofembankmentsanderodiblesoils.52. streetpolesshouldbekept0.6mbackfromthecurbsidewalksmin.width=1m53. landscapearchitectureJ.O.Simonds54. SomegardencitiesofAmericaReston,Columbia.55. Drysoiltendstohighertemp,lowhumidity.56. Gradientrateofslopebetweentwopointsexpressedasapercentage,orasratioofhorizontal
distancetoverticalchangeinelevation,orasanangle57. Thevulnerableareaaroundatreeisequaltoitsspread+1/3rdtheareaaroundit.58. Quantityofwaterarrivingatanypointinawatershedisderivedfrom
Q=AciA=areaofwatershedinacresC=coefficientofrunoffI=isaquantityderivedfromtheamountofrainthatcanbeexpectedfora selectedstorm
frequencycombinedwiththefarthestdistance.59. CLIMATEisthesensationproducedbythecombinationofradiation,ambienttemp.,relativehumidity,
andairmovement.
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60. ALBEDOFractionofthetotalradiantenergyofagivenwavelengthincidentonasurfacethatisreflectedbackinsteadofbeingabsorbedformirror1.0,formatteblacksurface0,watersurfaceusuallyhaslowalbedobutitsangleofincidenceisdecreasedafter.
61. Forinfraredradiationthealbedoofmostnaturalmaterialislow.62. Conductivityofthematerialdecreasesastheyaredrierandlessdenseconvection.63. INVERSIONisasituationwhenairiscoldestatthegroundandwarmerhigherup.64. EDDYisthezoneoflowpressurewhentheairisrelativelyquietbutmovingerratically.65. MICROCLIMATOLOGYscienceofsmallscaleweather.
x Eliminatetheextremesofheat,cold,humidity,airenvironmentandexposure.x Providedirectstructuralprotectionagainstthediscomfortofsolarradiation,precipitation,
wind,stormandcold.
x Respondtotheseasons.x Adjusttothemovementofthesun.x Considerthewindalsoasatimetestedsourceofenergy.x Utilizetheevaporationofmoistureasaprimarymethodofcooling.x Maximizethebeneficialeffectsofadjacentwaterbodies.x Preservetheexistingvegetativecover.x Considertheeffectofattitudeandlatitude.x Reducethehumidity.x Avoidundrainedcatchmentareasandfrostpockets.x Avoidwinterwinds,floodsandpathsofcripplingstorms.
Behavioralcharacteristicsofbuildingmaterials
Timber1. TimberisderivedfromTimbrianmeansbuilt.2. Timberisobtainedfromtreesnotlessthan600mmincircumference.3. Threetypesoftimber
a. Convertedissawnandcutintosuitablesizesb. Roughafterfellingoftreesc. Standinglivingtree
4. Propertiesofgoodtimberx Lowheatconductivityx Amenabilityx Smallbulkdensityx Relativelyhighstrength
5. Drawbacksoftimberx Susceptibilitytodecayx Inflammabilityx Fluctuationsduetomoisturecontentx Variationsinstrength,length
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6. Woodwastesawdust,shavingsareusedwithadmixtureoforganicgluestomakefiberslabs,fiberboards.
7. Otherusesofwoodorganicacids,rosin,paper,cardboard,cellulose.8. Ageofthewoodcapableofproducingqualitytimberwithadequategirthis50yrs.9. Babul,Eucalyptus,poplar,sissioo(20yrs).10. Asingletreecancoolthesummerheatforanentiredayandnightandisfoundbetterthan20ACs
runningfor20Hrs.11. Ahectareoftreesproduceabout10timesofO2(for45personsfor1year)
Item Softwood HardwoodAnnualrings Distinct OppositeColor Light Fireresistance Poor Modularrays Indistinct Strength Strongfordirectpullandweakforresisting
thrustorshear
Structure Resinousandspliteasily Weight Light
12. Defectsintimbera. Conversionb. Fungic. Insectsd. Naturalforcese. Seasoning
13. Qualitiesofgoodtimbera. Hardandshiningappearanceb. Colorisdarkc. Freefromknots,flaws,shakesd. Shouldbedurablee. Shouldbeelasticf. Shouldhavestraightfibersg. Fireresistanceh. Hardnessi. Shouldnotdeteriorateeasilyduetomechanicalwearj. Capableofretainingitsshapewhileburningk. Sweetsmelll. Clearringingsoundwhenstruckm. Soundinwoodis2to17timesgreaterthaninair.n. Strongforworkingasstructuralmembersuchasjoint,beam,rafters.o. Toughnesscapableofresistingshocksp. Lowwaterpermeabilityq. Standforweatheringeffectr. Heavyweight
Bamboo1. Flexible,verystronganddurable.
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2. Usedforscaffolding,thatchedroofs,rafters,temporarybridges,fancygoods.
Bricks1. Preparedbymouldingclayinrectangularblocksofuniformsize.2. Bricksaredurableandhavingstrength,reliability,lowcost,easyavailability.3. GreatWallofChina(210BC)byburntandsundriedbricks.4. Indiahasproductioncapacitytomanufactureover10000crores.5. Compositionsofgoodbrickearth
Use2030%alumina (plasticityformoulding)5060%silica (preventscracks,shrinks,wrapping)5%lime (preventsshrinkage)56%oxideofiron (aslimetofusesandandprovidesredcolorMagnesia (yellowtint,decreaseshrinkage)
6. HarmfulingredientsEffect
Excessoflime (lumps)Ironpyrites (crystallizedanddisintegrated)Alkalies (causebricksfuse,twists,wrap)Pebbles (unregulations)Vegetation& (porous)Organicmatter
7. ClassificationofbrickearthIngredient Loamy, mild or
sandyclayMarls, chalky orcalcareousclay
Plastic, strong orpureclay
Alumina 27% 10 34Silica 66 35 50Lime&magnesia 1 48 6Oxideofiron 1 3 8Organicmatter 5 4 2
8. Qualitiesofgoodbricksa. Tablemoulded,wellburnt,coppercolored,freefromcrackswithsharpandsquareedges.b. Uniforminshapeandstandardsize.c. Shouldgiveclearmetallicringingsoundd. Whenbrokeshouldshowabrighthomogeneousanduniformcompactstructurefreefromvoids.e. Shouldnotabsorbwater>20%byweightwhensoakedincoldwaterfor24Hrs.f. Sufficientlyhard,noimpressionshouldbeleftwhenscratched.g. Shouldnotbreakintopieceswhendropfrom1Mtheight.h. Lowthermalconductivityandsoundproof.i. Shouldnotshowdepositsofwhitesaltswhenallowedtodryinshadeaftersoakedinwater.j. Shouldnothavecrushingstrength
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1. The tensile and shear strengths are about 8 to 12%and 8 to 10%of their compressive strengthsrespectively.
2. Thecomprehensivestrengthofconcreteisinfluencedbyx Qualityofmaterialsx Waterx Watercementratiox Ageofconcretex Cementcontentx Methodsofmixingplacing,curing
3. generallythestrengthdecreasewithincreaseindegreeofworkability4. Withtheage,theconcretegoesonhardening,therebyincreaseinstrength5. nottrulyelasticitymodulusisinfluencedbystrength,age,moisturecontent6. Concrete under goes extra strain on application of load is called creep of concrete which , not
recoveredonremovalofload7. Concreteisagoodinsulator8. WhenusedwithsteelinR.C.C,itcanwithstandbothcompressiveandtensilestresses9. Freefromcorrosion10. Concreteisprovedtoeconomicalthansteel11. Othertypes
x Vibratedconcreteforhighcompressivestrengthx Lightweightconcreteforfireresistance,partitionsx Vaccumconcreteformorestrengthx Lime,surkhiconcreteforeconomy
12.Proportion Max.sizeofaggregate Natureofconstruction1:1:2 12to20mm LoadedR.C.CcolumnsandR.C.C
arches1:2:2 1220 Smallprecastmemberlike,fencing
poles,watertightconstructions1:2:3/3:5:10 20 Watertanks,bridges,sewers2:5:7 25 Footpath,concreteroads1:2:4 40 R.C.Cwork,stairs,beams,columns,
sunshades,slabs,lintels1:3:5 50 Massconcreteworksinculverts,
retainingwalls.1:4:8/1:5:10/1:6:12 60 Heavywalls,foundationfootings
Glass1. Isamixtureofnumberofmetallicsilicates,oneofwhichisusuallythatofanalkalimetals2. itisbasicallyahard,brittle,transparcutmaterial3. Noteffectedbyordinarychemicalreagents,airorwater.4. Possibletoweldpiecesofglassbyfusion5. Affectedbyalkalisbutcantakeuphighpolish6. Providesexcellentelectricinsulationduetouncertaincrystallinestructure7. Absorbs,refractsortransmitslight
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8. Availableincolors,nosharpmeltingpoints
Designofstructuralelementsinwood,steel,RCCWood
1. Artofcutting,framingandplacingofrawtimberinapositioniscalledcarpentryandjoinery2. timberwhichisthusdressedandfinallyplacedinpositioniscalledwroughtandputup3. Theartofcuttingofwoodbymeansofsawsiscalledsawing4. Processofplanningofftheflatedgesofftimberpiecetoformanangle45degiscalledchamfering5. Theprocessofchamfering,iftheangleformedisotherthan45degisknownasbevel6. Takingtheshavingofwoodiscalledplanning7. Processofshapingthevariousunitsofconstructionbyhandormachinetoproducemoldedsectionsis
calledmoulding.8. TheprocessofjoiningtwoboardsorpiecesoftimberatanangleIcalledmitring.9. This is theprocessof cuttingawaya rectangularportion from theedgeof timberpiece for sufficient
depthiscalledrebating10. Dressing the edges of the boards so as to male them straight and square with the face is called
shooting11. Thesinkingoftheedgeofonepieceoftimberintoanotheriscalledhousing12. Thesemicircularobjectformedonedgesorsurfacesofwoodiscalledbead13. Coveringtheentireorpartofsurfacewithveneersiscalledveneering14. MethodofjoiningtwoboardsatrightangleiscalledDovetailing
Steel1. Platsmaybeofanysizeor thicknessbuttgenerally theyarenotrolledto thickness28
mm2. Maximumareaofrolledplatesislimitedto30sq.m3. plates
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x Platsaswebsandflangesofdeepbeams,columnflanges,columnbasesx Flatsconsiderableusex Angleusedindiff.componentsx Tsectionforrooftrussesandforcertainbuiltupcolumnsx Channelsbeams,columnsx Joists/Isectionbeamscolumns
11. Rivetingthecommonpracticetoconnectthemembersbyrivets.12. Rivetsusedinbuildingconstructionaremadeofsoftsteelwithatensilestrengthof3500to4000kg/cm
sq13. Lapjointconnectionsconnectingplatesarelappedoneovertheotherandriveted14. Buttjointconnectionconnectedwiththeaidofadditionalplants15. Weldedconnected thediameterof theholes iskept1mmlarger thanexternaldiameterof thebolt
thread.
Structuralmembers1. Steelbeamsincludegirders,lintelsetc2. Simplestbeamconsistsofasinglerolledsteeljointsectionorananglesection3. Totakegreaterloads,compoundsectionsareused4. plategirdersareusedwhenverylargeloadshavetobecarried5. Beams carrying light loads andwhere the shearing forces are not excessive, openweb beams are
used.6. If thebeamisaccommodatedbelowthetopflangeof thegirdertheconnection iscalledundergirder
flange.7. Ifthetopflangeofthebeamandportionofthewebiscutoffsoastoaccommodatethetopflangeof
theorderthatiscalledtopflush.8. Whenabeamata lower level is tobeconnected toagirderatahigher level that iscalledblocked
connection.9. Beamsmeetingathigherlevelswiththegirderarecalledblockedandelevatedconnection.10. Ifbeamsandgirdersareconnectedatdifferentlevels,iscalledhangerconnections.
Comprehensiveplanning
1. Theprocessofcomprehensiveplginvolvesconceptualizingacityfromthebroadtotheparticular.2. Thedecisionmakermustseethecityinitsmainphysicaloutlinesandelementsasmuchaswecan
retaininonecoherent,unifiedimage.3. To this core picturization is tied as much dynamic economic, social, political, quantitative abstract
informationofalltypesasmuchdetailasthemindcanhandleandrecall.4. Althoughtimeandcontinuousapplicationpermitenlargementandintensificationofthecompletemental
image,thereislimittothetotalbreadthanddepthwhichisavailableorrecall.
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5. Whenthisconsciouscapacityisreached,furtherdevelopmentshouldtakeplaceinthequalityofmentalapproach,attitudes,analyticalsynthesisandconclusions.
6. Comprehensive plan is an official public document adopted by a local govt as a policy guide todecisionsaboutthephysicaldevelopmentofthecommunity.
7. Naturecomprehensiveencompassesallgeographicalpartsofthecommunity&allfunctionalelementswhichhaveabearingonphysicaldevelopment.
Generalsummarizes policies and proposals doesnt indicate specific location or detailedregulations.
Longrange2030yr Focusonphysicaldevt. Firstapolicyinstrumentandonlysecondatechnicaldocument
8. FunctionsPolicydeterminationeffectuationCommunicationandeducation9. Elementslanduse
communityfacilities circulation utilities urbandesign
Multilevelplanning
1. Multilevelplanningprocedureisdeterminedlargelybythecountriessituation,itssociopoliticalclimateanditsdevelopmentsalting.
2. Multilevelplgimpliesthatplgwouldbeundertakenateachlevelindependently.3. M.L.Pistwowayapproaches,requiringalotofpreparatoryeffortsfrombothends.4. Process
i. Determinationofapproachlevelsofdecisionmakingwithreferencetovariousactivities.ii. Organizing interaction between different levels in terms of exchange of information andinteractiveconsultationstagesofplanformulationandplanappraisal.
iii. The nesting of plans at different levels and integrating them into an unified frame.(sectoral,spatial,operational)
Preparationofurbanandreg.structureplans
10. Structure Social economic and physical systems of an area, so far as they are subject to planningcontrolorinfluence.
11. Structureplanwillheedtoaccountregionalandnationalpolicies.
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12. Structurehavetorelatetothewiderstrategicframeworkatnationalandregionallevel.13. Subjectsofstructureplan
Population educationEmploymentandincomesourcesothersocialandcommunityservicesIndustryandcommerceconversation,townscopelandscapeTransportation utilitiesShopping othersubjects
14. processIsawrittendocumentillustrateddiagramanaticallythelocalplgauthoritiespoliciesandmainproposalsforchangeonalargescale.(notsitespecific)
involvespreparationofadraftplanbythecountryauthorityanditsapprovalafterconsiderationandmodificationbycentralgovt.
15. FunctionsTostateandjustifytopublicandgovt.1. Tointerpretnationalandregionalpolicies.2. Toprovideframeworkandstatutorybasisforlocalplan
16. Implementation1. Throughlocalplans&actionplans.
Planningsurveys
1. Guideonprimarysurveysforsmallandmediumsizetowns,TCPorganization,GOVTofIndia,1972.2. Guideonlanduseclassificationforplanningpurposes,TCPorganization,GOVTofIndia,1973.3. theprocessofcollectionofdata
a. physicalb. socioeconomic
i. housing,ii. transport,iii. industries,employmentiv. socialservices
Iscalledplanningsurvey.4. censusreportcontains
a. houselistb. householdschedulec. individualship*demography
5. preliminaryplanningsurveya. preparationofbasemap
i. allphysicalfeaturesb. existinglandusesurvey
i. groupingoflandusesii. classificationiii. identificationiv. partlybuiltplotsv.categorizationofindustryvi. varyingusesinthesamebuildingsvii. permanentlandusesurveyrecord
c. utilitiesandservicessurvey
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i. watersupply,electricity,drainage,gasd. communityfacilitieslikeschools,clinics,hospitals,parksetc
i. locationofvariousfacilitiesii. interrelationships
e. problemidentificationandreconnaissancesurveyi. problemsofcongestionii. slumareasiii. unplannedgrowth
f. householdandtransportsurveyi. housingii. transportiii. educationiv. recreationv.shopping
6. landusescolorsVacant whiteResidential yellowCommercial blueIndustrial violetTransport,communication greyPublicutilities brownPublicandsemipublic redOpenspaces greenAgriculture bluishgreen
7. Collectionofdata1. Primary2. Secondary
8. PrimarydataFirsthandinformation,gatheredfromoriginalsources,interviews,directobservations.9. SecondarydataSecondhanddata,census,andlibrary.10. BiasIswhatwealwaystryingtominimizeandavoid.11. SelfsurveysQuestionnairesthroughmails,surveyformstomotorists,shoppers, inserter inthenews
papers.12. InterviewsFacetoface,telephone.13. DirectinspectionTrafficcounts,recreationareausesurveys,housingqualitystudies.14. ParticipantobservationSurveyerbecomesaresidentofthecommunitytolearn.15. Questionsofasurveyarealsocalledthevariables.16. Nominalscale(yes/no)setsofnames
Eg:Sex,profession,industry.17. OrdinalscaleRankingorder.Eg:Priorities,socialclass,housingconditionclimate.18. IntervalscaleIntervalsbetweenorderedresponses. Eg:Distence,age,weight,temperature.19. SampleSomefractionofthewholeisusuallyadequatetoestimatetheinformationaccuratelyforthe
wholepopulation.20. Asamplethatisnotrespectiveiscalledbiasedsample.21. SimplerandomsamplingEverypersonmusthaveanequalchanceofbeingpickedforthesample.22. Interviewtechniquecalledsnowballing.
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23. SystematicsamplingPickingsystematically.(Every5th).24. StratifiedsamplingToensuretherepresentativenessofasample.25. Cluster sampling Alternatingmeans for keeping the size small, thus keeping the costs down while
insuringrepresentativenessinthesample.26. thepioneeringwithrespectivethecivilsurveywascarriedoutbyPatrickgeddes(18541932)27. surveyscarriedouttocollectdata
x functionalsurveymeansofcommunication conditionsofindustries implementationofplan financialaspects
Socialsurveycommunitystructures history architecture healthcondition housing services
territorialsurveyphysicalfeature agriculturalsoil forest climate,soil
vitalsurveyactualpopulation futurepopulation growthoftown density occupation
28. typesofsurveysa. preliminarysurveylanduse,industries,railways,services,amenities,highwaysb. national survey administration, agriculture, communication, economy, geography, urban
settlements,naturalresourcesc. regionalsurveyseconomic,physical,socialamenitiesofregionsd. civicsurveysattownlevel,amenities,contours,housing,industries
29. basicvillage400500pop,agriculture30. ruraltown20003000pop,cultural,commercial,administrativecenter31. servicetown50007000pop,smallscaleindustries.
Applicationofremotesensingtechniques
1. RemotesenseddataformsAerialphotographs,satellileimageries.2. TostudyandmonitorIandfeature,naturalresourcesanddynamiceffectsofhumanactivities.3. Utility of R.S.Techniques are in agriculture, land use, soil resources, forestry, oil and mineral,
exploration,geloryandhydrogeology,watermanagement,mapmaking.
33
4. Existingbasemapmaybeupdatedindicatingphysicalandculturalfeaturesincludingroadnetworkwiththehelpoflatestsmallscaleaerialphotography.
5. SurveyofIndiaismakingtypeofareailphotographsforupdatingtoposheets.6. Drainagemapswillbepreparedbytoposheetsandsatelliteimagenary.7. NRSA prepares surface water body map of geological, geomorphological mapIIRS water potential
areasgroundwaterpotentialareassoilmaps,landusemap,forestandvegifatialmaps.8. With the advent of computer digital image analysismuchmore details from the imageries could be
extracted.9. SocioeconomicdatacouldbecombinedandanalysedusingGIS.10. Digital image analysis and computer facilities and trained interdisciplinary term of specialists are
availableatNRSAHyd,ISROBangalore.11. Urbanareamappingandhumansettlementanalysisusingvisualandmanualinterpretationfacilitiesare
thereinstateTCPdepts.12. Based on the scale of areal photograph and imaginary, the data base may be aggregated or
disaggregatedatanylevel.13. Databasefortwodifferentdatesmaybecomparedtodetectchangesusingrespectiveconverge.14. Aerialphotographsurbanareas,imageriesregionallevel.15. Areal photographs(23cm*23cm) are taken with the specially designed, sophisticated cameras with
distortionfreelenses.16. 1:50000providecontoursof10m
1:250005cm1:100002cm
17. Usefulscalesofmapsemployedforregionalplgare1:250000,1:50000.18. Otheruses Inventoryofvacantlands
HousecountanddwellingdensityEstimationofpopUrbanchangedetectionParkingstudiesStudyofslumsUrbanrenewalandidentificationofconservationareSiteanalysisandplanningTrafficstudiesEnvtstudies
Hierarchyofroadsandlevelsofservices
1. classificationofurbanroadsa. expressways
i. formotortrafficwithfullorpartialcontrolofaccessii. providedwithgradeseparationatintersectionsiii. toprovideformovementofheavyvolumesathighspeedsiv. freeflowconditionsv.connectmajorpointsoftrafficgenerationvi. toservetripsofmediumandlonglengthsbetweenres,ind,comm.,CBDareasvii. Parking,loading,unloadingpedestriansareprohibited.
b. arterialstreetsi. thoroughtrafficusuallyoncontinuousroute
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ii. betweenCBDtoresi,suburbansiii. generallyspacedatlessthan1.5kmsinCBDs8kmsindevelopedurbanfringes
iv. parking,loadingetcareregulatedv.pedestriansonlyatintersections
c. subarterialstreetsi. accesstoadjoiningareasii. parking,loadingetcareregulatediii. generallyspacedatlessthan05kmsinCBDs,35kmsindevelopedurbanfringes
d. collectorstreetsi. collectionanddistributionoftrafficii. inresi,ind,neighborhoodsiii. fewparkingrestrictionsexceptduringpeakhours
e. localstreetsi. accesstoresi,business,etcii. Allowsloading,pedestrians,parkingetc.
2. classificationofruralroadsa. nationalhighways
i. connectsports,foreignhighways,capitalofstatesb. statehighways
i. connectsnationalheadquartersandimportantcitiesii. samestandardasnationalhighways
c. districtroadsi. servesareasofproductionandmarketingii. Capableoftakingtrafficintotheheartofruralareas.
d. villageroadsi. connectsvillageswithnearestnational,stateorrailways
Intersectionandparkingareas
1. intersectionthegeneralareawhere2ormorewaysjoinoracross2. Halfofthefatalandseriousroadaccidentsinbuiltupareasoccuratjunctions.3. principlesinagooddesign
a. Thenumberofintersectionsshouldbekeptaminimum.Ifnecessarysomeminorroadsmybeconnectedwitheachotherbeforejoiningthemajorroad.
b. Hazardousmovementsbydriversareeliminatedbyvarious techniquessuchaschannelizingandstaggering.
c. Thedesignshouldpermitthedrivertodiscernquicklyeitherfromthelayoutortrafficsignsd. Layoutshouldfollownaturalvehiclepathse. Numberofconflictpointsshouldbeminimized.f. Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequatespaceatthejunctions.4. Atgradejunctionwhereallroadsjoinorcrossatthesamelevel.
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5. Gradeseparatedjunctionscrossingmanoeuvresatdifferentlevels6. Itisdesirablethattheintersectionroadsmeetatornearlyatrightangles.7. Visibilityatintersectionsanyobstructionsshouldbeclearoftheminimumvisibilitytriangleforaheight
of1.2Mtsabovetheroadway.8. forruralroads
Designspeedofmajorroad min.visibilitydistancealongamajorroadInK.P.H
100 22080 18065 14550 110
9. forurbanroads
typeofroad visibilitydistancealongamajorroadallpurposeprimarydistributor 120150districtorlocaldistributor 90accessroad 60
ParkingParkingspacerequirementstandards
S.NO. Landuse1. Residential
1. Detached,semidatachedrowhouses:Plotareaupto100sq.m
Plotareafrom101to200sq.mPlotareafrom201to300sq.mPlotareafrom301to500sq.mPlotareafrom501to1000sq.mPlotarea1001sq.mandabove2. Flats3. Special,costlydevelopedarea.4. Multistoreyedgrouphousingschemes.
2. Offices
3. Industrialpremises4. Shopsandmarkets5. Restaurants6. Theatresandcinemas
7. Hotelsandmotels1.Fiveandfourstarhotels2.Threestarhotels
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3.Twostarhotels4.Motels
8. Hospitals
1. maxparkingarearequiredforacar3mx6m(individual)2.5mx5m(community)
2. Spacereqt.forcommercialvehicle3.75mx7.5m3. forbicycle1.4m1.8m
Onstreetparkingmethods
ParallelparkingN=L/5.9L
X
y30angleN=L1.25/5
1.255
45angleN=L1.25/3.5460angleN=L2.16/2.89RightangleN=L/2.5
4. offstreetparkinga. surfacecarparksb. multistoreycarparksc. roofparksd. mechanicalcarparkse. undergroundcarparks
Trafficsafetyandtrafficlaws
1. Trafficregulationsdealswithcontrolofvehicles,driversandroadusers.2. Controlofvehiclesdealswithregistration,weight,size,design,construction,andmaintenance.3. Driverregulationsdealwithlicensing,operationofvehicles.4. Roaduserregulationsdealwithrulesofpedestrians,cyclists,motorcyclists.5. SpeedlimitsinurbanareasIndianconditions
Different categories of road andstreets
SpeedlimitsinKPHGroupI GroupIILightandmed.Vehicles Heavyvehicles
Majorroadsofarterial/subarterialmostlyinopenandthinlybuiltupareas
50 40
N=numberofparkingspaces
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Roadswithmoderatetrafficsuitedinsemibuiltupareas
40 30
Congestedroadsinbuiltupareas 30 20
6. UniformvehiclecodeU.KActIuniformmotorvehicleadministration,registrationcertificateoftitleandantitheftact.ActIIuniformmotorvehicleoperatorsandchauffeurslicenseact.ActIIIuniformmotorvehiclecivilliabilityact.ActIVuniformmotorvehiclesafetyresponsibilityact.ActVuniformactregulatingtrafficonhighways.
7. U.Ktheroadtrafficact1972PartIprincipleroadsafetyprovisionsPartIIconstructionanduseofvehiclesandequipmentPartIIIlicensingofdriversofvehiclesPartIVlicensingofdriversofheavygoodsvehiclesPartVdrivinginstructionsPartVIthirdpartyliabilitiesPartVIImiscellaneousandgeneral.
8. India,motorvehiclesact1939.
ChapterIpreliminaryChapterIIlicensingofdriversofmotorvehiclesChapterIIIlicensingofconductorsofstagecarriagesChapterIVcontroloftransportvehiclesChapterVconstruction,equipmentandmaintenanceofmotorvehicles.ChapterVIcontroloftrafficChapterVIImotorvehiclestemporaryleavingorvisitingIndiaChapterVIIIinsurancefmotorvehiclesagainstthirdpartyriskaChapterIXoffences,penaltiesandprocedures.ChapterXmiscellaneous
Principlesoftrafficengineeringandtransportationplanning1. Trafficengineering
Dealswith the planning andgeometric design of streets, highways andabutting lands, andwithtrafficoperationthereon,astheiruseisrelatedtothesafe,convenientandeconomictransportationofpersonsandgoods.2. functionsoftrafficengineering
a. collection,analysis,andinterpretationofdatapertainingtotraffici. ODsurveyii. Volumecountsiii. Speed,delayandtraveltimemeasurementsiv. Accidentstatisticsv.Parkingcharacteristicsvi. Pedestrianbehavioranduseofstreetsvii. Capacitystudiesviii. Economiclosscausedbyinferiortrafficfacilities
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b. Trafficandtransportationplanningi. Toensureasafe,orderlyandfullyintegratedtransportsystem.ii. Relatedtolanduseiii. Selectionandimplementationofalternativesolutions
c. Trafficdesigni. Geometricdesignofhighwaysandstreetsii. Intersectiondesigniii. Schemesforgradeseparatedinterchangesiv. Designofoffstreetandonstreetparkingv.Designofterminals
d. Measuresforoperationoftraffici. Legislationandenforcementmeasuresdrivers,roadusersii. Managementmeasuresonewaystreets,turningsatjunctions,tidalflow,iii. Measuresforparkingiv. Trafficcontroldevices
e. Administrationi. Programsintendedtosafeandefficienttrafficii. Education,legislationandenforcementmeasures
3. transportationplanningTounderstandthenatureof theproblemsof trafficandformulateproposalsfor thesafeand
efficientmovementofgoodsandpeoplefromoneplacetoanother.4. stagesoftransportplanning
a. surveyandanalysisofexistingconditionsb. forecast,analysisoffutureconditionsandplansynthesisc. evaluationd. programadaptationandimplementatione. continuingstudy
Methodsofconductingsurveys
Speed,journeytimeanddelaysurveysVehiclevolumecounts,classificationandoccupancyOriginanddestinationsurveyParkingsurveysSpeed,journeytimeanddelaysurveys
Speedistherateofmovementoftraffic.Spotspeedistheinstantaneousspeedofavehicleataspecifiedlocation.Runningsped is theaveragespeedmaintainedbyavehicleoveragivencoursewhile thevehicle is in themotion.
Runningspeed=lengthofcourse = lengthofcourseRunningtimejourneytimedelay
Journeyspeedisknownasoveralltravelspeedincludingalldelaysincurredenroute.Journeyspeed= distance
Totaljourneytime(includingdelays)
Methodsofmeasuringspotspeedsa) Thosethatrequireobservationofthetimetakenbyavehicletocoveraknowndistance.
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b) Radarspeedmeterwhichautomaticallyrecordstheinstantaneousspeed.c) Photographicmethod.
Thelongbasemethodsusedarei. Directtimingprocedureii. Enoscopeiii. Pressurecontacttubes
Methodsformeasuringrunningspeedandjourneyspeeda) Movingobservermethodb) Registrationnumbermethodc) Elevatedobservermethod
Vehiclevolumecounts,classificationandoccupancyIf traffic flow data are available over the past number of years, the rate at which traffic flow has
increased in the past can be easily determined. Extrapolating the past trend into the future, a reasonableindicationofthefuturerateofgrowthoftrafficismadepossible.Trafficforecastingisanimportantstepinthetransportationplanningprocess.Typesofcounts
i. Averageannualflow,expressedinvehiclesperyear.ii. Annualaveragedailytraffic(AADT),expressedIvehiclesperday.iii. Hourlyflow,expressedinvehiclesperhour.
Methodsfortrafficcountsa) Manualmethodsb) Combinationofmanualandmechanicalmethodsc) Automaticdevicesd) Movingobservermethode) Photographicmethods
VehicleoccupancysurveysVehicleoccupancysurveysareeasy toconduct forcarsandmotorized twowheelers.Theobservers
cannotethenumberofoccupantsofeveryoneofsuchvehiclesbystandingbytheroadside.Forbuses,theoccupancycanbedeterminedbyexaminingtheticketsales.
OriginanddestinationsurveyIn a transportation study, it is often necessary to know the exact origin and destination of the trips.
InformationyieldedbytheODsurveyincludeslanduseofthezonesoftheoriginanddestination,householdcharacteristicsofthetripmakingfamily,time,purposeofthetripandmodeoftravel.Usesofthestudy
i. Todeterminetheamountofbypassabletrafficthatentersatown,andthusestablishestheneedforabypass.
ii. Todeveloptripgenerationandtripdistributionmodelsintransportplanningprocess.iii. To determine the extent towhich the present road system is adequate and to plan for newfacilities.
iv. Toassesstheadequacyofparkingandtoplanforfuture.
Surveymethodsa) Homeinterviewsurvey
i. Fullinterviewtechnique
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ii. Homequestionnairetechniqueb) Roadsideinterviewsurveyc) Postcardquestionnairesurveyd) Registrationnumberplatesurveye) Tagsonvehicles.
ParkingsurveysParkingisoneoftheseriousproblemsthatconfronttheurbanplannerandthetrafficengineer.Before
anymeasureforthebettermentoftheconditionscanbeformulated,basicdatapertainingtotheavailabilityofparkingspace,extentofitsusageandparkingdemandareessential.Parkingaccumulation:thetotalnumberofvehiclesparkedinanareaatspecifiedmoment.Parkingvolume:thenumberofvehiclesparkedinaparticularareaoveragivenperiodoftime.Parkingload:theareaundertheparkingaccumulationcurveduringaspecifiedperiod.Parkingduration:thelengthoftimespentinaparkingspace.Parkingindex:percentageof thetheoreticallyavailablenumberofparkingbaysactuallyoccupiedbyparkedvehicles.
Parkingindex = noofbaysoccupied x100Theoreticalnumberofbaysavailable
Parkingturnover:rateoftheusageoftheavailableparkingspace.Typesofparkingsurveys
i. Parkingspaceinventoryii. Parkingusagesurveybypetroliii. Questionnairetypeparkingusagesurveyiv. Cordonsurveyv.Photographicmethod
Modesoftransportation1. transportmodes
a. railwaysx surfacex undergroundx elevated
b. roadtransportc. airtransportd. watertransport
x coastalshippingx internationalshippingx inlandwatertransport
e. pipelinesf. ropeways
2. speed
Sno mode NormalspeedIndiakm/hr remarks1 railway 5080 Dependsonguageand
numberoftracks2 Roadtransport Dependsonpavement
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CaraBusesandtrucks2wheelerscyclesautorickshawbullockcart
508030602550815153035
width,terrain
4 AirtransportBoeing747Boeing707Feederaircraft
1000950300400
5 WatertransportOceanlinersCoastalshipsInlandwaterbarges
355515351025
6 Pipelines 5107 Ropeways 510
3. safetyRailtransport Ifadequatemeasuresaretakenatsignals,itssafe.Ifaccidentstake
placelossisheavyRoadtransport Unsafe,whencrossing,overtakingAirtransport Safety,becauseohighstandards.Accidentsbecauseoffog,birds,
storms,etcWatertransport Safe,becauseofstrictstandardsandconstructionandmaintenancePipelines,ropeways safe
4. AdequacyRailtransport Canmeetseasonalfluctuationsintraffic,Roadtransport Unsafe,whencrossing,overtakingAirtransport Safety,becauseohighstandards.Accidentsbecauseoffog,birds,
storms,etcWatertransport Safe,becauseofstrictstandardsandconstructionandmaintenancePipelines,ropeways safe
Principlesofvisualcomposition
1. ImportantfactortobeconsideredinUrbanDesignArrangementofspacesGoodcompositionOrderlyandpleasingPleasurefollowsorder
2. principlesofcompositionUnity
x Onenessandbringsharmonywiththesurroundings.x Similarformsgivecoherencetothepartsandintegritytothewhole.
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x Anurbanformsoplannedandcreatedwillcreateasinglepictureofunity.x Dissimilarforms,texture,colorlackunity.
Segregation
x Compositionshouldformanindependentunitbyseparatingfromothersbyenclosingmasses.x Itcanbemadeupneutralforms,averagetexturesorsubduedcolorsofbuildingmasses.
Coherence
x Complicatedcompositionslackcoherence.x Toomanysortsofbuildings,elements,andaccessoriesresultinlackofcoherence.
Balance
x SymmetricalbalanceBalancemeansequalityanditcanbeeasilyobtainedbysymmetricaltypeofplants or features on either side of the central axis of composition. Balance should bedynamic,vitalhenceitshouldberhythmic.
x Asymmetrical or Occult balance Too unequal masses on either side of the central axis formasymmetricalbalance.Meticulouslyarrangedoccultbalanceaddssoftnessand freedom tothecomposition.
Scale
x Thebuildingorgroupofbuildingsmustbeinscalewithitssurroundings.x Thepartsofthecompositioninrelationtoeachothershouldexhibittheirtruesize.
Rhythmandreputation
x Itisadevisetogivecontinuitytothedesign.x Itdevelopsrhythmicsequenceproducingacoherenteffect.x Usedistinctiveelementsforarhythmicarrangement(columns,openingslikewindows),toholdtogether
andcarrytheeyefromparttotheother.Color
x Selectpaintsforlongcoloreffects.x Afeelingofcoherenceindesignisachievedbycoloraswellorbysimplerepetitionofthesamecolorat
regularintervals.Texture
x It is thesurfacequalitywhichgivea textilesensationwhentouched,suchassoftcumhard,smooth,roughetc.,
x Sandstonecourse.x Marbletranslucentandsoft
LightandShade
x OccasionalShadescastbylargeopeningsproduceapictorialeffect.x Columnsandarcadesthrowshadowsinthemorningandeveningproducingaconstantchangeoflight
andshade.
x Qualityofcoloralsochangesaccordingtotheintensityoflight.
3. Visualaspectofplanarrangement
43
x View:isasceneobservedfromagivenplace.x Vista: isa confinedview toadominant feature.Eachvistahasa viewingstation.Awell
conceivedvistahasthebalanceandrhythm.
x Axis: isa linearelementconnecting twoormoreelementssuchasadrive,astreetoraparkway.Itisdirectional,orderly,dominating.
4. ColortheoryPrimaryhuesRED,YELLOW,BLUE,GREEN.Harmonizingcolorshuesadjacentonthecolorwheel.Hue(firstdimension),bydefinitionitispurecolor,containingnowhite,blackorgrey.Value(2dimension),itisthedegreeofcolorsluminosityYellowthelightestcolorofspectrumwheelhighervalueVioletthelowestvalue.Intensity(3dimension),givesomemeasureofqualityofrelativecolorfulnessorgreyness.Alsoknownaschroma,purityorsaturation.Asspectralhuesbecomegreyertheyarecalledastones.Redisthemostadvancingcolor.5. VIBGYORcold
6. EffectsofhueEffect hue contrastExciting bright,red,orange highStimulating red,orange moderateCheering lightorangeyellow,lightgrey moderateNeutralizing grey,white/offwhite lowRetraining coolgrey,lightgreen,lightblue lowRelaxing blue,green lowSubduing purple moderateDepressing black low7. color time size weight volume
Warm overestimated thingsseem heavier decreasesCoolunderestimated thingsseem lighter increases
8. Usecoolcolorsshorter&forareaswheresmallerroutineormonotonoustasksareperformed.9. NaturalcolorsystemEdwardHeringstheory10. SvenHasselpreparedacoloratlas.11. Wecantseeanobjectifbeyondadistanceof3500timesitssize.12. rangeofconventionaldistance3013. tomakeoutfacialexpressions4014. tomakerecognizeaface8015. Max.Distancefordiscoveringaction450forseeingpeople4000.
44
16. 450(1:1)fullenclosure17. 300(1:2)thresholdofenclosure18. 180(1:3)minimumenclosure19. 140(1:4)lossofenclosure20. shapeis2dimensional21. formis3D22. colorhueorchroma23. intensitygrayingeffect24. valuetint(addingwhite)(highkey)25. shading(addingblack)(lowkey)26. tonerangeoftintsandshades27. VariouscolorsystemsMunsell,Prangetc.
Senseofplaceandspace,divisionofspace
1. Inurbandesign,thereshouldbeskilleddeploymentofarchitecturalenergysothattheinfluenceoffinebuildingsradiatesoutward,articulatingthewholefabricofthecity.
2. Architectureisthearticulationofspacesoastoproduceintheparticipatoradefinitespaceexperienceinrelationtopreviousandanticipatedspaceexperience.
x Involvementx Meetingtheskyx Meetingthegroundx Pointsinspacex Recessionplaces(Patios,entrancegatewaysetc)x Designindepth(asenseofmovementindepth)x Ascentanddescent(useofvaryinglevelsastheelements)x Convexityandconcavityindesignx Relationshiptomanx Designerasparticipatorx Apprehension,representationandrealization.
3. Thenatureofdesignsimultaneousmovementsystems.4. principlesofdesign
x unityrepetitionofidenticalelementsx Headofwellproportionedhumanfigure=1/7oftotalbodyheight.x Proportiongoldenmeanisaratio1:1.618standard.
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x Certainproportionsaremorepleasingthanothers.x Subliminaleffect.
CONTENTS:
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
ChapterI
I.EVOLUTIONOFBONDS:
1. Cityfinancingapproachandanalysis
2. Economicsofcityfinancing
3. Measurestooptimizerevenue
4. Pooledfinancingforcityinfrastructure
5. Cityrestructuring
6. BondmarketinIndia
II.NEEDOFMUNICIPALBONDS:
1. Resourcegap
2. Resourcemobilizationofeffort
3. Evidentofneweconomicpolicy
4. Municipalbonds
III.THEINNOVATIONSINTHEBONDMARKET
1. Municipalbonds
2. Infrastructurebonds
IV.TYPESOFMUNICIPALBONDS
1. GObonds(Generalobligatory)
2. RBbonds(revenuebonds)
V.CASESTUDYAMC(AhmedabadMunicipalCorporation)
REFERENCES.
KeyWords:
Propertytax:Propertytaxisimposedbyalllocalbodies.Thebasisisthegrossvalueofthepropertyintermsofrentalvalueortherentthepropertywouldnormallyfetchifletout.
46
Usercharges:Userchargesarethechargesonserviceslikewatersupply,transportation,andelectricity.
Octrio:Octrioisthemostimportantandelasticsourceofrevenue.Thesearecheckpostbasedtaxes.
Bonds:BondsaretheloansthatcanmaketotheGovernmentorstateorcentralandalsocanmaketothemunicipality.
Grants in aid:The local bodies receive grants in aid from the state government on the basis of somepredeterminedcriteria.Thesevaryfromstatetostate.
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INTRODUCTION:
A bond is a loan that canmake to an institution that canmake the loan to the government, a state, and a localmunicipality or to a company.Companies and government need thismoney to finance projects like new building androads.Whenyoulandmoneytoaninstitution,theIOU(Ioweyou)theygiveyouiscalledbond.ThisIOUistheirpromiseto repay both your principal (the amount you land) and a fixed amount of interest for allocating them to borrow yourmoney.Asabondinvestorwehavemanychoices.Theyare
PUBLICSECTORBONDSbothstateandcentral)Bharatpetroleum,Hindustanpetroleum,AndhraPradeshpowerfinancecorporationetc..
PRIVATESECTORBONDS:Reliance,Citybank.
MUNICIPALBONDS:AMC(AhmedabadMunicipalCorporationBonds)
FINANCIALINSTITUTIONBONDS:HDFC,ICICI,IDBIetc..
RBI8%reliefbondsunityataleisureof5years.
INCOMEBONDS:TheyinvestonlyinGvtsecurityisthathasnosecurityrisk.Theyaresuitablefor1yeartimehorizon.
GILTFUNDS:Theyinvestonlyingovernmentsecuritiesthathavenopcreditrisk.theyaresuitableforoneyearhorizon.
SHORTTERMFUNDS:They investwithmixofGovt&corporatesecurities.short termmaturitiesmuchasone to threeyears.Theyaresuitableforperiodof6months.
FIXEDMATURITYFUNDS
LIQUIDFUNDS:TheyinvestinveryshorttermbondssuchasGovttreading,bills
BONDSAREKEYTOSAFETY
TheWellacceptedandacknowledgedbeliefamongstIndianInvestorswasthat"Theroutetoprosperityisonlythroughequity",butBondshasslowlygivenwaytotheperceptionthatOneshouldgrowhiswealthwithminimumriskandatagradualpacewhichispossibleonlythroughsecuredinvestmentsinbondsanddebentures".BondsoccupythepredominantshareofthecapitalmarketsindevelopedeconomieslikeUSAandEuropeancountries.Intheseeconomiesthemajorproportionofthefinancialflowsarethroughthemediumofbondmarkets.However,inIndia,Bondmarketswerelargelyrelegatedtothebackseatintheearly70swhentheequitycultwasdevelopinginIndia.Ittookthecenterstageonlyduringthe80s.Theinitiativewastakenduringtheearly80sbythepublicsectorutilitieslikeNHPC,PFC.MTNLetcbyissuingthebondstomeettheirfinancialrequirements.Asacheapersourceoffundingcomparedtoequity,thesebondsturnedouttobeanexcellentmediumof financingduringthisperiod.However, from1987onwardstherewasa lull in thebondmarketsforabout5to6years.BondmarketsinIndiareceivedashotinitsarmin1992whenIDBIbroughtanewconceptofDeepdiscount(DD)bonds.TheDDbondissueofIDBIwasagreatrevolutionarystepandgotathumpingsuccess.IthadofferedareturnofRS.1lack on an investment of Rest. 3600/ after a period of 25 years. The resounding success of this bondworked as aspringboardfortheBondmarketsinIndia.Theotherinstitutions,whichwerecloselywatchingthesuccessofthisBondIssueofIDBI,wereIFCI,ICICI,andSCICI.Boosted by the success of this IDBI, IFCI and ICICI also come out with similar Bond issues, which also got similarresponsesfromtheinvestorcommunity.TherewasrallyofBondissuesbythesefinancialInstitutionsafterIcecapsDecember95publicissue.EventhecorporatelikeL&T,TISCO,ArvinMillsandShookLeyland joinedthebandwagonandcomeoutwith theirBondoffers,evincingenthusiasticresponsesfromtheinvestingcommunity.
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Equitywithafewnotableexceptions,hasbeensheddingtheirvaluecontinuouslyforthelastfouryears.SinceApril1998,equitymarketshavelostaboutonefifthoftheircapitalization,inflictingmassivelossestotheinvestors.Intheseturbulentstockmarkettimes,itmakessensetoparkthefundsinthesaferheavensalongwithprospectsofgoodreturns.Withcommercialbanksofferingmeaslyinterestonsavingaccounts,theprofitableinvestmentoptionavailabletoinvestoristhefixedincomesecuritiesintheformofcompanyfixeddeposits,thedebenturesofthecorporateentitiesandbondsoffinancialInstitutions.ThephenomenonoffindingsuccorinbondsduringtheturbulentstockmarketisnotuniquetoIndia.Allovertheglobethecrashofstockmarketsareforcingmajorityoftheinvestorstofindsolaceandprotectioninbondmarkets,especiallythebondmarketsofUnitedStates.Therefore,therehasbeenasuddenupsurgeinthedemandforUSBonds.Asaresult,alargeproportionofAsianFundsaremovingtoUSBondMarketsandpushingupthebondprices.I.EVOLUTIONMUNICIPALBONDS1.Cityfinancingapproachandanalysis
Theurbanpopulationof India is projected to grow from217million in 991 to around350million in 2001, andfurtherto658millionbytheyear2025.Thenumberofurbanagglomerationsandtownsarealsoexpectedtogrowfrom3609in1991towellover4000bytheyear2001andmorebeyond.Theresourcesrequirementsfor70oddcitiesforwhichbothlocalbodiesanddevelopmentauthoritiesexistandforthe30millionpluscitiesbytheyear2001havebeenworkedoutandpresentedinanearlierchapter.Fromthesizeofresourcesrequiredonecanimaginethemagnitudeoftheeffortsneeded for mobilizing, the resources. Unless the economic base of these cities is strengthened and the urbaninfrastructures,municipalservicesandamenitiesareprovidedatlevelsthatmatchtheirstatus,thesecitieswillnotbeinapositiontoefficientlyfunctionLiedplaytheroleincontributingtotheeconomicdevelopmentandaugmentationofthelocalfinancialresources.ItisimportanttonotethatthecontributionofurbansectortoGDPiscurrentlyexpectedtobeintherangeof5060percent.Nationaleconomicgrowthandpoverty reductioneffortswillbe increasinglydeterminedby theproductivityofthesecitiesandtowns.ForIndiancitiestobecomegrowthorientedandproductive,itisessentialtoachieveaworldclassurbansystem.Thisinturndependsonattainingefficiencyandequityinthedeliveryandfinancingofurbaninfrastructure.
2.EconomicsofCityFinancingSystem:
Thecityfinancingsystemformsthebasicstructureonwhichthephysicaldevelopmentofacityconsiderablydepends.Assuch, the development of cities and other urban centers it involves investment of capital resources in the creation of'urban/municipalandotherinfrastructure.Today,theredoesnotexistaprocessatJivenationallevel,whichcanpreciselyorindicatetheproportionofIndia'snationaloutputtobeutilizedforurbandevelopment
3.MeasurestoOptimizeRevenue
Thecitygovernmentsandvariouslocalauthoritiesresorttotheapplicationofseveralmeasuresforoptimizingrevenue,they have not fully developed the potential of the revenue sources so as to be selfsufficient.Consequently, they faceacuteshortageoffinancialresourcesinbothmaintainingtheexistinglevelsandstandardsofurbaneconomicandcivicservicesandtomeetrequirementsof futureadditions to thepopulationof thecity.Theresourcesarecapableofbeingusedforalternativepurposes.
4.PooledFinancingforMunicipalInfrastructureTraditionally,municipalcorporationsandurbanlocalbodieshavereliedonsubsidizedfundsforprovidingurbanserviceswhichconstraintstheconstraintstheintroductionofuserchargesandefficientprojectoperationandmaintenance.Inviewofthehugeresourcegap,directaccesstocapitalmarketwouldnowbeanacceptedviableoption.However,accesstocapital market requires financial discipline and enhanced credit rating. It has been the experience that only biggermunicipalcorporationsareinapositiontotaketheadvantageoftheresourcesavailableincapitalmarket.Mediumandsmallermunicipalitiesareunable todosodue toweak financialpositionand lackofcapacity toprepareviableprojectproposals. A State level pooled financing mechanism is being proposed for smaller and medium municipalities. TheobjectiveofaStatelevelpooledfinancemechanismistoprovideacosteffectiveandefficientapproachforsmallerandmedium sizedULBs to access the domestic capitalmarkets for urban infrastructure and to introduce new institutionalarrangementsformobilizingUrbanInfrastructureFinance.
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5.CityRestructuringGovernment of India is also encouraging citywide reforms and restructuring so as to ensure that cities aremanagedefficiently and become creditworthy (to attract private fina