gari fufu World - Practical Actioncdn1.practicalaction.org/...4ed1-9fe0-12212e33baf9.pdf · Fermentation, developing countries, traditional, nutritional improvement, enzymes, biotechnology

Keywords

Fermentation,developing countries,traditional, nutritional

improvement,enzymes,

biotechnology.

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Intermediate Technology Food Chain 23

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Fermentation is one of the oldest forms offood preservation technologies in the world.Indigenous fermented foods such as bread,cheese and wine, have been prepared andconsumed for thousands of years and arestrongly linked to culture and tradition, espe-cially in rural households and village commu-nities. Bread making probably originated inEgypt over 3,500 years ago. Fermentation ofmilk started in many places with evidence offermented products in use in Babylon over5,000 years ago. There is also evidence of fer-mented meat products being produced forKing Nebuchadnezer of Babylon. China isthought to be the birth-place of fermentedvegetables and the use of Aspergillus and Rhi-zopus moulds to make food products.

Fermentation is a relatively efficient, lowenergy preservation process which increasesthe shelf life and decreases the need for refrig-eration or other form of food preservationtechnology. It is therefore a highly appropriatetechnique for use in developing countries andremote areas where access to sophisticatedequipment is limited. Fermented foods arepopular throughout the world and in someregions make a significant contribution to thediet of millions of individuals.

In Asia the preparation of fermented foodsis a widespread tradition. The fermented prod-ucts supply protein, minerals and other nutri-ents that add variety and nutritional fortifica-tion to otherwise starchy, bland diets. Forinstance soy sauce is consumed throughoutthe world and is a fundamental ingredient indiets from Indonesia to Japan. Over one bil-lion litres are produced each year in Japanalone. Gundruk which is a fermented anddried vegetable product is very important forensuring food security for many Nepali com-munities especially in remote areas. Theannual production of gundruk in Nepal is esti-mated at 2,000 tons. Gundruk is an importantsource of minerals particularly during the off-season when the diet consists of mostlystarchy tubers and maize, which tend to be

low in minerals. In Africa fermented cassavaproducts (like gari and fufu) are a major com-ponent of the diet of more than 800 millionpeople and in some areas these products con-stitute over 50% of the diet.

The benefits of food fermentationThe fermentation of foods can bring numerousbenefits to people in developing countries.Fermented foods play an important role inproviding food security, enhancing livelihoodsand improving the nutrition and social wellbeing of millions of people around the world,particularly the marginalised and vulnerable.

Fermentation enhances nutritional qualitythrough the biosynthesis of vitamins, essentialamino acids and proteins, improved digestibil-ity of protein and carbohydrates, improvedbioavailability of minerals and the degradationof anti-nutritional or toxic factors. It improvesfood safety by eliminating harmful toxic com-pounds and preventing the growth of spoilageor food poisoning organisms. In addition to itsnutritive and preservative effects, fermentationenriches the diet through the production of adiversity of flavours, textures and aromas. Itimproves the keeping quality of foods andalso reduces cooking times, which in turnreduces the energy consumption required forthe preparation of foods.

Fermentation plays a significant role in thepreservation of perishable raw materials. Inthe fresh state, all foodstuffs have a limited life

Fermented food products offer tremendousopportunity for stimulating agro-industrialdevelopment in developing countries. Thisarticle discusses the importance of foodfermentation for use in developing countriesand the need for research. The followingarticles on kanji, madila, gundruk and kawalillustrate the application of fermentationtechnology for food preservation andprocessing around the world.

Opportunities for fermented foodproducts in developing countries

Production offermented soyaproducts in Indonesia

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span. This is highly dependenton the nature of the raw mater-ial and the prevailing ambientconditions and the hot, humidconditions of the tropics greatlyaccelerate the decompositionprocess. These conditions how-ever (high temperature, highhumidity) also provide idealconditions for fermentation. Leftalone, most food stuffs will fer-ment naturally – some withdesirable end results and others

with less desirable and even poisonous end-products. With knowledge of the fermentationprocess, conditions for fermentation can bemodified to encourage the growth of benefi-cial micro-organisms.

Fermentation is a cheap and energy effi-cient means of preserving perishable rawmaterials. There are several options for pre-serving fresh produce including drying, freez-ing, canning and pickling. However many ofthese are inappropriate for use on the small-scale in developing countries. For instancesmall scale canning is usually not economi-cally feasible and has serious food safetyimplications. Fermentation requires very littlesophisticated equipment, either to carry outthe fermentation or for subsequent storage ofthe fermented product.

Documentation of traditionalprocesses and optimisation ofproduction methodsAlthough foods have been preserved by fer-mentation for thousands of year, it is likelythat the microbial and enzymatic processesresponsible for the transformations werelargely unknown. It is only recently that therehas been a development in the understandingof these processes and their adaptation forcommercialisation. Most of the research intofermentation processes has been directedtowards the large scale processes such as winemaking, brewing, vinegar production andbread and cheese production. Small scale fer-mentation technologies, such as those in usein developing countries have been relativelyneglected. Although the basic principles of fer-mentation technology no doubt apply to theseproducts, subtle differences in the micro-organisms present, the raw materials and thefermentation conditions are responsible forthe diverse range and individual tastes andtextures of products which are formed.

Because of the tremendously important roleindigenous fermented foods play in food

preservation and their potential to contribute toimproved nutrition, it is imperative that theknowledge of their production is not lost. More-over, considering the potential of fermentedfoods to contribute to the growing food needsof the world it would be useful to gain a fullunderstanding of the processes to enable themto be optimised and for the development ofstarter cultures and inoculants.

There is a need for research to addressthese issues and encourage individuals to col-lect and document the traditional fermentedfoods native to their own region and diet. Sev-eral agencies and organisations recognise theimportance of traditional knowledge and fer-mented foods and are working towards theseaims:

● Several research institutes and scientists inAfrica, Asia and Latin America are recordinginformation on traditional fermented foods.

● Intermediate Technology is activelycollecting information about traditionalfood products from Africa, Asia and LatinAmerica. The first volume of products waspublished in 1997. Volume 2 will bepublished in 1999 and regional publicationson the traditional food products ofBangladesh, Southern Africa and the Andesare planned.

● The European Union has just completed anaudit of the traditional food products ofEurope. The results are being published ina series of publications.

● The Special Programme on Biotechnologyand Development Cooperation for theNetherlands Government was established in1992 to improve the access of developingcountries to biotechnological expertise andinnovation with a focus on usingbiotechnology for the benefit of small-scalefarmers and producers.

● The Food and Agriculture Organisation ofthe United Nations sees the value incollecting and preserving this source ofknowledge and in improving theapplication of biotechnology at the smallscale in developing countries (Rolle, 1997)1.

References1 Rolle, R. S. (1997). Review: Technical

opportunities and challenges to upgradingfood bioprocessing in developing countries.Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.

Mike Battcock and Dr Sue Azam-Ali can becontacted at Intermediate Technology,

Schumacher Centre for Technology andDevelopment, Bourton Hall, Bourton on

Dunsmore, Rugby CV23 9QZ, UK

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Fermentation is animportant stage inbreadmaking

Carrots are widely cultivated all over theworld and are eaten both cooked and raw.They are a rich source of carotene, which isconverted to vitamin A in the body. They arealso rich in minerals and in India are consid-ered to have many medicinal properties. InNorthern India carrots, especially a varietythat is deep purple in colour, are fermented tomake a traditional ready to serve drink knownas kanji. Kanji is very popular and consideredto have cooling and soothing properties andto be of high nutritional value.

Traditional preparation of kanjiAfter thorough washing the carrots are finelygrated. Each kilogram of grated carrot ismixed with 7 litres of water, 200 g of salt, 40 gof crushed mustard seed and 8 g of hot chillipowder. The mixture is then placed in aglazed earthenware vessel which is almostentirely sealed, leaving only a tiny hole forgases released during fermentation to escape.The mixture is then allowed to ferment forseven to ten days. The type of fermentationthat takes place is known as a lactic fermenta-tion which must be carried out in the absenceof air. Lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acidwhich reduces the pH (ie increases the acid-ity) to a level that prevents the growth of foodpoisoning organisms. The final product isslightly acidic in taste and has an attractivepurple-red colour. After fermentation thedrink is strained through fine muslin and hasto be consumed within 3 or 4 days afterwhich it goes bad. Each kilogram of gratedcarrot yields just over 7 litres of kanji. A typi-cal analysis of kanji is shown in the table.

Preservation of kanjiScientists at the Research Institute examinedthe possibility of preserving kanji to extend

its shelf life and so make it suitable for com-mercial production. As traditional kanji pro-duction can only take place during the carrotseason the feasibility of producing the bever-age from dried carrots was also investigated.The product made from dried carrot wasfound to be perfectly acceptable. Two differ-ent methods of extending the shelf life wereexamined; preservation using preservativesand pasteurisation.● It was found that kanji could be preserved

for 6 months with no loss of colour, aromaand taste by the addition of 0.03% sodiumbenzoate and 0.01% sulphur dioxide(approx. 0.2% potassium metabisulphite).

● In view of the general trend away from theuse of chemical preservatives,pasteurisation was considered as analternative option. The juice was heated to85°C and hot filled into glass bottles. Thesewere capped with crown caps and heatprocessed in boiling water for 25 minutesafter which they were allowed to cool.Storage tests at elevated temperatures(40°C) showed no change in colour, flavouror taste after 6 months.

It is believed that commercialisation of kanjiproduction is possible given these very simplemethods of processing.

Dr Berry can be contacted at the Central Food Technological Research Institute,

Mysore, 570 013, India.

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Kanji – a traditional carrot drink

Dr. Berry of the Central Food TechnologicalResearch Institute (CFTRI) in India describesan unusual traditional fermented carrotbeverage which he considers has potentialfor production by small enterprises.

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pH 3.15

Acidity % 0.43

Brix° 4.50

Salt % 2.50

Total sugars % 1.94

Reducing sugars % 1.10

Minerals as ash % 0.40

Carrots provide the basefor a refreshingfermented beverage

Keywords

Carrot, kanji,fermented,beverage,

India, foodprocessing

In the rural areas of Botswana, most house-holds rear cows. The milk is commonly fer-mented to make madila, a very popular tradi-tional product which is consumed by mostpeople. The traditional process is quite longtaking between 10 and 15 days.

The traditional methodFresh milk is filtered through a strainer andthen placed in an enamel bucket. This is thenkept in a warm place for 24 hours to initiatefermentation. The soured milk is then pouredinto a woven polypropylene sack and a fur-ther bucket of one day old soured milk isadded each day over a seven or eight dayperiod. During this period the madila contin-ues to ferment. The bag is then hung from abeam for three or four days during which timethe whey drains away through the wovenbag. Finally the madila is removed from thebag and mixed with fresh milk in a ratio of4:1 before consumption or sale.

Improving the traditional methodThe Food Laboratory of the Botswana Tech-nology Centre has investigated madila pro-duction with the objective of reducing itspreparation time and improving the levels ofhygiene and sanitation.

Fresh milk was heated to 70°C and, when

cool enough to handle, was filtered throughcheese cloth. All utensils were placed in boil-ing water and then stored in a bucket full ofwater to which a few drops of bleach hadbeen added until required. When the milk hadcooled to about 30°C a small amount of com-mercial madila was added as a starter culture.The mixture was then kept in a warm place at40-45°C (wrapped in blankets if necessary toretain the heat). Fermentation was allowed tocontinue for four days, adding more cooledpasteurised milk each day as in the traditionalmethod. On the fifth day the madila wasstrained through a clean jute bag after whichcold pasteurised milk was added until it hadthe correct acid taste (pH between 3 and 4).

Taste tests showed the final product to becomparable with traditional madila and webelieve that this improved method can beadapted for use in rural areas. The mainadvantages of the improved method are:

● the methods used are more hygienic andthe product safer to consume

● the yield of final product is greater● the preparation time is halved.

We now wish to isolate and identify themicro-organisms involved in order to producea standard starter culture, similar to thoseavailable for yoghurt production. This wouldensure the production of a standard productand perhaps open the door to small scalecommercial production of this traditionalproduct from Botswana.

Mrs Ohiokpehai and Mr Jagow can becontacted at the Botswana Technology

Centre Private Bag 008, Kanye, Botswana

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Keywords

Milk, fermentation,madila, dairy, foodprocessing, smallscale

Improving Madila – a traditionalfermented milk from Botswana

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Botswana Food Laboratory describe theimprovement of a traditional fermenteddairy product from Botswana. It shows howa simple technical investigation may openopportunities for improving incomesthrough small scale commercialisation.

Kawal is a strong smelling Sudanese, protein-rich food. Itis prepared by fermenting the leaves of a wild Africanlegume, Cassia obtusifolia. It is usually cooked in stewsand soups and used as a meat replacer or a meat extender.

The Sickle Pod plant (Cassia obtusifolia) is a wildlegume that grows in Sudan. The leaves should be col-lected late in the rainy season when the plant is fullygrown. All the stems, pods and flowers should beremoved.

If they are not removed, the final product is bitter. Theleaves should not be washed. It is thought that naturalmicro-organisms on the leaves are important for the cor-rect fermentation.

The leaves of the leguminous plant are pounded into

paste without releasing the juice. The paste is placed inan earthenware jar and covered with sorghum leaves.The whole jar is sealed with mud and buried in theground up to the neck in a cool place. Every three daysthe contents are mixed by hand.

The fermentation takes about fourteen days. The fer-mentation is extremely complex. The main micro-organ-isms are Bacillus subtilis and Propionibacterium spp. Lac-tic acid bacteria including Lactobacillus plantarum,yeasts including Candida krusei and Saccharomyces sppand moulds including Rhizopus spp are also involved.

After about fourteen days, the strongly smelling blackfermented paste is made into small balls and sun-driedfor five days.

Kawal – a traditional fermented product from Sudan

KeywordsFermented food,

Nepal, leafyvegetable, gundruk

During the months of October and November,fresh harvested leaves of mustard, radish andcauliflower are available in abundance. It isimpossible to consume such large quantitiesin the fresh state, therefore methods for theirpreservation have been adopted. The leavesundergo a type of lactic acid fermentation,thus preserving the leaves for consumptionlater in the year. Most lactic fermentationsinvolve the addition of salt, but gundruk is anexample of fermented leaves which are fer-mented without the addition of salt.

Salt is traditionally added to the raw materi-als to encourage the growth of lactic acid pro-ducing bacteria at the expense of other non-desirable organisms. The lactic acid producedby bacterial fermentation lowers the pH of theproduct and prevents the growth of otherspoilage organisms. In general, foods with a pHlower than 4.6 can be considered as saferfoods.

With the preparation of gundruk, the lacticacid bacteria are not given any assistance tomultiply. The fermentation depends on thenatural selection of lactic acid producingorganisms. However, once they start tocolonise the leaves, these organisms prolifer-ate rapidly and soon form the optimum condi-tions required for growth. The process is verysimple and can be carried out at the homewith minimum equipment or effort.

Raw material preparationFresh leaves are harvested and allowed to wiltfor one or two days, after which time they areshredded with a knife or sickle. The shreddedleaves are tightly packed in an earthenwarepot and warm water (at about 30°C) is addedto cover all the leaves. The pot is then kept ina warm place (about 18°C) for between fiveand seven days. The product is tasted – a mildacidic taste indicates the end of fermentation –and the gundruk is removed and sun-dried.

The bacteria responsible for the fermentationare predominantly Pediococcus and Lactobacil-lus species. During fermentation, the pH drops

slowly to a final value of 4.0 and the amount ofacid (as lactic) increases to about 1% on thesixth day.

One of the disadvantages of the traditionalprocess of gundruk fermentation is the loss of90% of the carotenoids, probably during sun-drying. Improved methods of drying mightreduce the vitamin loss.

The dried product can be stored in airtightcontainers for several months.

Sue Azam-Ali can be contacted atIntermediate Technology, Schumacher Centre

for Technology and Development, Bourton Hall, Bourton on Dunsmore,

Rugby CV23 9QZ, UK

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Gundruk – a traditional Nepalesefermented food

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epalGundruk is made from fermented leafy vegeta-

bles. It is very popular in Nepal, where it formspart of the daily diet, consumed as a side dishwith the main meal and as an appetiser. Duringthe off-season, when the diet consists ofmostly starchy tubers and maize which tend tobe low in minerals, gundruk is an importantdietary supplement. The annual production ofgundruk in Nepal is estimated at 2,000 tons,mostly produced at the household level.

Gundruk is a valuablesupplementary food in Nepal

Wilt

Shred

Place in earthen pot

Cover the leaves

Ferment

Add warm water

Dry

Procedure for processing leafy vegetables

The cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) is a nativeof the dense tropical Amazon forests where itflourishes in the semi-shade and high humidi-ties.

The Mayas of the Yucatan and the Aztecs ofMexico cultivated cocoa many hundreds ofyears ago. Montezuma, Emperor of the Aztecs,consumed regularly a preparation called‘chocolatl’ made by roasting and grinding thecocoa beans, followed by cooking with water,maize, anatto, chilli and various spices. Therichness of this mixture no doubt had someconnection with the Aztec belief that thecocoa tree was of divine origin and later ledthe Swedish botanist, Linnaeus, to give thename ‘Theobroma’ – Food of the Gods – tothe genus including the cacao species.

In Peru, the principle areas of cocoa pro-duction are around the towns of Cuzco, Jeanand to a lesser extent Cajamarca, where it isprocessed to a crude form of chocolate whichis widely used, dissolved in hot milk, forbreakfast. Around Cajamarca a small piece ofsoft cheese is commonly added to the drink.

Cocoa is processed at three distinct levels:

● by small artisan producers● by small enterprises, principally in the cities

of Cuzco and Lima● by large companies in Lima.

This article is largely concerned with themethods used by the very small scale artisanproducers.

Artisan processing of cocoa beansThe pods of the native criollo cocoa areopened and the beans removed. Dependingon the particular region, they may or may notbe fermented. Good fermentation, duringwhich the typical rich chocolate flavour devel-ops, is a critical step for the production of agood quality, well flavoured product. Whenfermentation is practised it is done in heapscovered with plastic sheet, in sacks or inwooden boxes. The beans are then sun driedand sell for s/2.50 to s/3.00 per kg. It seemsextraordinary but there appears to be no pricedifferential between good flavoured well fer-mented beans and unfermented ones with lit-tle flavour. It is suspected that the decision toferment is largely influenced by tradition andperhaps the increased acceptability of theproduct to buyers.

Artisan production of crudechocolateSome producers remove the outer testa, orskin, of the bean prior to processing (a stepknown as decorticating), others do not.Although the yields are 13% lower when thebeans are decorticated, the quality of choco-late from these beans is superior as it is lessfibrous and ‘gritty’. Again it is believed to betradition and easier marketability that are thekey factors influencing choice.

The beans are then ground in stone facedmills. Metal hammer and plate mills are unsuit-able as they cannot grind the beans suffi-ciently finely. The mills may be hand or motorpowered. Nowadays most chocolate producersdepend on service milling which costs s/1.00per kg. The milled beans leave the mill as asemi- fluid, plastic mass due to the frictionalheat developed in the mill which melts thecocoa butter. The mass is then poured intoround wooden moulds and allowed to cooland solidify. The crude chocolate sells forbetween s/16 and 20 per kg.

The science of chocolate makingThe science of chocolate making is very com-plex but in essence the main differencebetween the crude artisan product and highquality chocolate is related to two factors:

● the presence of a brilliant shiny surfacewhich is achieved by the addition of extracocoa butter

● careful control of temperatures duringchocolate making in order to develop thecorrect fine crystal structure.

To make high quality chocolates a special

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Small scale processing of cocoa

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Peru In this article Walter Rios, Intermediate

Technology’s senior food technologist,describes the work that has been carried outto process cocoa into chocolates. As hedemonstrates, traditional artisan chocolateproducers can considerably increase theirincomes by using the technology to makehigh quality chocolate confectionery.

Luxury chocolates,attractively presented

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Keywords

Cocoa, chocolate,Peru, foodprocessing, incomegeneration

At the time of writing,the exchange rate was2.8 soles to the US$.

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blend, called ‘couverture’, which containsadded cocoa butter has to be made. Couver-ture may be sweet (with added sugar) or bit-ter. The first step that was examined was theextraction of cocoa butter from beans. Afterthis, formulations were developed using cou-verture chocolate.

Extraction of cocoa butterA simple screw press, similar to those used toextract oils, was found to be suitable for theextraction of cocoa butter from beans. Batchesof fermented, dry, decorticated beans wereused. Each batch was 9.5 kg, the capacity ofthe press.

First the beans were coarsely milled in ahammer mill and then gently warmed beforebeing pressed. The liquid cocoa butteremerged from the press casing, leaving a highfat cake, or ‘cocoa powder’ behind. The yieldof butter obtained was found to be extremelytemperature dependent. In Jean, where theambient temperature is 30°C, 3.1 kg of butterwas obtained from each 9.5 kg of beans. InCajamarca with ambient temperatures of only16°C, only 1.3 kg of butter was obtained.

The crude cocoa butter was then filteredthrough cloth and allowed to solidify.

Production of chocolatesMaking good quality chocolates requires bothtechnical knowledge, artistic skills and greatattention to detail.

A typical recipe for a sweet couverture is:

Quantity Unit cost Total(kg) (s/kg) cost (s)

Cocoa cake 1.13 12 13.60

Powdered milk 1.0 8.65 8.65

Sugar 1.72 2.00 3.50

Cocoa butter 1.3 25 33.40

Margarine 0.25 4 1.00

Total 5.4 60.15

These ingredients are placed in a doubleboiler or baine marie. The pan used must beabsolutely dry. It is very important that thewater in the outer boiler does not boil forthere is a danger that steam will contact themelting chocolate. An ideal water temperatureis 80°C. The mix is constantly stirred until itmelts. The temperature of melting should bebetween 50 to 55°C, outside this range thecrystallisation characteristics and ‘mouth feel’will be altered. Great care must be taken toassure that no drops of water or steam contactthe mixture. The presence of even one drop

of water will diminish the shine and brillianceof the finished chocolates.

The mix is then removed and must next besubjected to a thermal shock which developsthe correct crystalline structure. This can bedone by either pouring the mix onto a coldmarble slab or by placing the pan in coldwater. When a drop of chocolate feels coolwhen placed on the lips it is cool enough (25to 30°C) for moulding.

In Peru flexible plastic moulds, in a widerange of shapes (moons, ovals, bottles etc) arewidely available. These are recommended asthey are cheap, light in weight and do notcool the chocolates rapidly. Because they areflexible it is very easy to ‘pop’ the finishedproducts from the moulds.

The filled moulds are allowed to cool. Inwarm areas it helps if they are placed in arefrigerator for a short time. The mouldsshould then be left to stand in a well venti-lated room for at least eight hours beforeremoving them from the moulds.

The cleanliness and dryness of the mouldsis very important to producing high qualitychocolates. If the production process is con-tinuous and the chocolates are easily removedfrom the moulds without leaving a residue, itis not essential to wash the moulds as this willincrease the time required and also adds thedanger of introducing water. However, if themoulds are left empty for any period of time,it is essential that they are cleaned to ensurethey are dust free and hygienic. If they are tobe cleaned it is sufficient to use just hot water.Detergents or soap should never be used asthey contaminate the flavour. It is essentialthat the moulds are absolutely dry before use.

Small scale processingadds value to cocoa

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Problems and how to resolve themIf the chocolates: then

have yellowish the moulding marks temperature was too

low

are sticky the moulding temperature was toohigh

are gritty in the they were left too long mouth in the refrigerator

have a dull a drop of water entered surface during melting

Adding value to the ArtisanprocessIT Peru has been investigating the potentialfor small producers to improve their process,thereby producing high value chocolateswhich can be used to generate income.

Profitability of Artisan chocolateproduction

Soles

100 kg beans at s3/kg 300

Losses (stones, dirt etc) 5%

giving a yield of 95 kg

Milling costs (1s/kg) 95

Loss if decorticated 13%

giving final product yield of 83kg

Total costs 395

Sales value of crude chocolate 1495(s/18 per kg)

Family income for processing 1100100 kg beans

Somewhat larger enterprises always decorti-cate prior to milling as they can produce ahigher quality product. At this scale, a seriesof three stone mills are used, each set to afiner grind, producing a smoother, less grittychocolate which sells for a higher price.

At the small scale, the artisan finds it diffi-cult to compete with the larger processors asthe latter are able to produce a higher qualityproduct.

The Agro-Processing Project at IT Perubelieves that this increased income fully justifiesthe investment in a press and the other minoritems of equipment that will be required toestablish a chocolate making centre.

Walter Rios can be contacted at IntermediateTechnology Peru, Casilla Postal 18-0620,

Lima 18, Peru. Fax 0051 44 824024.

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Luxury mouldedchocolates for sale

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How much value is added by making quality chocolates?

● We have seen above that a typical income fromprocessing 100 kg of cocoa beans to artisan chocolateis s1100.

● Between 1.3 and 3.1 kg of cocoa butter can bepressed from 9.5 kg of beans. In the followingcalculation it is assumed that a somewhat belowaverage yield of 2 kg is obtained.

● Further processing of 100 kg of beans will produce21 kg of cocoa butter and 79 kg of cocoa powder orcake.

● We have also seen that 1.3 kg of cocoa butter canproduce 5.4 kg of finished sweetened chocolates thatsell for s/20 per kg. Thus 21 kg of cocoa butter willmake 21/1.3 × 5.4 = 87 kg of chocolates. This will alsouse 18 kg of cocoa press cake.

The producer thus has 79 – 18 = 61 kg of cake that canbe used to make artisan drinking chocolate. The incomefrom this activity will thus be 61 × s/18 = s/1090.

The finished chocolates sell readily for s/20 per kg sothe income from each batch made is s/108 with the rawmaterials costing s/11 per kg. Therefore for each 5.4 kgbatch of chocolates, there is a profit of s/48.

Because 1.3kg of cocoa butter are required per batch,it is possible to make 16 batches of chocolate from theoriginal 100kg of beans. The sales value of this is 108 ×16 = s/1728.

The total income from 100 kg beans is thus s/1728plus s/1090 from drinking chocolate powder which isequivalent to s/2818. This is in comparison to s/1100when only producing artisan chocolate.

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In this article Dr Peter Steele of the Food andAgricultural Organisation (FAO) describes oneof the 35 enterprises he visited in Myanmar inOctober, 1997 in a mission to explore a num-ber of income generating activities. With assis-tance from FAO, the Cottage IndustriesDepartment of Yangon has delivered a suc-cessful training course in fish cracker produc-tion. South-South transfer of information andexpertise is mainstream to FAO’s work andconsideration is now being given to thepreparation of a manual based on the infor-mation collected during the mission. We arevery pleased to be able to present this firstever article from Myanmar.

The owner of this micro-enterprise, MaKhin Ma Ma of Mawlamyinegyun Town,

started manufacturing shrimp crack-ers four years ago and now

sells throughout thecountry includ-

ing in themain townsof Yangonand Man-dalay underthe trade

name ‘NilarShrimp Chip’.

Production bythe family and other workers is seasonal, fromOctober to February, after the end of the mainrainy season. The owner also earns an incomefrom his small mechanical engineering work-shop. Despite the numerous markets that havedeveloped for the brand, production remainslittle more than cottage scale.

Method of productionThe skins, heads and tails of the shrimps areremoved and then finely chopped. They arethen mixed with a liquid paste comprisingmainly tapioca flour, salt, monosodium-gluta-mate, baking powder and a small quantity ofwater. The mixture is steamed in concentric

saucepans in layers 100 mm thick and thenstored in a cool place for four days, duringwhich time the mixture shrinks and becomeshard.

After four days the surface of the hardenedmixture is thoroughly cleaned. They are thencut into fine chips using a table mountedhand-operated disc slicer. The round chips,some 30-40 mm diameter and 1mm thick, aredried in the sun and packaged into clear plas-tic bags 200 × 300 mm with a loose labelinsert and a second label heat sealed alongthe top of the bag with a carry handle loopedthrough.

Customers cook the chips in very hot oilfor a few seconds before they are eaten.

Economic factorsWhile time did not allow for a detailed eco-nomic examination of production costs, thissmall enterprise shows it is clearly profitable.

Very little specialised equipment is required– a slicer, which is not essential for very smallscale production, will cost about1,500–2,000ks. Concentric steam saucepansare readily available in local markets for500–600ks each unit (of 4–5 pans). Apart fromthese, a cool storage area and a sun dryingtray or mat are required. Heat sealing in plas-tic bags is essential if the chips are to beretailed uncooked. An electric hot-wire heatsealer will cost about 3,000ks. In areas with-out electricity, other methodssuch as a candle andsaw blade can beused to seal thepackets. Streetfood vendors canmake use of tem-porary sealing –as the chips pro-duced are soldwithin a day ortwo. The onlyexpensive ingredient is

Small-scale manufacture of shrimpcrackers

Shrimp crackers are a popular snack food inSouth East Asia, particularly in Myanmar,which is the focus of this article. Theproduction process is relatively simple andcan quite easily be carried out at the smallscale in the home to provide asupplementary source of income. As always,particular attention must be paid to thehygiene and quality control in order toproduce a safe, attractive, consistently goodproduct.

1kg fresh shrimps

tapioca flour

salt

monosodium glutamate

baking powder

water

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mar

Keywords

Myanmar, shrimpprocessing, small

enterprise, incomegeneration

The financialinformation is described

in Kyats (ks) which, atthe time of the visit,

were equivalent to250–270 ks to the US$.

Co

urs

esfresh shrimps which are purchased at200ks/kg. Each kg of shrimps yields 400 g ofusable meat. The owner has developed arecipe which produces 1kg final product fromeach kg of fresh shrimps. Polythene bags arepurchased from Yangon at a cost of 1,300ksfor 1200 bags. Labels are printed locally. Thetotal cost of packaging is estimated at2ks/packet. The final product is sold retail for65ks per 160 gm pack (which is 406ks/kg).Given the low cost of all the ingredients,except shrimp, this cottage enterprise isclearly very profitable.

ConstraintsShrimp chips have become a popular snackfood and many variations exist made of fish,with different flavours and colouring. Severalmanufacturers have established productionfacilities in Bogalay in competition with NilarShrimp Chip. There is now a considerabledemand for occasional novelty in the diets ofeven the poorest villagers in the Delta. Mar-keting remains the main constraint to new

entrants. Access tourban people or

travellers isessential,

whereincomecan beearned

fromthe sale

ofeither ‘take-home-quick-to-prepare-foods’or ‘food-on-the-move’. Taste,freshness, appearance and image will deter-mine the success of the new entrant into thismarket. For home use, chips make a welcomevariation to an otherwise uniform diet, forthose who can afford the time and effortinvolved with making them.

It is obvious that the production of shrimpcrackers has potential for income generationat the home level. However, in order to fullyrealise the potential, it is advisable that a fulltraining package is available, covering allaspects of business development in additionto the specific food technology. In addition tothe training, it is also beneficial if loans areavailable to trainees to enable them to hire orpurchase the necessary equipment to put thetraining into practice.

Readers who would like further informationon the training courses and other income

generating programmes supported by FAOshould contact Dr Peter Steele at FAO, Via

delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

12


Course news

A-week is a joint venture organised byAgromisa and The Institute for AppliedCommunication and Innovation (ITV). It is anintensive five-day, practically oriented courseon Participation in Local Development, aimedat development workers who have little or noexperience in the use of participatorymethods.

Dates: 26 to 30 October 1998 and 19 to 23 April 1999.

Venue: Leur, the Netherlands

Cost: To include all meals overnight staysand course materials for the week;Dfl 2500 (UK £830) for participantsfrom organisationsDfl 800 (UK £270) for individuals.

The language of the course will be English.For further information contact: Agromisa, PO

Box 41, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Telephone: +31 317 412217Fax: +31 317 419178e-mail: [email protected]

Agromisa announce the forthcoming A-week

13


Training to process fruit

Afr

ica

Sou

th A

fric

a

South Africa is a country of contrasts, where asmall proportion of inhabitants have hadaccess to land, finance and information whilethe majority were denied the most basicrights. With the recent change in governmentand democratisation, the previously disadvan-taged suddenly gained opportunities throughpolicy changes. Organisations changed theiroperational framework to accommodate thesechanges and to facilitate the transfer of tech-nology and information. INFRUITEC is one ofthe organisations that has adopted a changedmission to ensure disadvantaged communitiesaccess to the technology of the past fortyyears.

Resource-limited communities often lackthe skills, practical experience and knowledgeof technology to add value to their products.Technology transfer in processing techniquesenables farmers and entrepreneurs to gainadditional skills and add value to their prod-ucts. Through this initiative they can increasetheir income and create opportunities for jobcreation for unemployed community mem-bers. Through interaction and participation,the Fruit Information and Research Service(FIRS) of INFRUITEC strives to redress theconstraints experienced by rural communities.Processing training is not done in isolation,but forms part of an overall fruit productionstrategy, where an improved range of fruit(particularly alternative crops) and value-adding skills are addressed.

The FIRS team works with a range of poorcommunities in several locations. This articledeals with communities within Western CapeProvince, of Haarlem and Buysplaas. Themain sources of income are subsistencefarming, seasonal employment on adjacentcommercial farms, state pensions and small-scale hawking of fruit bought from thesurrounding commercial farms. Among thepopulation of three to four thousand aremany farmers with good agricultural skills andknowledge of vegetables and deciduous fruit.

Each community selects a responsibleperson to facilitate training courses, meetings,workshops and the general flow of informa-tion. FIRS informs the different communitiesabout training opportunities and, throughcommunity meetings, persons are selected toattend these training courses. Only ten peopleare invited to attend each training course,which can accommodate illiterate or function-ally illiterate persons. With the technical anddevelopmental experience of the trainers, thecourse can be adapted for farmers, ruralanimation officers and extension officers. Eachdecentralised training course is tailor-made forthe participants and will be adapted for illiter-ate persons where necessary.

Outline of the training courseThe training course usually begins with aninformal introductory session, designed tointroduce participants to each other and tobreak the ice. After the introduction, a needsassessment is carried out to identify the partic-ipants’ needs, expectations and fears from thecourse. This is carried out by giving all partici-pants three cards on which they write theirneeds, expectations and fears. These cards aredisplayed in a prominent position andreferred to throughout the course and at theend-of-course evaluation. When participantsare literate, each one is given a manual whichcontains all the information on the differentprocesses that will be demonstrated, as wellas recipes. The training takes the form ofshort lectures on each processing technique,which are also demonstrated. Lectures alsouse videos, slides and visual drawings for bet-ter understanding and are presented in theofficial language of the participants so thatinterpreters are not needed.

A typical course on fruit processing gener-ally covers the following topics:

● introduction● needs assessment● building drying racks and drying

techniques● fruit preparation● sulphuring techniques● hygiene● fruit products – jams, leather, chutney● evaluation

Practical exercises, such as the building ofdrying racks and preparation of fruits, are car-ried out in pairs or in teams, to help buildconfidence. Participants are asked to examineand evaluate each others work and to com-ment on the methods used. The preparationof fruits, from harvest through to sulphuring

This article on training in fruit processingwas written by Joyene Isaacs, LaetitiaMoggee and Phillip C. Fourie, fromINFRUITEC. With the recent changes inSouth Africa, there are exciting newopportunities for those previously deniedsuch basic rights.

The article below describes the outline of a basic course in fruit processing and theimpact of such training within a community.

Keywords

South Africa, fruitprocessing, training,

jam, fruit leather,drying

14


and drying are demonstrated and the teamsthen prepare their own fruits.

Hygienic aspects of processing areaddressed by way of a lecture and by usingthe previous day’s experience to cross-checkhygienic practices. This makes the participantsrealise that they often omit the most basic pro-cedures such as hand washing, fruit washingor cleaning the drying racks before startingwith the preparation of the fruit.

The different fruit products, such asleathers, jams and chutneys are introducedwith a demonstration and the participants thenmake their own. At all times, the participantsare asked to share their knowledge and expe-riences by recounting their own methods ofproduction and any problems they encounter.Acknowledging and using the local indige-nous knowledge of participants is a good wayof strengthening the relationship between par-ticipants and trainers.

In addition to all the technical aspects ofthe course, some time is also allocated togroup mixing and socialising, where the par-ticipants get the opportunity to discuss andshare experiences and problems. Outsideguests from relevant food industries are oftenbrought in to share their knowledge.

At the end of the course, there is an evalua-tion to determine its value and success andhow far it went to meeting the expectationsand needs of the participants and alsowhether their fears were allayed. Each partici-pant receives an attendance certificate andtakes away the products they have made dur-ing the course.

After three months, post-course evaluationis carried out by visiting the participants intheir communities and work places to discussany potential problems or further trainingneeds. Follow-up workshops are also heldwhere participants and other communitymembers can come along to gain further infor-mation on specific processing queries.

FacilitiesThe Montagu Training Centre is a basic build-ing with no elaborate facilities for processingtraining. There are a few lecture rooms, alarge hall and a small kitchen. A hostel is con-nected to the main building where the partici-pants can be accommodated.

INFRUITEC trainers use training materialsthat can be transported from one communityto the next. Equipment that can be boughtlocally, such as gas stoves, knives, spoons andbowls are used rather than demonstratinglarge, unaffordable imported equipment. Com-munities often have no electricity but gas isreadily available in rural areas, therefore elec-trical equipment is avoided. Participants there-fore associate themselves with the trainingenvironment and feel more comfortable inthese circumstances.

The success of the courseFollowing the course at the Montagu centre inthe Western Cape, several participants havealready commenced training other people intheir communities. Some participants are usingnewly learned skills to expand their economicactivities to raise their income. They have alsoprepared many products for marketing andcannot keep ahead of the demand. Follow-upvisits will be made after the course to all theparticipants to give them assistance with train-ing other members of their respective commu-nities. The course proved that there is a greatneed for the local population in South Africato be trained to do their own processing andthere are plans to extend this course to otherregions.

Problems encounteredA follow-up evaluation in the communitieswas made by INFRUITEC trainers to assess theproblems with the training course:

● The target groups is not uniform (i.e,literacy, experience and confidence levelsdiffer) so the course has to cater for allparticipants, which makes it difficult togauge participant’s understanding.

● Materials (i.e, the availability of bottles, fruitout of season and ingredients) is a limiting

Preparing fruit fordrying

INFR

UIT

EC

15


factor for community members.● Participants had to leave their part-time jobs

on the farms to attend the course and theirparticipation meant a loss of income fortheir families. However, payment toparticipants would lead to an increase inapplications for training courses and wouldnot provide an acceptable solution.

● Although good quality products areproduced, the lack of marketing skills topromote their own products limits theirhope of achieving success.

● Although participants are very keen to startprocessing, lack of finance to pursue theirown small-scale business is a majorconstraint.

● Language problems can occur if groups aremixed. The help of interpreters may beneeded.

● During fruit drying training, the availabilityof consistent sunlight is a high prioritywhich is not always possible and couldobstruct the progress of the training course.

Lessons learnedSeveral important lessons have been learnedfrom this training programme. The feedbackfrom evaluations and follow up in the field isbeing used constructively to improve thecourse for future trainees. Some of the morepertinent lessons learned are highlightedbelow:

● Through using PRA methodologies,participants relaxed and learnt moreprocessing techniques.

● Practical demonstrations enhanced thelearning curve of participants, but the shortlecture strengthened their grasp of thetechnology.

● The course design facilitated team workand the sharing of local indigenousknowledge.

● The evaluation at the end of the coursegave trainers useful insights for futurecourses and designs to accommodatedifferent target groups.

● The size of the group should not exceedten persons, because attention toindividuals is important in a diverse group.

● The processing training must use locallyavailable fruit.

● Within this course design illiterate personscould be accommodated.

It is envisaged that, with the evaluation com-ments received from trainees and, based onthese important lessons learnt, the INFRUITECtraining course will continue to expand and toimprove to meet the needs of the participants.

For further information on the courses offeredby INFRUITEC, please contact the authors at

INFRUITEC, Private Bag X5013, 7599Stellenbosch, Republic of South Africa

INFR

UIT

EC

Production of fruitleathers

16


This book is the proceedings of an interna-tional seminar on cassava processing. It con-centrates mainly on Africa as cassava assumesmost importance in this continent. While themajority of the papers are written in French,each one contains an English abstract.

The book begins with an overview of thestatus of cassava processing and utilisationand the various traditional practices in differ-ent countries. It then gives a detailedaccount of the current knowledge of micro-organisms involved in the fermentations ofcassava. Cassava is traditionally fermentedto improve the food safety by hydrolysingcyanogenic glycosides to liberate cyanide.Other forms of processing are usuallyengineered towards the preservation ofcassava roots and the removal of

cyanide, since these two factors are of primeimportance to the consumer.

A chapter is dedicated to the differentprocesses involved in producing a range ofcassava products. Finally, methods designedto improve traditional processing methods aredescribed, along with potential opportunities

for producing novel foods from cas-sava. Because cas-sava products areso diverse, the Edi-tors have included aglossary of localnames and pro-cessing terms whichproves very useful tothose interested incassava processing.

Edited by T Agbor Egbe, A Brauman, D Griffon and S Treche. ORSTOM Editions, 1995, Paris.ISBN 2 7099 1279 1

Value-added products from Beekeeping

This large 400 page publica-tion presents a comprehen-sive and practical review ofinformation on honey,wax, pollen, propolis,royal jelly, venom, adultand larval bees. It alsoincludes a very compre-hensive chapter on cos-metics which includebee products in theirformulation. The styleis easy to read and the

publication is very well illustratedwith photographs and drawings. The authorhas clearly met the target set in the preface ‘toprovide a resource guide, ideas and a practi-

cal cookbook of bee products’.The wide range of bee based products that

could provide beekeepers and small enter-prises with opportunities for income genera-tion is particularly interesting. There is infor-mation on how to use the pollen collectedfrom bees in the production of breakfast cere-als and candy bars. It was a surprise to learnthat there is a market for dried bees venom.The potential to use bees products for pro-ducing cosmetics is considerable. Honey canbe used in the production of tonics, anti-irri-tants and emolliants; bees wax can be used indepilatories and sebum restorants and royaljelly in elastifiers, firmers and revitalisers.

A comprehensive bibliography and contactslist is provided.

by R. Krell – FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 124. ISBN 92-5-103819-8

Book inesLTransformation Alimentaire du Manioc (Cassava Food Processing)

Bo

oks

17


Internet news

The Internet is the global network of comput-ers that is revolutionising communications.There is now a huge wealth of quality infor-mation on food processing that is availableinstantaneously on the Internet. To access thisinformation, it is essential to have a computer,a modem, telephone line and an account withan Internet Service Provider. The ‘modem’converts the ‘digital’ information used by acomputor into the ‘ananalogue’ informationthat is required for telephonic transmission.For field workers and others based in remotevillages this might not be the most appropri-ate means of collecting information, but thosefortunate enough to have access to the equip-ment, it is an exciting and rapid way of gath-ering and disseminating information

You can search for information on aninfinite number of topics. Food processing isno exception. There are already hundreds (ifnot thousands) of ‘sites’ with information onfood processing. We developed this new pageto bring you information about developmentsand new food processing sites on the Internet.

Food linksA very useful site for accessing information onfood processing has been developed by theFood Links project of IDRC in Canada. Theyhave searched the Internet and produced anannotated list of useful sites on post harvestactivities including food processing. This canbe found at http://www.idrc.ca/foodlinks/browse.html.

INPHOThe Food and Agriculture Organisation of theUnited Nations is proposing to develop an

Information Network on PostHarvest

Operations. This would make validated infor-mation on all aspects of post harvest opera-tions available on the Internet.

Food ChainFood Chain will be available on the Internetat http://www.oneworld.org/itdg. Readers willbe able to visit the site and print out the infor-mation directly. This is a new activity for usand we would be most grateful if readerswould let us know if they find this useful.

Food and Nutrition Internet Index(FNII)FNII is a fully searchable web site describingand indexing food and nutrition resourcesavailable on the internet. This can be found athttp://www.fnii.ifis.or

Royal Tropical InstituteThis site is particularly useful for links to othersites on development and electronic libraries.http://www.kit.nl

The Internet Access Group onAfrica (IAGA)‘What potential does this technology have forAfrica? How can it be harnessed to bringabout social and economic development?What are the costs and benefits of introducingthis technology on a mass scale?’ Contact:[email protected]; or visit http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mikebc

AGRO Research on the WebNational agricultural research institutes indeveloping countries can now be linked, atno cost, to the internet and World Wide Web.This will enable them to access and dissemi-nate research information far more quickly.The service has been developed by Interna-tional Service for National AgriculturalResearch (ISNAR), part of the CGIAR network.

Inte

rnet

18


Keywords Peru, uvachada,alcohol, beverage,grape

Lati

n A

mer

ica

Peru

Extraction of sugarcane juice

Many visitors to the San Martin area of Peru,which lies on the edge of the Amazon Basin,are surprised to find grape production in asteamy tropical climate. For the last twentyyears small farmers around the hamlet of SanAntonio de Cumbaza have dedicated them-selves to grape cultivation. They have a majoreconomic advantage over growers in otherparts of Peru in that they obtain three harvestsa year. Much of the grape harvest is used forthe production of wine; however, the methodsused are often very simple and unsophisti-cated, with little attention to the control of fer-mentation, hygiene and quality control. Thepoor wine that results however finds a mar-ket, at low cost, in local markets and stores.

Given the characteristics of the localgrapes, an alternative local method of pro-cessing is to make a product called uvachada,which is essentially a wine fortified with alco-hol, sweetened with sugar and containingwhole grapes. Macerados is the local namefor all types of liqueur made in this way. It is

a delicious liqueur and is very popular bothinside and outside the region. Although it isgenerally only produced in the San Martinregion, there is a good market for the productin Lima. At the moment, this market is aninformal one, with visitors to the San Martinarea buying the liqueur and taking it back toLima. The IT Agro-processing Programme inPeru is interested in upgrading this and similartypes of product, with a view to their com-mercialisation to generate increased incomesfor the farmers of San Antonio.

Principles of making maceradosUvachada is one of a range of traditionalproducts, locally known as macerados, whichconsist of fruits, herbs, roots and in somecases insects and snakes steeped in strongalcohol to extract flavours or active compo-nents. The current IT agro processing projectin Peru has been reviewing traditional meth-ods of macerados production with a view toimproving the processing and the quality ofthe final product so that it can be marketed inthe cities.

As can be seen in the flow diagram, theproduction of macerados involves commonsteps which can easily be better controlled toprovide products of higher and more standardquality. Regardless of the type of fruit used intheir production, preservation of the productswill depend on the quality and quantities ofthe other raw materials used. Similarly, finalquality also depends on quality control at thevarious stages of production; syrup prepara-tion, mixing, steeping or soaking and storagetime.

One very important ingredient is almostpure alcohol, produced by the fermentationand distillation of sugar cane juice. In Peruthis is known as aguardiente, and in San Mar-tin is produced in small rustic stills. It is veryimportant to measure, by density, the strengthof the aguardiente and, even more importantfor public safety, to be sure of and guaranteeits purity. Similarly, the quantity of sugarmade into syrups for sweetening maceradosmust be controlled and measured with a spe-cific gravity spindle. Finally quality controlchecks are needed on the alcohol and sugarlevels in the final product.

Production of uvachadaAs uvachada production is an importantsource of income in San Martin it was decidedto examine ways to control the quality of pro-duction in order to increase incomes. Theprocess is shown in the flow diagram.

Alcoholic liqueurs are popular in theAmazon region of Peru. A particular type ofliqueurs known locally as macerados areprepared from grapes or other fruits orherbs, steeped in a pure alcohol –aguardiente – distilled from sugar. Theprocess is a traditional one, often carried outin the home and with little attention paid tohygiene and quality control. In this articleAlex Puerta of Intermediate Technology (IT)Peru describes methods to improve thequality of uvachada with the aim ofproducing a product of an assured quality tocapture the growing markets for the liqueurin urban centres. It also investigates thepotential for producing the liqueur fromother local fruits.

Uvachada – an alcoholic liqueur

IT/M

ike

Batt

cock

19


A new macerado made fromCocona fruitsCocona (Solanum topiro) grows profusely inSan Martin where its fruits are very popular.In view of this popularity it was decided toprepare a liqueur, similar to uvachada, fromthis fruit. The method is very similar to thatused for uvachada, with an additional steep-ing stage where the chopped fruit pieces aresoaked in syrup for two days to extract theflavour. The liquid is then sieved and filteredbefore the aguardiente is added and thesame method is followed as for theuvachada.

The potential of using other fruits in asimilar way is being explored by the team inSan Martin, with a view to producing a rangeof products of high standard which can besupplied to outlets in urban centres.

For further information contact IntermediateTechnology Peru, Casilla 18-0620,

Lima 18, Perú, Fax: 0051 44 824024

Bottling of uvachada

IT/W

alte

r Ri

os

Grapes 8 kg

Qualitycontrolcheck

Loss approx 800 g

Syrup preparationsugar 3 kg,

1.2 ltr aguardiente

Bottle, adding a few freshgrapes to each bottle

Dispense 18 mlsvanilla extract in

0.6 ltr aguardiente

Flowchart of uvachada production

Wash

Add vanillaStand 15 days

Soak for 15 days

Brix should be 26°Adjust as required by adding sugar as aguardiente

Add syrup and 6.2 ltr aguardiente

Heat to dissolveand cool

Remove stalks and select good fruit

20


The author – Dr Dawit Abate – has kindlyagreed that this interesting article, originallypublished in The Mycologist (November 1995)can be reproduced in Food Chain, to givereaders the opportunity of finding out howthey can grow mushrooms, a highly valuedcommodity, at home.

As in many African countries, wild mush-rooms (known as Enguday in Ethiopia) arecollected and consumed in many parts ofEthiopia, however this opportunity is limitedto a few months of the rainy season. Culti-vated mushrooms are a highly valued productand are often either not available in the mar-ket or are unaffordable for most families. Dur-ing an investigation of the cultivation of edi-ble mushrooms on agricultural residues, itwas found that traditional clay pots, known asEnsra, can successfully be used to growmushrooms for home-use.

Ensra are common in all households, ruraland urban, as they have a multitude of uses.They are used to fetch and store water, tobrew traditional beverages and to store grainand are available in a variety of sizes. Theyare made by traditional potters and are avail-able in local markets relatively cheaply.

Waste agricultural residues provide idealsubstrates for the growth of mushrooms. Inearlier investigations, Dr Abate found that cot-ton waste, eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldu-lensis and E. globulus), wood chips, tef straw(Eragrostis tef) and mixtures of these rawmaterials, supplemented with 1% wheat bran,were optimal substrates for the cultivation ofoyster mushrooms. These three agriculturalwaste materials are some of the most readilyavailable cellulose rich materials in Ethiopia.

Preparation of inoculumAn inoculum is a culture containing the imma-ture fungal spores. When the inoculum isplaced on a substrate which gives it nutrientsand given ideal conditions for growth (opti-mum temperature and water content), it multi-plies and matures. In this case, the inoculumwas prepared by adding the fungal culture to a

substrate of eucalyptus wood chip and wheatbran (in a ratio of 1:1). This mixture wasplaced in a plastic bag and pasteurised todestroy any unwanted spores. The plastic bagswere then incubated at room temperature toallow the mushroom mycelia to grow and pen-etrate the starter culture mixture.

Five ensra, each of about 30 litres capacity,were purchased from the market in AddisAbaba. Nine holes, 5 cm in diameter, werecarefully drilled in each one.

Preparation of substrateThe substrate was made from an equal mix-ture of eucalyptus wood chips and cottonwaste, supplemented with 1% wheat bran.The substrate was moistened with water forthree hours and then transferred into theensra and heated in an oven for about onehour. This pasteurised the substrate and killedany fast growing moulds.

Inoculating the substrateThe excess water was removed and after cool-ing the substrate was inoculated with a 5%(wt/wt) inoculum. The holes of the pot werethen plugged with cheese cloth and the inocu-lated pots were incubated in a well ventilated,dark room. For this purpose, an experimentalmushroom house had been constructed fromnatural plant materials. This room sheltered theensra from direct sunlight while at the sametime allowing natural ventilation, maintainingthe temperature at 20°C and creating a humidenvironment (a relative humidity of 80–90%).The relative humidity of the surrounding airwas only 60% which is sub-optimal for growthof mushrooms. In dry climates, the low relativehumidity is a limiting factor in the cultivation ofmushrooms. By using ensra in controlled con-ditions, a micro-climate can be created which ismore conducive to fungal growth.

The holes of the ensra are important foraeration of the substrate and also as an outletfor the mushroom fruiting bodies. After aboutfifteen days incubation, when the myceliacould be seen, the cheese cloth plugs wereremoved from the holes. The pots were occa-sionally watered to keep the substrate moist.

About thirty days after inoculation, immaturefruit bodies started to develop and to grow outthrough the holes in the ensra. Mature fruit bod-ies developed faster through holes nearer thebase than through the upper holes. The freshfruit bodies were harvested as they matured andproduction of new fruit bodies continued forfive days after the first ones were harvested. Thetotal productive period was forty days from the

Cultivation of the oyster mushroomin traditional brick pots

Mushrooms are a popular and nutritiousfood throughout the world. However, formany they are often an unaffordable luxury.This article from Ethiopia describes howoyster mushrooms can easily be cultivatedat home, utilising agricultural wasteresidues, so providing the family with anutritious supplement to the diet.

Afr

ica

Eth

iop

ia

Keywords

Ethiopia, mushroom,cultivation, small-scale processing,waste utilisation,agricultural residue

21


date of inoculation until production ceased. Thelargest mushroom harvested was 19 x 11 cm andweighed 104 g. In general, the weight of mush-rooms was found to be bigger than when grownon open beds using the same substrate. A totalyield of 2.5 kg mushrooms per pot was obtained,which is equivalent to about 0.36 kg fresh weightper kg dry substrate used.

If a family owns several ensra and uses dif-ferent inoculation times, it is possible to getfresh mushrooms throughout the year.

The use of mushroomsMushrooms contain about 30% protein on adry weight basis and are also a rich source ofvitamins and minerals. In Africa, mushroomsare traditionally preserved by smoking over anopen fire or by sun drying for two to threedays. The oyster mushroom has a rich tasteand could easily be acceptable as a compo-nent of the various traditional Ethiopian foods.It has been noted that many people in Africasee a much closer association between mush-rooms and meat than between fungi andplants or vegetables.

Technology transferThis simple procedure to cultivate mushroomson cheap, readily available agricultural residues

can be practised by individ-uals, particularly women, tosupplement the proteinneeds of the family. It couldalso form the basis of asmall income generatingbusiness.

There are problemsassociated with the trans-fer of technology formushroom cultivation, but this method illus-trates how it can be adapted for use at thehome level, utilising locally available materialsand equipment. One of the major constraintshowever, is the supply of starter inoculum orspawn. A system is required, maybe throughthe local agriculture extension service, for theprovision of starter inoculum.

The author, Dr Dawit Abate, acknowledgesfinancial support from Ethiopian Science and

Technology Commission. For furtherinformation on the culture of oyster

mushrooms, he can be contacted via the Department of Biology,

Addis Ababa University, PO Box 1176,

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Ensra (traditionalclay pots) are

ideal formushroomcultivation

Dr

Aba

te

Do you want to study Food Sciencewith Nutrition—subject of the future?

Opportunities for Postgraduate Training

● One Year Master of Science in International Nutrition and Food ProcessingFor Science and Engineering graduates.Focusing on the interface of the sciences of food and nutrition the MScprovides an integrated view of food processing, nutrition, in conjunction withsound training in research methodology.

● MPhil/PhD in Nutrition, Food Science and FoodTechnologyGain valuable research experience appropriate for the food industry or healthsector both in the UK, Europe and the Developing World.

● Short courses/refresher courses for industryTailor-made to suit your needs, ega) basic nutrition for the food industry;b) nutritional labelling;c) food analysis and quality control;d) nutritional and sensory implications of food processing;e) food safety and microbiology.

Oxford Brookes University has beenan international centre of learning formany years. Apart from playing akeen role in helping you develop yourchosen career, studying in Oxford islikely to be an experience you willtreasure for the rest of your life.

For further details please contact:Dr Andrew Rosenthal (01865 483 258)orDr Jeya Henry (01865 483 818)Fax No: 01865 484 017School of Biological MolecularSciencesOxford Brookes UniversityGipsy LaneOxford OX3 0BPUK

Key words

Bangladesh, bakery,small-scale, training

At the time of writing, theexchange rate was Tk 70 toUKstlg1.

Bakery goodson sale in

Bangladesh

22


In 1990, Ms Rina Akhter inherited a piece ofland from her father. She decided, however,that she could sell the land and use the pro-ceeds to start a small bakery business. Shechose to start a bakery as her grandfather hadpreviously taught her the skills of baking.

In 1996, Rina joined the PEP-BRDB (Pro-ductive Employment Programme of theBangladesh Rural Development Board), whereshe took a Tk 3000 loan which contributed tothe establishment of the bakery and the pur-chase of equipment. Her husband, MdJahangir Hossain, a small scale trader, sup-ported Rina by helping with the marketing ofproducts.

Within one year, Ms Akhter had repaid thefirst loan and took out a second one (Tk9000) to improve and expand the facilitiesand equipment. She also repaid this loanwithin a one year time period.

The bakery has been very successful, bothin terms of increased income for her ownfamily and the creation of employment andthe supply of baked goods in the area.Presently, thirteen people are employed on afull time basis – seven involved in the produc-tion and six in the marketing and sales. Dailyproduction rates are in the order of 50kg

bread, 30kg different variety of biscuits, 5kgcake, 100 pieces of Danish pastry and patties.The products are very well received in thearea. She has one van which is used to dis-tribute the goods to local areas - Goalandabazaar, Momin Khat hat, Daulidia, CharChandpur, Harkati para and Rajbari Sadar.Within the immediate vicinity are five othersmall bakeries, which all provide competitionfor Ms Akhters products. Rina usually sells allher daily production as there is a good localdemand and the people like her products.

Analysis of the daily cost of production

Item Cost (Tk)

120 kg flour 1560

16kg soybean oil 800

30kg sugar 900

10kg dalda (vegetable fat) 550

miscellaneous 400

wages (13 staff) 650

Total 4860

Total daily sales 5100

Daily net profit is 240

Working on a 30 day month, the monthly netprofit is Tk 7200

Bakery goods are sold on credit, which cre-ates problems with the cash flow of the busi-ness. Ms Akhter believes that a further loanwould ease the problems of cash flow andensure more efficient and smooth running ofthe business.

In addition to the credit and loans servicesupplied by PEP-BRDB, Ms Akhter has bene-fitted from training in various skill areasincluding management, business developmentand food processing. At the beginning, Rinafaced several problems such as availability ofcapital, space to produce and equipment andutensils. Gradually, with the help of PEP-BRDB and her own commitment to the busi-ness, the situation has improved. Rina putsthe success of her small business down to acombination of the different skills training andthe availability of credit to start the business,combined with her own enthusiasm, determi-nation and hard work.

For further information on training and food processing projects in Bangladesh,

contact Shaheda Azami, programme manager,

IT Bangladesh, GPO Box 3881, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

The Happy Bread and Biscuit Factory

Asi

aB

ang

lad

esh This short article describes a successful rural

bakery, established and managed by MsRina Akhter after receiving training andfinancial support from a local developmentgroup.

IT/M

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Batt

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A fruit leather product from Syria

Rec

ipes

The production of fruit leathers is an attractivealternative method of processing fruit toextend its shelf life. Fruit leathers are driedsheets of fruit pulp which have a soft, rubberytexture and a sweet taste, with the distinctiveflavour and colour of the raw material. Mostfruits can be used for the production ofleathers, including banana, mango, apricot,guava, pineapple and papaya. The leatherscan either be rolled in plastic sheets andstored for a few weeks, or can be cut intosmall pieces for use in confectionery andbaked goods. Layers of fruit leather from dif-ferent raw materials can be sandwichedtogether to form a type of confectionery prod-uct.

The processThe preservation process is very simple andbasically involves the production of a sugar-rich fruit puree which is subsequently dried.Both the addition of sugar and dryingdecrease the amount of free water availableand therefore prevent the growth of spoilageorganisms which spoil the fruit.

Selection of fruitIt is important to select ripe fruits. Overripeones can easily become damaged andbruised. Under-ripe fruits will not have thefull flavour and the colour may be poor. Ifbananas are used, they should be harvestedbefore they are fully ripe, with the skin a littlegreen. The fruits are peeled and cut intosmaller pieces, both to remove any inediblepieces and to accelerate the rate of drying.

Acid dip/sulphuringBoth acid dipping and sulphuring are carriedout to prevent oxidation and retain a brightcolour, however, neither should be used forred fruits as it bleaches the colour. To aciddip, place the fruit pieces in lemon juice orcitric acid for 5 to 10 minutes. Sulphuring caneither be done by burning sulphur or dippingin sulphite. Burn sulphur (350 to 400 g/kgfruit (2 to 3 tablespoons per kg fruit)) in a sul-phuring tent or cabinet. Sulphite dip – dis-solve 0.3 to 0.45 g sodium or potassiummetabisulphite in 1 litre of water. The lengthof time for sulphuring varies according to thesize and thickness of the fruit pieces.

After sulphuring, boil the fruit pieces in astrong sugar solution (60 to 70% sugar) for 10to 15 minutes, then soak in the syrup for upto 18 hours.

After soaking, pulp the fruit and syrup mix-ture with a liquidiser or pulper, then spreadonto polythene sheets, aluminum foil orgreased paper for drying. Dry at 38 to 60°C.The temperature should not be too hot or itwill discolour the product. Package the driedproduct in moisture proof plastic and store ina cool, dry place, away from sunlight.

Fruit leathers


23

Harvest the raw fruits

Wash and peel fruits

Cut, slice and core fruits

Acid dip or sulphur fruits

Mix with sugar syrup

Pulp

Dry

Pack and store

Production process

Documents

gari fufu World - Practical Actioncdn1.practicalaction.org/...4ed1-9fe0-12212e33baf9.pdf · Fermentation, developing countries, traditional, nutritional improvement, enzymes, biotechnology