Garb, Review Article: Hollenback, Mysticism: Experience, Response and Empowerment, Paths of Power

7/30/2019 Garb, Review Article: Hollenback, Mysticism: Experience, Response and Empowerment, Paths of Power

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Review Article

Paths of Power*Yoni Garb / Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Shalom Har tma n InstztutetMysticism: Experience, Response and Empowerment-the recently publishedwork by Jess Byron Hollenback, is an extremely valuable addition to therapidly expanding theoretical discussion of mysticism. In this review anddiscussion, I intend to briefly summarize the structure of Hollenback'swork, outline what I perceive as his major contributions to this area ofresearch, propose that his work may very well found a new paradigm inthe study of mystical experience, and finally present my reservations withregard to the book as well as suggestions for further research required.

Mysticism is composed of two sections: an extensive (300-page) theoret-ical discussion of the nature of mystical experience (pt. 1) ' and twolengthy case studies, one of the Native American shaman and leaderBlack Elk and one of Saint Teresa of Avila, the sixteenth-century Chris-tian mystic (pt. 2). After reviewing and critiquing existing models of mys-ticism (chap. l ) , Hollenback presents six representative texts exempli-fying the nature of mystical experience and extracts from these textsseven salient characteristics of the mystical phenomena (chaps. 2-5). Themajor focus of this discussion is the importance of recollective techniques(i.e., the practice of one-pointed and sustained concentration) in mysticalpractice. Book 2 of the theoretical section takes up the close link betweenrecollection, as the core of mystical technique, and the paranormal phe-nomena that often accompany mystical experience. These phenomenahave been marginalized or altogether neglected in the past, and Hollen-

* J . B. Hollenback, Mysticism: Experience, Responseand Empowerment (Philadelphia: Pennsyl-vania University Press, 1996), 646 pp.t My thanks to Professor Moshe Idel for bringing my attention to Hollenback's Mysticism

in the course of a seminar at the Shalom Hartman Institute and to Dr. Daniel Abrams forhis illuminating comments on an earlier version of this article.The major contemporary theoretical debates-besides classics such as those of William

James, Rudolf Otto, Evelyn Underhill, and \V.R . Inge-are U'.T. Stace, Mysticism and Philos-ophy (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1960); S. Katz, ed., Mysticism and Religious Traditzons ( N e wYork and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983); S. Katz, ed., Mystzcism and Languag e (NewYork and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); R. Forman, ed., The Problem of Pure Co n-sciousness (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); M. Idel and B . McGinn,eds., Mystical U nio n and Monotheistic Faith: A n Ecumenzcal Dialogue (New York: Macmillan,1989).0 1998 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0022-418919817804-0003$02.00


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The Journal of Religionback demonstrates at great length-and conclusively, in my view-thatno model of mysticism is complete without bringing these manifestationsof mystical "empowerment" into consideration (chap. 15).

Hollenback then applies his theoretical conclusions to his chosen casestudies: his fascinating examination of the mystical biography of BlackElk (pt. 2, bk. 3) underscores the unique nature of mysticism within thecontext of a tribal society and enables Hollenback to derive some impor-tant distinctions between this form of mysticism and that extant in moreuniversal religious systems such as Yoga or Buddhism (chaps. 18-19).

In my view, the second case study (pt. 2, bk. 4), which examines theissue of recollection within the context of Saint Teresa's mystical lifecourse, does not enhance Hollenback's thesis in a manner that justifiesthe extensive space allotted to i t within the book. The insights that canbe derived from these chapters (25-31), which I discuss here, could havebeen fruitfully summarized in additional chapters within books 1 and 2.2

I would now like to present Hollenback's major contributions and inno-vative arguments through a consideration of the possibilities enabled byhis pioneering endeavor in terms of future studies within the field.

Hollenback's first contribution lies in his masterful review, discussion,and critique of the previous theoretical literature on the nature of mysti-cal experience.%t the same time, he also suggests a powerful new theo-retical framework for the study of mystical texts and phenomena, interms of guiding interpretative principles as well as the methodology ofthe actual reading of mystical texts. What I consider to be the majorbuilding blocks and implications of this framework can be summarizedin four major points:

1. Hollenback provides a greater sense of openness to the full array ofmystical texts and phenomena, including the spirituality of the Far Eastand that of tribal1Shamanistic societies (Native Australian, Native Ameri-can, Inuit Eskimo, etc.). The importance of this direction does not liemerely in a quantitative expansion of the existing material but mainlyin the fact that it enables a powerful critique of the existing theoreticalapproaches in the field.4 The classical theoretical discussions alluded toabove were mainly founded on Christian Mysticism, and even contempo-rary discussions mainly focus on the Western traditions (including Juda-ism and Islam) as well as-to a lesser degree-major religions such asHinduism and Buddhism. When one replaces this limitation with a more

This is certainly t rue of chap. 3 1."other important review is that of Bernard McGinn in his introduction to The Founda-tions of Western Mysticism-Origins to the Fifth Century (New York: Crossroad, 1992).This direction was the approach of Mircea Eliade and the Chicago School of Compara-

tive Religion-see M. Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries (New York: Harper & Row, 1960),pp. 7-12-and informs the "\'Vorld Spirituality" series published by Crossroads Press.


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Paths of Powermulticultural approach, then the focus of investigation shifts from thephilosophical and linguistic concerns of more literate cultures to the moreexperiential Sitz-in-Leben of nonliterate societies. As Hollenback shows,the mystic of a literate tradition such as Kabbalah or Sufism should bestudied in tandem with the shaman in a nonliterate society such as theIglulik Eskimos. This comparison can enable a substantial reappraisal ofthe nature and role of the former's experience, as I describe below."

Yet a further extension of the material encompassed by studies of mys-ticism is reflected in Hollenback's readiness to consider the evidence ofcontemporary mystical practitioners involved in techniques such as astralprojection, telepathy, and reading of auras. ?'his material, which hadbeen previously ignored or devalued by scholars, is fruitfully comparedto the more "respectable" testimonies of well-known mystics such as Mu-hyiddin Ibn-Arabi or Saint John of the Cross.

2. To paraphrase Thomas Kuhn, the study of mysticism in the last twodecades could be characterized as "preparadigmatic."" In other words,the field was split between two opposing approaches, each of which stroveto become the dominant paradigm and thus structure the direction fu-ture investigations would take. The first approach, which is basically thatof Walter Stace and Robert Forman, claimed that mystical experience isa universal essence and that the substantial differences one encountersin the mystical symbolism and language of various traditions belong toa secondary layer of description of the experience, rather than to theexperience itself. The second approach, whose primary representative isSteven Katz, claims that mystical experience is constructed by languageand sociocultural belief systems and that difference, rather than a com-mon core of experience, is the primary characteristic of mystical expe-r i e n ~ e . ~

Hollenback proposes an unique synthesis of the two approaches. In myopinion, this synthesis is powerful enough to become the new paradigmin the study of my~ticism.~n the one hand, he makes a powerful case

This approach is the basis of a study of mine-entitled "When God Was an Animal"(Jerusalem, 1994). In this paper, I suggest that the experience of "Unio Mystica" in mysticssuch as Abraham Abulafia should be understood in light of shamanic experiences of unifi-cation with animal powers. For now, see my "Trance Techniques in the Kabbalah of Jerusa-lem,'' Paamim 70 (Summer 1997): 56 and n. 43 (in Hebrew).T. Kuhn, The Strzvtzrre of Srfentzfic Re7~olutions(Chicago: Universit) of Chicago Press,1970).' It is interesting to note that Gershom Scholem made a strong case for this thesis even

before it became the topic of extensive theoretical discussion. See G. Scholem, On the Kahha-lah artdZts Symbolism (New York: Schocken, 1965), pp. 15-21. See also the review and discus-sion in E. \Volfson, Through a Speculum That Shines: 15szon and Imagzlzatiolz in iCledieiia1Jewish,I!fysticism(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), chap. 2.

Hollenback himself refers to a "paradigm shift" from the essentialist to the constructiv-isticontextual view (p. 11). However, in my opinion, it is more t rue to the Kuhnian terminol-


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T h e Jou rnal of Religionfor the fundamental role played by cultural context in the constructionof mystical e~perience.~n the other hand, he avoids reducing this expe-rience to cultural belief systems. Rather, Hollenback's work goes furtherthan any previous scholarly effort in accepting the ontological reality ofmystical phenomena. To illustrate the unique nature of this synthesis, itis instructive to consider the case of astral projection. Drawing on con-temporary practitioners of this technique as well as on tribal Australianaccounts, Hollenback raises the following questions: Why is the astralbody described in contemporary accounts as being clothed rather thannaked? Why is the astral body represented in the Australian tribal tradi-tion as taking on the form of an animal? Hollenback draws on the roleplayed by cultural expectations to address these problems:1 as the habit-ual mental image of oneself is accompanied by clothing, this image shapesthe form taken by the astral body when projected in a trance state. Thus,in the tribal Australian context, the cultural belief in the "animal double"gives this particular form to the astral projection. However, he avoids themove of reducing descriptions of astral projection to mere cultural beliefsystems, despite the fundamental role played by culture in constructingthis experience. Rather, he ascribes the effect of culture to the nature ofthis experience, as a real phenomena with its own unique laws. Accordingto his model of mystical experience, which I shall expand on below, astralprojection is enabled by the empowerment of the imagination, which isdeveloped through techniques of recollection, or concentration. Recol-lective techniques empower the mind to such an extent as to produce thephenomena of enthymesis-a state in which thoughts and images haveactual effects on objective reality. This enables the mind to exteriorizethese images in the form of the astral body and thus travel out of thebody. However, as the astral body is created by the power of the mind, i tnecessarily takes the form dictated by the practitioners thoughts and im-ages, which in turn are determined by cultural representations. Thus,this kind of synthesis enables Hollenback to incorporate cultural beliefsogy that Hollenback-correctly-employs to see these two views as two would-be para-digms that lack the explanatory power to becom e "norm al science." In o ther words, eachapproach can only explain certain aspects of mystical experience. The reason I contendtha t Hollenback's work may well fou nd a tru e parad igm is that-as detaile d below-it pos-sesses the ability to explain within one single framework those aspects of mysticism thatwere previously addressed by only one of the contending approach es."n my view, Hollenback's m ost comp elling arg um en t for cultu ral con structi on of mysti-cal experience is to be found in his seminal discussion of "Unio Mystica" (pp. 221-22).Succinctly st at ed , his thesis is that u nio n is always with a specific, culturally co nd itio ne dobject rather t han with a universal oneness. A similar argum ent has already been ad vancedby Moshe Idel (in The Mystical Expertenre in Abraham Abulafia, trans. J . Chipman [Albany,N.Y.: SUNY Press, 19881, pp . 124-34) with re ga rd to .Abraham Abulafia's descriptio n ofunion with the "active intellect."

'O See Hollenback, pp. 213-14.


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Paths of Powerwithin the very structure of mystical experience rather than assigningthem to the secondary level of description. However, i t enables him toincorporate an account of phenomena such as astral travel or telepathy,which are not explainable-if one avoids the trap of reductionism, whichis not borne out by the texts themselves but rather represents the bias ofthe researcher-in terms of the contextualist approach."

3 . At this point, I would like to discuss what I see as Hollenback's majorinnovation, which will undoubtedly provoke extensive debate and contro-versy. This is his emphasis on the role of paranormal powers in mysticalattainment. Succinctly stated, his thesis is that the essence of mysticaltechnique is the practice of single-minded concentration, accompaniedby a lifestyle of exclusive devotion to mystical goals-thus avoiding dis-ruptive factors. When sustained over time, this "recollection" leads to theempowerment of the imagination and thus to phenomena such as ex-statis (i.e., astral projection, "ascent of the soul," etc.), enthymesis (or di-rect translation of thought into objective reality), telepathy, reading ofauras, and so on. Although Hollenback is fully aware that many mysticsregarded the development of such abilities as subsidiary to mystical goalsproper, or even as obstacles to their attainment,12 he nevertheless cri-tiques the approach taken by previous research, which in effect internal-ized this attitude to paranormal powers.13

In contradistinction, the importance of such powers (as a sign of mysti-cal attainment, and in some cases, as the mystical goal itself) in under-standing the nature of mystical technique and experience is central to hismodel of mysticism. What is especially important in Hollenback's discus-sion of these powers is that he is willing to turn to scientific evidencerelated to phenomena such as the construction of vision and hypnoticsuggestion in order to show that the mind-especially in a state of en-hanced awareness-has the power to transcend "private" experiencein ways that are both ontologically and epistemologically meaningful.14In other words, Hollenback is willing to take mystical claims seriouslyrather than ignoring, devaluing, or explaining them away. This open-ness, and respect of the viewpoints of the texts one studies, may welltransform Mysticism into an essential tool for the study of mysticism inthe future.

4. Finally, Hollenback's emphasis on the role of affect, or emotion, inthe construction and enhancement of mystical experience highlights the

l 1 Ibid., pp. 293-94.l 2 Ibid., pp. 109-14." For a similar critique of scholarship o n this issue, see R . J . 2. I+'erblowsky,Joseph Karo-Lauy er and Mystic (Ph ilade lphia : Jewish Publication Society, 1980), p . 166.l 4 See, e. g. , Hollenba ck, pp . 226-29, for his devastating critiq ue of psychologism.


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T h e Jou rnal of Religionimportance of a previously neglected experiential dimension. In Hollen-back's model, one of the primary characteristics of mystical experience isthat it is "laden with affect." The emotional intensity of mystical experi-ence "charges" it with affective potency, and this in turn is a major compo-nent of the phenomenon of empowerment. Cultural context plays acardinal constructive role in determining the nature of the affect that ismanifested within the mystical process. The fundamental contextuality ofthe affective dimension of mysticism is amply exemplified in Hollenback'sdiscussion of Saint Teresa. This study clearly shows that the importanceof affect within the Christian tradition, as well as the specific emotionalstates mandated by this tradition, determined the nature of this mystic'sexperience in a manner that clearly differentiates it from that which canbe found in traditions such as Buddhism, which aspire to lack of affect.I5This incorporation of the emotional realm within a comprehensive modelof mysticism is an important ingredient in the compelling nature of Hol-lenback's framework.

It is my contention that these four essential innovations may well be-come the core structures informing future phenomenological and histori-cal investigations of mysticism. This being said, Hollenback's very attemptto provide an extremely comprehensive and airtight model for under-standing mysticism will inevitably draw attention to the lacunae and prob-lems in his thesis. I would like to make some preliminary comments withregard to this issue. First, Hollenback's emphasis on the role of recol-lective techniques in inducing mystical experience and enabling paranor-mal powers seems to me to be exaggerated. I prefer a more varied modelof mystical technique. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (4:1, by chapter and verse),which Hollenback justly sees as one of the most important source textsfor understanding these issues, describes several means by which an indi-vidual could attain paranormal powers: they can be inborn; they can bethe result of the use of psychotropic substances; or they can result froma variety of practices, including tapas (the creation of inner heat), mantra(the use of sound and vibration), and samadhi (a state closely related torecollection). This text seems to offer a more multifaceted description ofthe possible routes to paranormal achievement than that which one mayglean from Hollenback's di~cussion.~"

'j See esp. pp. 317-20. This point necessitates a certain reformulation of Hollenback'sargument (pp. 54-55) that it is one of the distinctive features of mystical experience that itis "laden with affect." In light of what the author himself has to say on the Buddhist goal oflack of affect, it would be better to say that mystical experience is closely related to emo-tional states, whether in the form of affect or its absence.'" I have drawn on the excellent Hebrew translation of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras by Orit Sen-Gupta (Jerusalem: Or Am, 1994), p. 63 . One may add that Buddhist texts refer to two


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Paths of PowerSecond, although Hollenback does discuss the difference between the

"active" and "passive" approach for inducing paranormal manifestations(chaps. 12-13) in constructing his theoretical model, his main focus is onmystical activism. Thus, he downplays the significant place of "quietistic"approaches to mystical achievement in which the mystic is in effect "pos-sessed" by powers external to him or her. Indeed, his discussion of the"passive" approach only deals with present day "New Age" mystics, whileleaving out the wealth of discussion of the passive approach in classicalmystical literature.17

Third, as noted above, Hollenback has made a significant contributiontoward consideration of the role of emotion in mystical experience. How-ever, his discussion of the formative impact of cultural goals on the af-fective dimension in the history of mysticism needs to be significantlyexpanded.lVor example, although he emphasizes that recollection is astate that needs to be maintained in the course of everyday life in orderto be truly effective,lg he does not appear to sufficiently consider that thisis also the case with regard to emotional states. Namely, as the quality ofone's affective state is a major factor in enabling empowerment in mysticalpractice, the mystic must actively construct his or her emotional life inorder to maintain the desired affect or lack of affect, as in the case ofapatheia. This understanding should lead to extensive study of the man-ner in which specific cultural systems produce different emotional make-

prim ary forms of m edit atio n: on e form-samayatha-is ind eed tha t of single-pointed con-cen trat ion ; the other-uippashana-is that of par ano ram ic, spacious awaren ess wi tho ut asingle focus. For a c ont em por ary discussion, see C . Tru ng pa , Cutting through Spiritual Materi-alism (Berkeley: Shambala, 1973), pp. 154-69. For Daoist parallels, see L. Kohn, "TaoistIns igh t M edita tion : T h e T ang ' Prac tice o f Neiguan," in Taoist Meditation and Longevity Tech-niques, ed . L. Ko hn (.4nn A rbo r: University of Michigan Press, 1989), pp. 193-224. ForYoga, see Patanjali, 3:8, 3:37, 4:29. In these app roach es, the senses ar e not suppre ssed, asin recollection (see Hollenback, p . 131), but rathe r enh ance d.Suc h as th e Daoist co ncep t of no nact ion , o r wu wei-see Tao D Ching (New York: Vin-tage, 1972), s tanzas 2, 10, 37, 48, and the Tantric Ma ham udra form of meditation (seeT. Nam gya l, Mahamudra-the Quintessence of Mind and Meditation, tra ns . L. Lhalongpa [Bos-ton and Lon do n: Sham bala, 19861-or the Chri stian and Hassidic appro aches discussed inR . Satz-U ffenh eim er, Hasidism as Mysticism-Quietistic Elements in Eighteenth C e n t u ~ aszdicThought, tr an s. J. Ch ipm an (P rinceto n, N.J.: Prince ton University Press, 1993). For Kabba-lah, see M. Idel, Language, Torah and Hermeneutics in Abraham Abulafia, trans. M. Kallus (Al-bany, N.Y.: SUNY, 1989). I n my "W hen G od Was an Animal" (n . 5 above), I propose tocritique a similar bias in favor of activism in the study of shamanism and to discuss theimplications of this critique for K abbalah research .In line with what I have suggested above, the issue of emo tion well deserves a chapte rin its own righ t, alongside with Hollenback's extensive discussion of oth er faculties (mo rerelated, as he himself writes, to the "active" app roa ch) such as "Min d, Will an d Im aginat ion"(chap. 9). A significant part of the study on Saint Teresa could have been well utilized insuch a chapter.

I g See Hollenback, pp. 114-19.


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The Journal of Religionups in mystics belonging to these systems and the effect of these differ-ences on their respective experience^.'^

Finally, although the book has a praiseworthy multicultural openness,i t appears to view mysticism with a male eye. Without in any way wishingto be "politically correct," I feel compelled to note that, when Hollenbackcommences his discussion by adducing six texts exemplifying mystical ex-perience, they are all written by men-this, in spite of the fact that thesubject of one of his case studies-Saint Teresa of Avila-is a woman mys-tic. Furthermore, the wide panorama of mystical texts offered appears toslight one major mystical tradition-the Kabbalah. Hollenback does notadduce any examples of Kabbalistic mystical experiences or theoreticalpresentations of empowerment within this body of literature, as he didextensively in the case of Sufism and Catholic 'mysticism. This, despitethe fact that numerous sources of this nature are readily available intranslation." It is my view that addressing this lacuna could significantlyenrich any discussion of Hollenback's thesis."

Despite these reservations, Hollenback has made an important contri-bution in terms of "cultural politics," especially in his emphasis on theimportance of tribal practitioners, such as shamans or "medicine men."In his description, they are seen in a new light-not as "witch doctors"or "primitives" but as individuals practicing sophisticated techniques andattaining a high level of noetic abilit~. '~

See Hollenback's important, but sparse, discussion of a Tibetian source on avoidingange r on pp . 250-51. Hollenback suggests (p . 240) that th e active approach to inducingem pow erm ent is based o n "th e transfigured imagination," while the passive approach relieson the "transfigured emotions." T his com me nt, which un fortunately is not furth er devel-op ed, m ay point to th e link between H ollenback's neglect of the passive appro ach to mysti-cal experience an d th e preliminary natu re of his remarks o n emotion.'I See, e.g., M. Idel, Kabbalah-New Perspectives (New H aven, Co nn. : Yale University Press,1988), Studies in Ecstatic Kabbalah (Albany, NN'.: SUNY, 1988), The Mystical Experience (n . 9above); an d 'il'erblowsky (n . 13 above). For discussions ou tsid e K abbalah scholarship, seeI. Couliano, Out of This World: Othemlordly Journeys from Gilgamesh to Albert Einste in (Bostonan d Lon don: Sh ambala, 1991), esp. pp. 154-87; D . Merkur, Gnosis: A n Esoteric Tradition ofMystical Visions and Unions (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY, 1 993 ); H . Blo om, Omens of the Millennium:The Gnosis of Angels, Dreams and Resurrection (New I'ork: Riverhead, 1996). In genera l,Bloom's approach has interesting points of similarity to Hollenback's Mysticzsm."" O ne striking example is that of the Golem , or the construction of an artificial a nthro -poid in Jewish mystical tradition (see M . Idel, Golem-Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditionson the Artificial Anthropoid (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 199 0). Hollen back (p p. 197-204) dis-

cusses Tibetian techniques in which the empowered mind materializes Tulpas (thought-form s) in h um an visage, which are m istaken for live persons. I t may well be th at t he G olemis anot her example of a projection enabled by the enh ance d power of the imagination ina mystical state. I intend to expa nd on these preliminary remarks on the implications ofHollenback's work for Kabbalah research in a future study" For an illuminating description of the meditative practice of a Zulu "Sangoma," seeS. Larsen, "The making of a Sangoma," Shaman? D7um 35 (W inter 1994): 22-32, esp. 30.Incidentally, this particular description appears to cast doubt on Hollenback's assertion-which is in turn foundational for his claim as to the fundamental contextuality of mystical


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Paths of PowerHaving pointed at the importance of examination of these techniques

and abilities, Hollenback has also provided us with theoretical tools fordoing so. Thus, his book has become an indispensable aid for future am-plification of our understanding of these fascinating realms.

experience-that "Kundalini," or arousal of the "serpent power" along the spine, is re-stricted solely to the IndianIYogic context (Hollenback, p. 78). In this context, see Larsen'scomment in Hollenback, p. 32, nn. 9, 10.

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Garb, Review Article: Hollenback, Mysticism: Experience, Response and Empowerment, Paths of Power