GAP ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT - Colorado · Gap Analysis 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ESCI was asked to identify the gaps in fire protection coverage at the Central City Fire Department compared

Gap Analysis

GAP ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT

November 2017

Central City Fire Department

Central City, Colorado

25030 SW Parkway Avenue, Suite 330 Wilsonville, OR 97070

E-Mail: [email protected] • Corporate Office: 503.570.7778

Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... ii

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2

Evaluation of Current Conditions .................................................................................................... 3

Organization Overview ............................................................................................................................. 3

Staffing ....................................................................................................................................... 7

Emergency Response Staffing .................................................................................................................. 8

Staffing Levels .......................................................................................................................................... 9

Capital Assets & Improvement Programs ...................................................................................... 18

CCFD Vehicles & Equipment ................................................................................................................... 20

Service Delivery & Performance ................................................................................................... 25

Service Demand Study ............................................................................................................................ 25

Temporal Variation ................................................................................................................................. 28

Geographic Service Demand ................................................................................................................... 30

Resource Distribution Analysis ................................................................................................................ 32

Response Performance Study ................................................................................................................. 36

Response Reliability Study ...................................................................................................................... 40

Future Station Location Analysis .................................................................................................. 41

Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 45

Staffing ................................................................................................................................................... 45

New Station ............................................................................................................................................ 47

Apparatus ............................................................................................................................................... 47

Consolidation .......................................................................................................................................... 47

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 48

Appendix A: Table of Figures ....................................................................................................... 49


ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Emergency Services Consulting International (ESCI) would like to acknowledge that without the assistance

and support of the Central City Mayor, Council, City Manager, and Fire Chief, this project could not have

been successfully completed.

Mayor

Kathy Heider

City Council

Shirley Voorhies

Judy Laratta

Jeff Aiken

Mary Bell

City Manager

Daniel Miera

Fire Chief

Gary Allen

Gap Analysis

1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ESCI was asked to identify the gaps in fire protection coverage at the Central City Fire Department

compared to industry standards. Also, Central City desired recommendations for ways to close any gaps

that were identified. The study was limited to the operational response aspects of the department as these

were considered to be most important at this juncture.

The City is at crossroads to make some crucial decisions that will affect the future direction of the fire

department. Recently the Central City Fire Department has lost some of the area it responded to in the

past. It also may lose the station that was located in the county but supplied much needed operational

functions to the department.

The Central City Fire Department operates well within its limitations. The city has a very small permanent

population but a large daily influx of population. The city is protected by a small group of volunteers who

respond to the needs of a city which has service demand that is greater than what is normal for a city of its

size. A positive for the city is the use of fire sprinkler and alarm systems for limiting the potential size of

fires in most large buildings and in residential buildings over three stories.

The current main station is limited in size and function to adequately perform the needs of the city. The

building will not house a full-size engine. Internally, the parking of apparatus does not allow for individual

response of some apparatus without moving others. The station does not have capability for any overnight

housing or amenities for volunteers that would like to be at the station for immediate response.

Three potential locations for a new station were examined for suitability based on optimum travel time to

the high call area of the city.

Apparatus was found to be operable, however most of the fleet is beyond the normally accepted life. There

is no specific apparatus replacement schedule or funding set aside for replacement. There is no aerial

apparatus operated by the fire department but one is available through mutual aid from a neighboring

jurisdiction.

Staffing is minimum for being able to produce an effective response force as specified in standards for

fighting a low hazards occupancy. The structures within the city are larger and more complex than what

you would find in a comparable-sized city in the region, or even nationally, which might demand higher

levels of staffing. The historical response to incidents were analyzed to determine the number of personnel

responding. Recommendations for increasing staffing are offered in this report.

Response performance was examined for the previous year. The components of response time were

individually examined. These included call processing time, turnout time, and travel time. Calls for service

were scrutinized by month, day, and time of day for patterns that might suggest alternate staffing

schedules.


2

INTRODUCTION

Central City Fire Department (CO) contracted Emergency Services Consulting International (ESCI) to

evaluate certain functions of the department to determine any gaps which exist between the current

state of operations and applicable standards or best practices within the fire and emergency services

industry. In August of 2017, ESCI requested that the department gather applicable data for the

functions to be evaluated. In September of 2017, ESCI visited the Central Fire Department to further

gather information on the operations of the department. The following sections will describe the

current operations and identify areas where the department meets or does not meet industry standards

and best practices.


3

EVALUATION OF CURRENT CONDITIONS

Organization Overview The Central City Fire Department (CCFD) is a municipal fire department which protects Central City,

Colorado. Central City has a population of 663. Per the 2010 census, there are 446 residential dwelling

units in the city. The city is home to several casinos and other tourist attractions which draw thousands

of visitors annually.

The fire department has one paid employee which is the fire chief. All emergency response personnel

are volunteers. The department responded to 442 calls for service in 2016. The department protects

$26,442,486 in property value within two-square miles. Before June 2017, the fire department was

responsible for responding to 36-square miles. At that time, the department responded from two fire

stations. As of January 2018, response will be only from the main station in Central City.


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Figure 1: Study Area

The department responds as a basic life support (BLS) unit to EMS calls. The Gilpin Ambulance provides

advanced life support (ALS) and transport capability by contract. As can be seen in the following figure,

EMS calls for service comprise over 50 percent of the service demand. Fires of all types, structures,

vehicles, and vegetation are five percent. It is typical for a fire department to respond primarily to

medical calls and a small percentage of fire calls. In ESCI’s experience, the good intent and false calls

seem higher than what might be expected. This will be discussed later in the report.


5

Figure 2: Calls for Service, 2016

In the following figures, the number of total calls for service and fires calls are compared against similar

communities within the western region of the country. There is a comparison against the high and low

ranges among urban and rural departments as well. The data for these comparisons is provided by the

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).1

Figure 3: Incidents per 1000 Population Comparison

1 NFPA Fire Department Profile Report 2015; National Fire Protection Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA.

Rescue EMS54%

Good Intent & False Alarms

34%

Fires5%

Service Calls4%

Other3%

179.4

110.7 116.955.7

102.7

666.7


6

This comparison shows that Central City calls for service is significantly higher than other communities

within the region of similar size. It is much higher than what would be expected for an urban

community with a much greater population density. This must be attributed to the actual population

within the city on any given day. As a tourist destination, population fluctuates and the service demand

is commensurate with those increases.

The same appears to be true for fires alone as shown in the next figure.

Figure 4: Fires per 1000 Population Comparison

The number of fires is roughly double that of a rural community in a fire-busy location. This may be

because Central City sits within a very rural area with high wildfire potential. So, not only does the fire

department respond to calls in a busy urban setting, it also has the issues of a rural community within a

wildland setting. This was particularly true up through the first half of 2017 when CCFD was responsible

for a larger rural area.

Figure 5: Cost per Capita Comparison

The cost of operating the fire department by comparison with other communities of similar size is also

greater by a large margin. This again reflects the urban nature of a city much larger due to the transient

population influx each day.

4.7 2.9

17.2

4.0

14.4

34.7

0.05.0

10.015.020.025.030.035.040.0

$157.86

$728.93

$-

$200.00

$400.00

$600.00

$800.00

Colorado Average Central City


7

STAFFING

All personnel of the fire department are operational personnel including the fire chief, and one

lieutenant that performs both operational and administrative functions as well. The fire chief is

responsible for all administrative functions that are not handled by Central City departments. The city

assists in human resources, finance, legal, fleet services, and building maintenance.

The staffing organizational chart is shown in the next figure.

Figure 6: Organizational Chart

The current organization has less filled positions than it has in the past. Volunteers are becoming more

difficult to recruit and retain as this report will address further. The loss of some officers has also had an

impact on the ability to have seasoned personnel to train and mentor new volunteers as they are

brought on to the department.

Fire Chief

Captain

Lieutenant Administration

Firefighters Firefighters

Lieutenant Operations

Firefighters


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Emergency Response Staffing It takes an adequate and properly trained staff of emergency responders to put the appropriate

apparatus and equipment to its best use in mitigating emergency incidents. Insufficient staffing at an

operational scene decreases the effectiveness of the response and increases the risk of injury to all

individuals involved. This has been verified in tests run by National Institutes of Standards and

Technology (NIST). The report demonstrated that necessary fire ground functions were completed

quicker with more staffing.2 CCFD is at a point where the ability to assemble the necessary number of

personnel to meet the EMS and fire call volume may be impacted by the availability of responders.

Firefighters must perform certain tasks at a fire and these tasks can be broken down into two key

components—conducting life safety functions and developing fire flow. Factors such as the number of

building occupants, their location, status, and ability to take self-preservation action will define the

number of life safety tasks required. Life safety tasks involve search, rescue, and evacuation of victims.

The fire flow component involves delivering sufficient water to extinguish the fire and creating an

environment within the building that allows safe entry by firefighters. Creating a safe environment will

include coordinated ventilation operations.

The number and types of tasks needing simultaneous action will dictate the minimum number of

firefighters required to combat different types of fires. In the absence of adequate personnel to perform

concurrent action, the command officer must prioritize the tasks and complete some in chronological

order, rather than concurrently. These tasks include:

• Command

• Scene safety

• Search, rescue, and evaluation if needed

• Fire attack

• Securing a water supply

• Pump operation

• Ventilation

• Back-up/rapid intervention team

Fires grow exponentially if not restricted in some way. Flashover, a dramatic and rapid expansion of the

fire in which no one can survive, may occur within three-to-five minutes of the start of a fire, however,

the first 15 minutes is considered the most crucial period in fire suppression. How effectively and

efficiently firefighters perform during this period has a significant impact on the overall outcome of the

event. This general concept is applicable to fire, rescue, and medical situations. Responders must

conduct critical tasks in a timely manner to control a fire or to treat a patient. CCFD is responsible for

assuring that responding companies can perform all of the described tasks in a prompt, efficient, and

safe manner.

2 NIST Technical Note 1661, Report on Residential Fireground Field Experiments, National Institute of Standards and Technology, April 2010.


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Staffing Levels As a part of a Standards of Cover (SOC) document, the department should create a critical task analysis

for each of the types of calls that CCFD handles. This would define the number of personnel needed to

perform the multiple tasks on each type of response, e.g. structure fire, auto extrication, hazardous

material response, etc. The following figure is a sample of creating a critical task staffing based on type

of call and relative risk.

Figure 7: Sample of Critical Task Staffing by Risk

Sample Critical Tasking Analysis

Firefighter Personnel Needed Based On Level of Risk

Structural Maximum

Risk

Structure Significant

Risk

Structure Moderate

Risk

Non- Structure Low

Risk

Attack Line 4 4 2 2

Back-Up Line 4 2 2 (2)

Support for Hose Lines 4 3 2

Search and Rescue 4 4 2

Ventilation 4 2 2

Rapid Intervention Team 4 4 2

Pump Operator 2 1 1 1

2nd Apparatus/Ladder Operator 1 1 (1)

Command 2 1 1 1#

Safety 2 1 1#

Salvage 4

Rehabilitation 2

Division/Group Supervisors (2)

Total 37–39 23 14–16 3–6

() indicates tasks may not be required at all such incidents # indicates task may, at times, be completed concurrently with other position

Creating a Standards of Cover is a best practice for fire departments but demands some time and effort

to complete. Components of the Standards of Cover is discussed in depth in other sections of this

report. ESCI can assist the department in creating a Standards of Cover document and measurement

procedures if desired.

In lieu of a department-specific, critical tasking analysis, there are nationally recognized standards that

determine the recommended minimum staffing numbers and maximum response times. NFPA 1710

standard for career departments and NFPA 1720 standard for volunteer and combination departments.


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NFPA 1720 states that the following figure “be used by the AHJ (Authority Having Jurisdiction) to

determine staffing and response time objectives for structural firefighting, based on a low-hazard

occupancy such as a 2000 ft2 two story, single family home without basement and exposures….”3

Figure 8: NFPA 1720 Response Staffing and Time by Demand Zone

Demand Zone Demographics Minimum Staff

to Respond Response Time

(minutes) Meets Objective

% Urban area >1000 people/mi2 15 9 90

Suburban area 500-1000

people/mi2 10 10 80

Rural area <500 people/mi2 6 14 80

Remote area Travel distance ≥

8 miles 4

Dependent on travel distance

90

This standard presents four different demand zones with three based on population densities. These

are the three that are found within Central City. The following map shows the three areas in the city.

3 NFPA 1720 Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments, Article 4.3.2.


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Figure 9: Demand Zones Based on Population Densities

As these population densities are based on census numbers for permanent residents there is a larger

urban density area in the core of Central City due to the daily increases in population. This increased

transient population will be discussed in multiple facets of this report.


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Referring to the previous figure, NFPA 1720 Response Staffing and Time by Demand Zone, both the

staffing and response times are specified for each zone. Response times will be discussed later in the

report. It is important to point out again that the staffing is based on a light hazard occupancy which is a

moderate sized residential dwelling. A larger building or a commercial occupancy will require additional

responding personnel. Staffing is increased by hiring career firefighters, recruiting volunteer

firefighters, or using mutual or automatic aid from surrounding fire departments. In conjunction with

increased staffing, the city can create a building code amendment that requires automatic fire

sprinklers in structures greater than a certain size. This helps to limit the size of the required firefighting

force responding to a fire in a larger structure. That is a proactive approach to limiting fire size to a

more manageable size.

The current emergency response force (ERF) available at CCFD is the fire chief, one captain, and one

lieutenant, with 13 firefighters. All except for the fire chief are volunteer personnel. Response to calls

for service require that the volunteers respond from home or work to the station and staff the

appropriate unit to respond. This takes more time for turnout than if the personnel are in the station

and on-duty. Turnout time will be discussed further in this report.

ESCI analyzed the available staffing against the NFPA 1720 standard. The maximum available crew size

if every volunteer was able to respond would be 15 plus the fire chief would provide a response force of

16. According to NFPA 1720, this would be more than adequate to staff a small residential fire in an

urban, suburban, or rural area. However, the nature of volunteers is that they may or may not be

available at the time of an emergency and take longer to respond and assemble. For this reason, ISO

(Insurance Services Office) credits off-duty and on-call personnel as one third of an on-duty firefighter.4

Hence the 15 firefighters on the roster will count for and realistically be equivalent to about five on-duty

firefighters. According to department records, there have been only two incidents in 2017 that had

greater than nine firefighters in attendance.

NFPA 1720’s recommendation for an effective response force in an urban area to a low hazard

occupancy like a small residential dwelling is 15 personnel on scene in 9 minutes, 90 percent of the time.

A volunteer force required to provide 15 at any time by ISO’s criteria would need to be 45. Conversely, if

there was a career on-duty contingent of five and a total volunteer force of 30 would provide for same

level of staffing. The 2016 average number of on-scene fire personnel was 3.5. It is unclear whether this

is all that is available most of the time or what is needed to handle the average call for service.

This comparison to NFPA 1720 points out the existing limitations in CCFD’s response staffing and the

importance of having automatic aid agreements with surrounding agencies in order to have an

adequate response force within the desired time. CCFD has already established automatic aid

agreements with most of the closest fire agencies. Unfortunately, due to the isolated location, there is

only one mutual aid partner able to get firefighters to the scene in nine minutes. ESCI recommends that

CCFD review the staffing needed for different types of calls and different levels of risk. The department

4 Insurance Services Office, Fire Suppression Rating Schedule 2012, Section 570 C. Existing Company Personnel—On-Call and Off-Duty Firefighters.


13

should assure that the communications center is provided with the number of units required for specific

hazards based on the type of call and the risk of the occupancy. Dependency on automatic aid is subject

to availability of units from the neighboring agencies and the distance of response to assure the arrival

of assistance within the nine minutes’ time. The following figure indicates the mutual aid department

locations, indicated by the violet crosses. Only one of those stations can arrive within an eight-minute

travel time. The two closest are Black Hawk FD and Timberline FPD. Additional figures demonstrate

the travel time coverage of the CCFD area from these two departments.

Figure 10: Automatic or Mutual Aid Stations


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Figure 11: Black Hawk Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time

Black Hawk FD is capable of delivering an apparatus with additional personnel to almost every part of

the city within 12 minutes, and to all of the core area in less than eight minutes. This resource will help

to achieve the urban staffing of 15 firefighters on the scene within nine minutes.


15

Figure 12: Timberline Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time

Automatic or mutual aid from Timberline is not likely to arrive in less than twelve minutes, however, it

should not be much longer to arrive in the core of the city. This will not achieve the effective response

force in nine minutes, but will still be very helpful to supplement the force upon arrival.


16

The effective response force defined in NFPA 1720 is for a low-hazard, single-family residential

occupancy. The risk in Central City is not only single family residential. There are large hotels, casinos,

and multi-family dwellings. Fortunately, most of these occupancies have automatic fire sprinkler

systems. These systems are effective in holding a fire in check until the firefighters can arrive on the

scene. Limiting fire growth reduces the number of personnel required for these larger hazards. All

apartments over three stories are also equipped with fire sprinkler systems. This should limit the fire

size, and hence, staffing required to bring the fire under control and prevent it from spreading. Some of

the historical buildings have been retrofitted with fire sprinkler systems as well. This is important to

prevent a fire from getting larger than what can be controlled by manual firefighting. Fire sprinkler

systems prevent fires from spreading to another building and possibly causing destruction of a large

portion of the city. Without fire sprinklers, the speed of extinguishment will depend on the number of

personnel and the availability of appropriate equipment. A loss to the historic buildings in Central City

may adversely impact the number of visitors to the city and its economic viability.

A comparison of CCFD to national and regional medians for the number of firefighters per 1,000

population is shown in following figure. These comparisons are from the National Fire Protection

Association. The following figure compares CCFD against other volunteer-staffed departments of

roughly the same community size.

Figure 13: Emergency Response Staffing5

The numbers of volunteers at CCFD are close to regional median and slightly higher than the national

figure for firefighters per 1,000 population. However, previous comparisons demonstrated that calls for

service were significantly higher in Central City than in comparable communities. CCFD has a

significantly higher service demand with a lower number of personnel than most comparable-sized

cities.

5 National Fire Protection Association, two reports are used to determine data points: U.S. Fire Department Profile, 2016, and U.S. Fire Loss, 2016.

25.25

19.87

24.13

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Regional Median National Median Central City


17

Recruiting and maintaining volunteer staffing is becoming a problem all over the country. This is

especially true in the western parts of the United States. Volunteers are categorized broadly into two

categories. Resident volunteers are what has traditionally supplied service to their communities. The

volunteer lives in the community and will respond from home or be on-duty in the fire station. The

other type of volunteer is the shift volunteer who lives outside of the community and becomes a

volunteer spending a certain number of shifts per month in the fire station on duty. Shift volunteers

typically serve to gain training and experience while having a goal of becoming a hired career

firefighter. These volunteers are most often attracted to a department based on the amount and

quality of the training, and the amount and acuity of calls from which they can gain experience. Since

they are on duty for typically an extended time, the department needs to provide a place to eat, relax,

study, and sleep overnight.

Most departments are finding that resident volunteers are more difficult to recruit and are starting to

depend on shift volunteers extensively. Some departments have even created ways to recruit these

volunteers by furnishing housing in exchange for their on-duty time. These departments recruit college

students from fire science courses. In resort areas where there either very costly or limited housing for

seasonal employees this can be an advantage.

The difficulty in retaining shift volunteers is that the most qualified will be hired by a career department

and are likely to leave. The time that a volunteer will be with the department is approximately two to

three years. Depending on the investment made in these volunteers and the amount of the time they

serve it can be cost effective. The inducement for a resident volunteer may be a pension or a LOSAP

(length of service awards program), but even then, many individuals have life changes that may require

relocation. This happens approximately every five years. Many departments are using cash stipends to

defray costs of volunteers based on hours on-duty or calls attended. As long as these are not too large,

the IRS has accepted volunteers to not be employees.

Another strategy for covering shifts is to hire part-time personnel that are paid to cover a 24-hour shift.

The amount is typically minimum wage with no benefits paid. This can be a cost savings over full-time

personnel but as in the case of shift volunteers it requires a great deal of administrative effort to

schedule and keep the openings filled.

ESCI recommends that city management and the fire chief determine the best method of providing

adequate staffing within the cost constraints.

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS:

▪ Review staffing needs for every type of call and levels of risk within the community to determine

required staffing.

▪ Determine strategy to provide enough staffing for typical calls for service.

▪ City management and the fire chief determine the best method of providing adequate staffing

within the cost constraints.


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CAPITAL ASSETS & IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS

Figure 14: Central City Fire Station 1

Fire Station Name/Number: Station 1

Address/Physical Location: 116 Lawrence Street, Central City

Summary: Station 1 is an historic building that lacks modern fire

station functions. It lacks space for the appropriate functions, even

if remodeled. A full-size apparatus is unable to fit into the bay.

There is no living space for on-duty firefighters or even suitable

space for any personnel to attend training.

Survey Component Observations

Structure

Construction Type 2-story brick

Date of Construction 1800s

Seismic Protection No seismic protection, Energy Audit done approximately 2014–2015

Auxiliary Power No

Condition Needs upgrade. Too small. No compliance with modern codes or standards.

Special considerations (ADA, mixed gender appropriate, storage, etc.)

None

Square Footage 1600-square foot with both floors

Facilities Available

Exercise/Workout None

Kitchen/Dormitory Yes, unusable

Lockers/Showers No lockers, gear hooks in bay, has a shower

Training/Meeting Rooms Training at Station 2 until January 2018

Washer/Dryer Available at Station 2

Safety & Security

Sprinkler & smoke detection None

Security Yes, locked doors

Apparatus exhaust system Apparatus equipped with diesel smoke filters

Staffing Levels

Minimum assigned staffing No assignments, everyone responds to call.


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Figure 15: Central City Fire Station 2

Fire Station Name/Number: Station 2

Address/Physical Location: 495 Apex Valley Road until January 2018 (approximately)

Summary: Station 2 has suitable room for on-duty volunteers,

with area for didactic training and some hands-on topics. It is the

location for a workout room and for the washer and dryer. It has

space for multiple units and can accommodate full-sized

apparatus.

The building is shared with Gilpin County and the Gilpin County

Ambulance service. This station is not in the city and no longer in

the unincorporated area outside of the city to which the fire

department previously responded. This structure may not be

available to the CCFD as of January 2018.

Survey Component Observations

Structure

Construction Type Steel structure

Date of Construction 2000

Seismic Protection No seismic protection. Energy audit approximately 2014–2015.

Auxiliary Power A generator, but not hooked up.

Condition Building is good. Aux power is used.

Special considerations (ADA, mixed gender appropriate, storage, etc.)

No ADA, bathrooms are divided with some storage.

Square Footage 7500

Facilities Available

Exercise/Workout Exercise area in the bay

Kitchen/Dormitory Yes. Dormitory is used by Ambulance company.

Lockers/Showers Gear racks in bay; no lockers; showers in restrooms

Training/Meeting Rooms Large training room

Washer/Dryer Yes, new unit in place

Safety & Security

Sprinkler & smoke detection No fire sprinkler system; Yes, smoke detection

Security Yes, and building is locked after hours

Apparatus exhaust system Truck filter system, Ward No Smoke

Staffing Levels

Minimum assigned staffing No Assignments, all personnel respond to calls.


20

Facilities Discussion

The review of the two stations currently used by Central City demonstrated a fairly urgent need for

some action. Station 1 is an historic building built sometime in the 1800s. It is two-story building of

1600-square feet. The first floor is the apparatus bay that is large enough to house a small engine, a

tender, and a brush unit. The bay is very crowded which makes it difficult to park the number of units.

The space available between units prevent effective function and maintenance, and could affect safety

of the firefighters working in and around the units.

The second floor is the office space for the fire chief and a storage area for all manner of supplies. The

station lacks the space or ability to house firefighters that might wish to staff the station for a few hours

or overnight. There is no kitchen facility, seating space, or any amenities to be inviting for firefighters to

occupy the station. There is no sleeping area to allow firefighters to staff the station overnight.

The training room and bunker gear washer are located in Station 2. This station is located outside of the

municipal boundaries in a structure owned by the county. The area outside of the city, to which CCFD

formerly responded is now serviced by another fire district. The county may no longer provide space to

CCFD. This means that the apparatus and the functions placed at this station need to be moved to

another location. There is contemplation of using a membrane structure to store the vehicles. This may

be adequate for storage but may not meet building codes for housing response personnel.

It appears that this is an opportunity to reconcile two problems by building a larger station for the

necessary apparatus and functions. The best location for this station for ISO and travel time purposes is

near the high demand area of the city. Location analysis is found in another section of this report. The

downsides to building one larger station in the city are land and construction costs.

CCFD Vehicles & Equipment

Apparatus

The type of apparatus is generally of the correct types for the needs of the city. In the chart that follows

CCFD is compared to other fire departments serving the same size communities.

Figure 16: Comparison of Stations and Apparatus

1 1 11

2

00

1

2

3

Stations Pumpers Aerials

National Median Central City


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The median for apparatus for communities nationwide are for one engine and one truck. There is no

aerial apparatus for the Central City in comparison to the median number of aerials in communities

nationwide. There is an ISO criteria requirement of an aerial type apparatus within 2.5 miles of any

building greater than three stories or requiring greater than 3500 gallons per minute fire flow to get full

credit.6 Currently Black Hawk Fire Department has an aerial apparatus that could be requested by

mutual aid.

The following table lists the current frontline apparatus and condition. While most apparatus are noted

as good to very good, the age of the fleet is older than recommended. Several of the apparatus are past

the replacement date per industry standards and best practices.

Figure 17: Apparatus Inventory

Station 1

Unit Designations

Type Year Make/Model Condition Staffing Pump Tank

Engine 31 3 1986 GMC/Pierce 4x4 Very Good/

Good 3 750 500

Brush 31 3 1999 Chevy 3500HD 4x4 Very Good/

Good 3 250 300

Command 31 CMD 2006 Dodge 3500 4x4 Good 1 N/A N/A

Station 2

Unit Designations

Type Year Make/Model Condition Staffing Pump Tank

Engine 32 1 1996 Pierce Arrow 4x4 Very Good 6 1500 750

Tender 31 3 1980 Intl 1800 4x4 Fair/Poor 3 250 1200

Brush 32 6 2000 Ford F550 4x4 Good 3 250 300

Rescue 31 Light Duty

1993 GMC 3500 4x4 Very Good 3 N/A N/A

Tender 32 3 1979 Chevy C60 Poor/Very

Poor 3 300 800

Command 32 CMD 1993 Chevy Blazer 4x4 Fair 4 N/A N/A

Apparatus Replacement Planning

Fire apparatus are typically unique pieces of equipment, often very customized to operate efficiently in

a narrowly defined mission. A pumper may be designed such that the compartments fit specific

equipment and tools, with virtually every space on the truck designated in advance for functionality.

This same vehicle, with its specialized design, cannot be expected to function in a completely different

capacity, such as a hazardous materials unit or a rescue squad. For this reason, fire apparatus is very

expensive and offers little flexibility in use and reassignment. As a result, communities across the

country have sought to achieve the longest life span possible for these vehicles.

6 Insurance Services Office, Fire Suppression Rating Schedule 2012, Section 540. Ladder/Service Companies.


22

Unfortunately, no mechanical piece of equipment can be expected to last forever. As a vehicle ages,

repairs tend to become more frequent, parts more difficult to obtain, and downtime for repair

increases. Given the emergency mission that is so critical to the community, this factor of downtime is

one of the most frequently identified reasons for apparatus replacement.

Because of the large expense of fire apparatus, most communities find the need to plan for the cost of

replacement. To properly do so, agencies often turn to the long-accepted practice of establishing a life

cycle for the apparatus that results in a replacement date being anticipated well in advance. Forward

thinking organizations then set aside incremental funds during the life of the vehicle, so replacement

dollars are ready when needed.

CCFD does not maintain a formal schedule that places all apparatus on any specified replacement cycle

from date of primary service. ESCI recommends that the CCFD make an effort to develop a vehicle

replacement schedule, including a funding strategy that will fully meet future needs.

NFPA 1901: Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus is a nationally recognized industry standard for the

design, maintenance, and operation of fire suppression apparatus. The issue of replacement cycles for

various types of apparatus has been discussed in the committee that develops the standard for many

years. In developing its latest edition, the committee calls for a life cycle of 12 years in front-line service

and five years in reserve status for engines, and 15 years in front-line service and five years in reserve

status for ladder trucks.

Does this mean that a fire engine cannot be effective as a front-line pumper beyond 12 years? A visit to

many departments in the United States might prove otherwise. Small, volunteer fire departments with

only a hundred or so calls per year often get up to 25 years from a pumper, though the technology is

admittedly not up-to-date. Likewise, busy downtown city fire stations in some urban communities

move their engines out of front-line status in as little as eight years.

The reality is that it may be best to establish a life cycle that would be used in the development of

replacement funding for various types of apparatus, while applying a different method for determining

the replacement date in real life in an effort to achieve greater cost efficiency where possible.

A conceptual model that may be used when a replacement cycle is considered is the Economic Theory of

Vehicle Replacement. The theory states that, as a vehicle ages, the cost of capital diminishes and its

operating cost increases. The combination of these two costs produces a total cost curve. The model

suggests the optimal time to replace any piece of apparatus is when the operating cost begins to

exceed the capital costs. This optimal time may not be a fixed point but rather a range over time. The

flat spot at the bottom of the total curve in the following figure represents the replacement window:


23

Figure 18: Economic Theory of Vehicle Replacement

Shortening the replacement cycle to this window allows for an apparatus to be replaced at optimal

savings to the department. If the department does not routinely replace equipment in a timely manner,

the overall reduction in replacement spending can result in a quick increase of maintenance and repair

expenditures. Officials who assume that deferring replacement purchases is a good tactic for balancing

the budget need to understand that two events may occur:

1. Costs are transferred from the capital budget to the operating budget.

2. Such deferral may increase overall fleet costs.

Regardless of its net effect on current apparatus costs, the deferral of replacement purchases

unquestionably increases future replacement spending needs.

The following figures demonstrate the recommended replacement schedule for CCFD. The current

replacement cost that is used and life expectancy of that type of unit are show in the first table. The

annual rate of 3.22% is used for inflationary increases. Using these figures, CCFD front line fleet is

shown in the second table. This table calculates the replacement cost with inflation and shows the total

needed amount over the life of the fleet and also the annual contribution that should be made to the

replacement fund in order to fully fund the schedule.

Co

st

Time/Usage

Operating Capital Total


24

Figure 19: Vehicle Replacement Cost

Vehicle Life Expectancy Replacement

Cost

Command Vehicles 15 $75,000

Ambulance 15 $210,000

Heavy Rescue Truck 20 $500,000

Commercial Pumper 20 $500,000

Custom Pumper 20 $600,000

Tender 20 $375,000

Ladder 25 $1,200,000

Brush 20 $140,000

Figure 20: Vehicle Replacement Chart

Unit Year Base

Replacement Cost

Replacement Cost w/ Inflation

Current Cash Requirements

Annual Cash Requirements

Current Age

Replacement Year

Engine 31 1986 $500,000 N/A $500,000 N/A 31 OVERDUE

Engine 32 1996 $600,000 N/A $600,000 N/A 21 OVERDUE

Brush 31 1999 $500,000 $532,200 $478,980 $266,100 18 2019

Brush 32 2000 $160,000 $175,456 $149,138 $58,485 17 2020

Rescue 31 1993 $70,000 N/A $70,000 N/A 24 OVERDUE

Tender 31 1980 $375,000 N/A $375,000 N/A 37 OVERDUE

Tender 32 1979 $375,000 N/A $375,000 N/A 38 OVERDUE

Command 31 2006 $75,000 $84,660 $62,084 $21,165 11 2021

Command 32 1993 $75,000 N/A $75,000 N/A 24 OVERDUE

Total/Avg $2,685,202 $345,750 24.6

Based on the replacement cost calculations, a fully-funded vehicle replacement plan would have a

current balance of $2,685,202 and be increased annually by $345,750. The average age of the fleet is

24.6 years. All but three vehicles are beyond the recommended useful life.

KEY RECOMMENDATION:

▪ Develop a vehicle replacement schedule, including a funding strategy that will fully meet future

needs.


25

SERVICE DELIVERY & PERFORMANCE

Service Demand Study A six-year history of major call types is shown in the following figure. These are the quantities reported

by the department for annual responses. The types of call categories are fires, EMS, false alarms and

good intent, service calls, and other. The category of these calls is defined by the National Fire Incident

Reporting System (NFIRS). Fire calls include structure fires, vehicle fires, vegetation fires, etc. EMS or

emergency medical calls are calls requiring some medical intervention. False call and good intent calls

are actually two types combined. Good intent calls are when a person reports what they believe is fire

but upon further investigation turns out not be an actual fire. False calls are generated due to the

activation or malfunction of a fire alarm system or by malicious intent that is initiating an alarm

knowing there is no fire. Service calls include miscellaneous calls for assistance by the public or other

agency. Other calls are those that do not fit into any of these other categories. These could include a

variety of call types such a weather related, hazardous materials, and other low frequency calls.

Tracking of these calls by each call type would be unproductive due to the small numbers of each.

Should they need to be analyzed it is possible due to their unique NFIRS coding but are grouped

together for this analysis.

Figure 21: Six-year Historical Service Demand by Type of Call, 2011–2016

The preceding figure show wide fluctuations of the types of calls from year to year. This is generally not

the case, but rather there are a few types growing or shrinking slightly each year. The following figure

shows the change in total service demand over the six-year period which also demonstrates a similar

up-and-down trend.

0

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150

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250

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Rescue EMS

Good Intent & False Alarms

Fires

Service Calls

Other


26

Figure 22: Six-Year Service Demand Totals, 2011–2016

While the year-to-year changes over a six-year period are not consistently increasing, the overall trend

is increasing. Years 2011 and 2016 are high with all the middle years lower. The difference between the

lowest year to highest year is 43 percent. This might be explained due to the transitory nature of the

primarily tourist population. This trend may correlate with the number of visitors to Central City each

year. The next figure shows the top three call types and the trends over the six-year period.

Figure 23: Trends of Top Three Call Types

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Rescue EMS Good Intent & False Alarms Fires


27

While EMS fluctuates greatly over the six years the growth is generally increasing. Fire calls are

relatively steady over the same time. The level of good intent and false calls is the most concerning and

perhaps demands the closest scrutiny by the department. As pointed out previously, this category is

actually two types combined. Good intent calls are when a person reports what they believe is fire but

upon further investigation turns out not to be an actual fire. Typically, the number of good intent calls

reported are very small. False calls are generated due to the activation or malfunction of a fire alarm

system or by malicious intent, i.e. initiating an alarm knowing there is no fire. Alarm systems can be

activated by smoke or heat rise without a fire being the source. This is a proper response to conditions

that would be created by a fire. Alarm systems can also be activated due to a malfunction of the

system. The percentage of false alarms in a year is higher than is found even larger urban areas. ESCI

recommends that these calls be studied and reported to the city manager. It would be valuable to know

if these calls are coming from a few systems and if they are due to system malfunction. If such is the

case, there is a need to assessed penalties on the property owner for each false call until the system is

repaired. This is done in many jurisdictions in order to achieve properly functioning alarm systems. To

have this many alarms is a stress on the fire department personnel to respond but also is an

inconvenience to the patrons of the establishment. Patrons that are frequently present and employees

will tend to develop a callused attitude towards the alarm. Human response to a real alarm will then not

be appropriate or effective.

KEY RECOMMENDATION:

▪ Good intent and false alarms calls be studied to determine cause and reported to the city

manager.


28

Temporal Variation Evaluating service demand temporally is useful in identifying potential trends during certain period

where staffing can be modified to fit the demand more efficiently. The following figures illustrate the

results found with CCFD during the 2016 study period.

Figure 24: Service Demand by Day of the Week, 2016

The higher demand on the weekend days of Friday through Sunday is not surprising as Central City is a

destination area. An influx of population is expected to be higher on the weekend. The greater number

of people in the city will influence the daily call frequency.

The next figure illustrates the combined CCFD service demand by month for the study period.

Figure 25: Service Demand by Month, 2016

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Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

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29

The service demand rises during the summer months. There may be two reasons for this trend. One is

the increase in tourist traffic during the summer months and increase in vegetation fires. The former is

most likely the predominate cause. The change is not such that seasonal staffing would need to be

added during this time (difference between 4 percent in April and 11.8 percent in August) and there are

two winter months that are as busy as some summer months (December and February).

Figure 26: Service Demand by Hour of Day, 2016

The final temporal analysis examines workload (service demand) by hour of the day. The activity level is

greater typically between 11 AM and 10 PM. This is the time when folks are awake and active. Contrary

to what is typical for most jurisdictions, there is no normal rises during the “rush hours.” However, the

spike around 4 to 5 in the morning may represent an early morning commute for residents travelling to

other areas. If career firefighters were hired on a part-time basis, it would be good to have them during

the peak hours. This would also provide coverage for the volunteers who are out of the area during the

daytime.

0

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40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Frequency


30

Geographic Service Demand In addition to the temporal analysis, it is useful to examine the demand for services from a geographical

perspective. This can be beneficial in determining deployment strategies and planning for the potential

future expansion of services and resources.

Figure 27: CCFD Total Service Demand Density, 2016


31

This incident density map demonstrates that the greatest number of calls for service result from the

center of the city and decrease towards the edges of the city.

The next image displays the same elements, but only for EMS incidents that occurred during 2016.

Figure 28: EMS Service Demand Density, 2016

The EMS responses follow the same high concentration in the core of Central City.


32

Resource Distribution Analysis

ISO Criteria

There are two standards commonly used in the fire service to evaluate response distribution. The

Insurance Services Organization (ISO) is a national insurance industry organization that evaluates fire

protection for communities across the country. A jurisdiction’s ISO rating is an important factor when

considering fire station and apparatus distribution, since it can affect the cost of fire insurance for

individuals and businesses. To receive maximum credit for station and apparatus distribution, ISO

recommends that in urban areas, all “built upon” areas in a community be within 1.5 road miles of an

engine company. Additionally, ISO states that a structure must be within five miles of a fire station to

receive any fire protection rating for insurance purposes. The following figures examine current station

and apparatus distribution, based on credentialing criteria for the Insurance Services Organization

(ISO):


33

Figure 29: Engine Distribution per ISO Criteria

This map shows the roads in violet that are reachable within the 1.5-mile travel criterion of Station 1. It

shows that nearly the entire town is within the 1.5-mile reach. The remaining section in the northwest is

within a 5-mile travel distance and will receive the department’s ISO 5 rating.


34

Figure 30: Aerial Apparatus Distribution, ISO Criteria

Central City does not have an aerial apparatus as recommended by ISO for at least a 5 rating—buildings

over three-stories or requiring 3,500 gallons per minute of fire flow. Since one is not available in Central

City, the closest unit available travel distance of 2.5 miles was shown. This unit would respond from

Black Hawk station. While it is possible due to insufficient staffing or the unit being out of service that

Black Hawk’s truck may not respond, it can provide coverage of nearly all of Central City and the

buildings requiring a truck response within the 2.5-mile reach.


35

Travel Time Criteria

The second standard for resource distribution is using travel time criteria. This method is used by NFPA

standards and the Center for Public Safety Excellence accreditation of fire departments. The following

figure presents a travel time model from the current station locations over the existing road network.

Travel time is calculated by the computer software using the posted speed limits and adjusted for

negotiating turns, non-connected travel routes, and intersections.

The travel time model shows three areas of coverage for the time intervals of 7, 8, and 12 minutes.

These travel times correlate to NFPA 1720 response times of 9, 10, and 14 minutes (incorporating a one-

minute call processing and one-minute turnout time). Travel time is a component of the total response

time and will also be discussed more fully later in the report.

Figure 31: Study Area Travel Time Model


36

Figure 31 shows the areas that can be reached within the three NFPA 1720 travel time criteria for urban,

suburban, and rural populations densities. These are determined by taking the response time minus a

minute for call processing and one minute for turnout time. This graphic shows the 7-minute travel time

covers all the areas of both the urban and suburban population densities (shown in Figure 9).

Response Performance Study Likely the most noticeable component of an emergency services delivery system is that of response

time performance. Policymakers and citizens want to know how quickly they can expect services in the

event of an emergency. In the following section, ESCI examines the various response performance

elements of CCFD operations.

Operational Performance Standards

Probably the most commonly accepted response time performance standards for fire-based EMS

systems are found in the recommended benchmarks developed by the National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA) or Center for Public Safety Excellence (CPSE), Commission on Fire Accreditation

International (CFAI). Other standards exist with organizations such as the Commission on Accreditation

of Ambulance Services (CAAS).

Response standards may be set by the jurisdiction based on local requirements or constraints. These

standards should be officially adopted by the governing body and be visible for all members of the

community. In lieu of a locally adopted standard, ESCI will apply the NFPA 1720 standard for CCFD.

NFPA 1720 is for only volunteer and combination departments (where there is less than 85 percent

career personnel).

Most communities contain areas with different population densities and property risk allowing the

community’s policy makers to specify different response performance objectives by geographic area.

The classifications identified by NFPA 1720 are as follows:7

Urban—A geographic area of over 1,000 people per square mile.

Suburban—A geographical area with between 500 and 1,000 people per square mile.

Rural—A geographical area with fewer than 500 people per square mile.

Remote—A geographical area that requires a travel distance of at least 8 miles from a fire station.

There are small areas of urban and suburban population densities in Central City as was discussed in the

Staffing section and shown on the map in Figure 9. The response time recommendations from NFPA

1720 are shown in the next figure.

7 NFPA 1720 Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments.


37

Figure 32: NFPA 1720 Response Time Recommendations

Demand Zone Response Time

(Minutes) Meets

Objective

Urban Area 9 90%

Suburban Area 10 80%

Rural Area 14 80%

Response Time Analysis

In most national standards, total response time (TRT) is defined and comprised of several components:

• Alarm Handling (or call processing) Time: The time interval between when a dispatcher answers

the 911 call and resources are dispatched.

• Turnout Time: The time between when a unit is dispatched and when the unit is en route.

• Travel Time: The amount of time the responding unit actually spends travelling to the incident.

• Total Response Time: The combination of Alarm Handling Time, Turnout Time, and Travel Time.

Some fire departments continue to use “average” response performance measures since the term is

commonly used and widely understood. The most important reason for not using average for

performance standards is that it may not be an accurate reflection of the entire dataset. The results can

be skewed by data outliers. Most progressive systems use the “fractile” method of analyzing response

performance. This method uses percentile measurements (usually the 80th or 90th percentile), and is a

better measure, since they show that the large majority of the data set has achieved a particular level of

performance.

Alarm-Handling Times

The alarm handling time is the interval from the receipt of the 911 call until the appropriate resources

have been identified and dispatched. Communication center operation is governed by NFPA 1221

standard.8 Alarm processing time specified by this standard is 64 seconds for 90 percent of all fire and

EMS calls (not requiring emergency medical dispatch questioning).

Turnout Times Turnout time is the interval between when the communications center notifies the station or personnel

that there is a call for service and the time the unit proceeds to the location of the call. It is an important

element of response time performance. Several factors can influence turnout time intervals: staffed

versus unstaffed stations; minimum staffing requirements before an apparatus can respond; station

design; and the donning of personal protective equipment prior to leaving the station. Turnout time is

one area of the overall response time that fire department personnel have some ability to control, given

proper facilities that allow for rapid and efficient movement of responders.

8 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) NFPA 121 Standard for the Installation, Maintenance, and Use of the Emergency Services Communications Systems, 2016, Section 7.4.2.


38

NFPA 1720 4.3.3 states, “Where staffed stations are provided… they shall have a turnout time of 90

seconds for fire and special operations, and 60 seconds for EMS, 90 percent of the time.” When there

are no staffed stations—as at CCFD—there is no specification for turnout time other than the overall

response time is maintained.

Volunteers responding from home or work tend to have longer turnout as they must travel to the fire

station to pick up a vehicle to respond. This increases the overall response time, whereas if the

volunteer is “on-duty” at the station this time is reduced. Assuming there are enough personnel to

respond at the station the vehicle can respond immediately.

Travel Time Travel time represents the interval between the time the apparatus or vehicle begins to respond and

arrival at the incident location. It is affected by the distance traveled to reach an emergency. Travel time

can also reflect delays due to heavy traffic, weather, road closures, and other circumstances. Short of

building additional fire stations, travel time performance is beyond the control of fire department

personnel.

This is the main criteria for station placement. The location should be in the area where travel time is

minimized to the greatest number of calls for service. Typically, this is closest to the highest population

density since that is the most likely area of call generation.

Total Response Time

The total response time is the sum of the individual time intervals discussed above. This is an analysis

based on the CCFD 2016 incident data. The following figure shows the frequency that the total

response time was completed within that minute interval.

Figure 33: Total Response Time Frequency

0%

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Response Minute


39

The most frequent response time intervals occurred within 4, 7, and 11 minutes. These are for all

responses. The components of response time at the 80th and 90th percentile compared to average are as

follows:

Figure 34: Components of Total Response Time, 2016

Calculation Call Processing Turnout Time Travel Time Total Response

Time

Average 00:44 1:59 7:27 10:11

80th Percentile 1:01 2:45 11:20 14:14

90th Percentile 01:18 4:26 14:24 17:22

Observing the components of response time for three major call types is displayed in the following

chart.

Figure 35: Emergency Response Performance (90th Percentile) by Incident Type, 2016

It is interesting to note that turnout time and travel time is much shorter for fire calls. This makes the

overall response times for fires 8 minutes, 38 seconds compared to EMS calls at 16 minutes, 12 seconds.

Turnout times are nearly two minutes longer—at 2 minutes, 48 seconds for fire and 4 minutes, 39

seconds for EMS calls—but still does not fully explain the amount of difference in the overall response

times. The turnout time difference may be some hesitancy in response thinking there may be others

that will cover the call. Fire calls generally demand higher levels of staffing than EMS calls. There is

therefore a tendency for immediate response from all volunteers. Travel times are longer for EMS as

well which cannot be explained unless the small number of fire calls were at locations generally closer to

the station than were the EMS calls.

Another look at the response times for those within the cities’ boundaries is shown in the following

figure:

00:00

02:53

05:46

08:38

11:31

14:24

17:17

20:10

23:02

Call Processing Time Turnout Time Travel Time Response Time

EMS Fire Other


40

Figure 36 Response Time Performance in City Compared to Outside City

City/Rural Count Percent of Emergency

Incidents Total Response Time

80th Percentile Total Response Time

90th Percentile

City 323 86.8% 13:20 16:45

Outside City 49 13.2% 19:15

22:45

It is important to remember that the 2016 data reflects responses to the area outside of the City for an

entire year. Responses into the areas outside of the City ceased in June of 2017. End of year 2017

statistics will probably show an even greater percentage of fire calls within the city boundaries.

Response Reliability Study In this section, ESCI has analyzed CCFD workload. This data can reveal much about response

performance and a department’s ability to assemble adequate resources to mitigate simultaneous

incidents. Although fire stations, and apparatus may be distributed in a manner to provide a quick

response, that level of performance can only be obtained when apparatus are available in their primary

service areas. Examining the data for 2016 it appeared that concurrent calls is relatively low. However,

since the available staffing is low during portions of the day this could be a significant issue on those

few situations of simultaneous calls.

Figure 37: Concurrent Incidents, 2016 Number of Incidents Percentage of Incidents

Single Incident 421 95.5%

Concurrent Incidents 20 4.5%

About Unit Hour Utilization

Unit hour utilization (UHU) is a calculation that measures productivity. Essentially, UHU measures the

percentage of on-duty time consumed by emergency operations. UHU is one of the most widely used

and often misunderstood performance measurement metrics. A unit-hour (UH) is defined as one hour

of service by a fully equipped unit available for dispatch or assigned to a call. A 24-hour unit consumes

8,760 hours annually.

Some fire departments consider higher utilization rates as having a negative impact on personnel, and

contributing to personnel “burnout.” The UHU value is not the only measure of service demand, but

does provide one perspective on the workload of the various individual apparatus and medic units.

Unit Hour Utilization

The total unit hour utilization for CCFD was analyzed and found to be 4 percent or 347 hours in a year’s

time. This is not a level of activity that would be significant to career but may be difficult for a small

group of volunteers to build into their daily lives.


41

FUTURE STATION LOCATION ANALYSIS

It was previously noted in this report the importance of having a station that was large enough to house

the apparatus and provide space for shift volunteers to occupy the station while waiting for an

emergency response. It is important to consider building the station in the most optimum location for

rapid response to the most calls for service. Having the most optimum location would be the ideal,

however, there are many factors that require a location that is less than optimum. Nevertheless, ESCI

looked for a good location for emergency response.

Central City should consider adding training capabilities to a new station which would allow the

firefighters to continue to get training while at the station. This keeps the crew centrally located and

still ready to provide a quick response.

ESCI was given three potential locations under consideration for a new station. These are Alternative A

located in the 400 Block of Lawrence Street (station likely to be positioned between Lawrence and

Gregory), Alternative B that is at 400 Eureka Street, and Alternative C that is at 1851 Virginia Canyon. In

the next three figures, each option was evaluated by displaying the limits of a four-minute travel time.

A range up to four-minute travel time is used to define the area of quickest response. Four minutes is

also the recommended response travel time in NFPA 1710 for urban areas. This is not a requirement of

NFPA 1720 but it will better help the reader to visualize the difference between the various locations.


42

Figure 38: Travel Time Coverage Station Site Alternative A

Alternative location A can respond to the core of Central City within a four-minute travel. It covers most

of the eastern end of the city.


43

Figure 39: Travel Time Station Site Alternative B

Alternative location B covers a greater area out of the core area of the city. It does not reach the eastern

or southern edge of the city within the four-minute travel time.


44

Figure 40: Travel Time Station Site Alternative C

Alternative location C does not cover much of the city core with a four-minute response. The southern

portion of the city and outside of the city is covered very well. This location covers more area outside

the city than inside of the city. This would not give the greatest benefit for the cost of building a station.

Of the three station location options, Alternative A has the best coverage of the city’s urban and

business core. Alternative B would be the next best location, and Alternative C is the least desirable

station location from a service delivery point of view.


45

RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations listed in this section are those made earlier in the report. Some of the general

recommendations are presented here with multiple options. While ESCI can offer some suggestions

about improving the service, it is the fire chief with city manager and ultimately the council who have

the responsibility to make the choices that best fit the city’s present situation and needs.

The recommendations revolve around the following functions:

• Increasing staffing for emergency responses;

• Station needs for housing apparatus and for crews; and

• Apparatus replacement funding.

Staffing The ability to create an effective response force is marginal for even a light hazard risk within the urban

areas of the city. The city has considerably more risk from large businesses that could suffer losses from

a fire as well as the city losses from public perception of lack of safety or business interruption. Just to

have sufficient personnel to make a rapid search of the multistory building on a fire alarm is difficult

with available personnel. The options that follow are not all that could be done. Multiple combinations

of Option A and B could be conceived as well.

Option A

Hire three firefighters per shift. This would require the hiring a total of ten to cover vacations and other

leave time. These ten individuals would require some benefits as are offered to other city employees.

The volunteers need to be retained and increased in number to respond to calls that require additional

staffing.

Advantages: This option provides a small crew that can handle many of the minor responses that are

routine including medical and most fire alarms which is most responses. This crew can be

supplemented by the fire chief and some shift volunteers. Resident volunteers would not have to

respond or wonder if they need to respond. This will not eliminate the need for a more robust volunteer

crew. During hiring, emphasis should be placed on having a firefighter or an officer on each shift that

can be responsible to train the volunteers assigned. Shift volunteers would be assigned to one of the

three shifts with the officer responsible to mentor and train them, including scheduling and tracking on-

duty shift time. Management is more streamlined by having employees on defined shifts.

Disadvantages: Cost of full-time employees both in salaries and benefits. Also, a fire station with living

quarters is needed.


46

Option B

Recruit more shift volunteers or part-time reserves. Volunteers “volunteer” their time for the fire

department. Under IRS rules they can be compensated a de minimis amount to cover expenses such as

travel for calls and training, purchases of personal equipment, etc. Reserve firefighters are part-time

employees who work an occasional block of time. They are compensated at least minimum wage and

do not usually receive benefits. Other than the method of compensation, or lack thereof, the two

function similarly in practice.

The firefighter works a defined number of hours per week or month. As discussed earlier, the

motivations of the two groups are different, shift volunteers usually are young men and women looking

for a career positions as firefighters in the future. They volunteer for the education and experience they

can gain to give them an advantage on their resumes and in testing processes. Reserves are usually

wanting to make some additional money. These may be off-duty career firefighters from another

jurisdiction who work this as a second job to earn extra wages. This observation should not be taken as

diminishing their dedication as most love the job and would rather be working as a firefighter as doing

anything else on their days off.

The total number of shifts to be covered is 168 hours per week divided by the number of hours required

per shift. Usually this is 24-hour or 12-hour blocks of time. If each volunteer is committed to 24 hours

per month this would require 30 volunteers/reserves to cover the 720 hours per month. If each

volunteer/reserve was required to serve 48 hours/month it would take 15. This number is to have one

firefighter on duty around the clock. To have a crew of three would require triple the amount.

Advantages: May cost less. There are caveats to this statement that must be considered. Shift

volunteers stay until a career position has been obtained. This affects the length of commitment by the

individual. The costs for volunteer training and protective equipment may offset the value received if

the firefighter is not with the department long enough. Also, a more experienced career or volunteer

needs to be leading the shift to give the training and mentoring required by non-experienced recruits

for their safety and for the education they desire. Career firefighters working off-duty do not require as

much training but still require uniforms and protective clothing.

Disadvantages: There must be something that draws shift volunteers to work at CCFD versus the many

other agencies competing for the same individuals. Central City is not a busy system where these young

people can gain a great deal of experience. It would probably need to have a robust training program to

draw them. This would require a fair amount of hands-on training which needs to be accomplished

somewhere at a training facility or built into the station. Further there will be a cost for less experienced

folks that need to have an officer on the shift to keep them safe and to help them make good choices as

they learn. Finally, there needs to be a fire station with living quarters and possibly with training props

built in.


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New Station Options A and B both require a fire station that is large enough to house the frontline apparatus and

personnel (whether career or volunteer/reserve). This station should be close to the urban and suburban

population densities which is the downtown business district. All the reasons for needing a new larger

station have be addressed elsewhere in this report.

Apparatus As pointed out in the Apparatus Replacement Funding section this report, the fleet is aged and no

specific replacement fund has been established to replace the apparatus. Most of the fleet is beyond

the industry standards for replacement. There is no defined age and each apparatus should be judged

on its condition and cost of ownership. There is a need to start an apparatus replacement fund and to

evaluate the cost of maintaining the fleet.

Consolidation There is another alternative that affects all of the preceding recommendations and ESCI would be less

than credible if it was not mentioned in this report. That alternative is to consolidate with a neighboring

fire department. A feasibility study on the possibility of consolidation or merger with any other agency

was outside of the scope of this study so this alternative is offered based on potential advantages, not

verified ones. Before strong consideration is given to this alternative it must be determined if either

potential neighboring department would consider the possibility and some study should be undertaken

to identify the specific advantages and disadvantages of that course of action.

It seems that a merger with Black Hawk Fire Department would make the most sense in that the

downtown area of Central City is within a reasonable travel distance from the existing station. This may

negate the need for building a new fire station. Whatever negotiated cost for the merger could add

funding giving the ability for this department to increase staffing would also help the City of Black

Hawk as well. The CCFD volunteers could serve the new organization increasing the overall effective

response force. There may be a lowering of the ISO classification for Central City as well. Consolidation

with Timberline is also a possibility but would likely require a station in the Central City area to maintain

good response times to the urban and suburban areas of Central City. Also, the current ISO

classification is higher than Central City.

Details on costs or form of governance have not been addressed and would be part of a feasibility study

should this be considered.


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CONCLUSION

ESCI was asked to identify the gaps in fire protection coverage between what exists at Central City Fire

Department and what are industry standards; and to suggest solutions to those gaps. The study was

limited to the operational response aspects of the department as these were considered to be most

important at this juncture. This report is a summary of the findings. The Central City Fire Department

operates well with its limitations. The city has a very small permanent population but a large daily influx

due to tourism. The city is protected by a small group of volunteers who respond to the needs of a city

which has greater service demand than what is normal for a city of its size.

This study is timely for Central City to undertake prior to determining the future direction of the fire

department. The CCFD has lost some of the area it responded to for many years and with that its

largest station on the very edge of the city. The current main station is limited in its ability to hold the

number or size of apparatus needed to respond routinely. Additionally, the staffing is at the low end for

having an effective response force. The structures are larger and more complex than what you would

find in a comparable-sized city in the region or even nationally.

This report reveals gaps and offers recommendations for solutions. Like most great transformations,

the changes will not be easy nor inexpensive to implement. ESCI sincerely hopes that the

recommended solutions have laid a foundation for the future of the Central City Fire Department.


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APPENDIX A: TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Study Area ................................................................................................................................ 4

Figure 2: Calls for Service, 2016 ............................................................................................................... 5

Figure 3: Incidents per 1000 Population Comparison ............................................................................... 5

Figure 4: Fires per 1000 Population Comparison ..................................................................................... 6

Figure 5: Cost per Capita Comparison ..................................................................................................... 6

Figure 6: Organizational Chart ................................................................................................................ 7

Figure 7: Sample of Critical Task Staffing by Risk .................................................................................... 9

Figure 8: NFPA 1720 Response Staffing and Time by Demand Zone ..................................................... 10

Figure 9: Demand Zones Based on Population Densities ...................................................................... 11

Figure 10: Automatic or Mutual Aid Stations ......................................................................................... 13

Figure 11: Black Hawk Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time ................................................................ 14

Figure 12: Timberline Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time ................................................................. 15

Figure 13: Emergency Response Staffing .............................................................................................. 16

Figure 14: Central City Fire Station 1 ..................................................................................................... 18

Figure 15: Central City Fire Station 2 ..................................................................................................... 19

Figure 16: Comparison of Stations and Apparatus ................................................................................ 20

Figure 17: Apparatus Inventory ............................................................................................................. 21

Figure 18: Economic Theory of Vehicle Replacement ............................................................................ 23

Figure 19: Vehicle Replacement Cost .................................................................................................... 24

Figure 20: Vehicle Replacement Chart .................................................................................................. 24

Figure 21: Six-year Historical Service Demand by Type of Call, 2011–2016 ............................................ 25

Figure 22: Six-Year Service Demand Totals, 2011–2016 ........................................................................ 26

Figure 23: Trends of Top Three Call Types ............................................................................................. 26

Figure 24: Service Demand by Day of the Week, 2016 .......................................................................... 28

Figure 25: Service Demand by Month, 2016 .......................................................................................... 28

Figure 26: Service Demand by Hour of Day, 2016 ................................................................................. 29

Figure 27: CCFD Total Service Demand Density, 2016 ........................................................................... 30

Figure 28: EMS Service Demand Density, 2016 ..................................................................................... 31

Figure 29: Engine Distribution per ISO Criteria...................................................................................... 33

Figure 30: Aerial Apparatus Distribution, ISO Criteria ........................................................................... 34

Figure 31: Study Area Travel Time Model .............................................................................................. 35


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Figure 32: NFPA 1720 Response Time Recommendations ..................................................................... 37

Figure 33: Total Response Time Frequency ........................................................................................... 38

Figure 34: Components of Total Response Time, 2016 .......................................................................... 39

Figure 35: Emergency Response Performance (90th Percentile) by Incident Type, 2016 ........................ 39

Figure 36 Response Time Performance in City Compared to Outside City ............................................ 40

Figure 37: Concurrent Incidents, 2016 ................................................................................................... 40

Figure 38: Travel Time Coverage Station Site Alternative A .................................................................. 42

Figure 39: Travel Time Station Site Alternative B .................................................................................. 43

Figure 40: Travel Time Station Site Alternative C .................................................................................. 44

Documents

GAP ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT - Colorado · Gap Analysis 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ESCI was asked to identify the gaps in fire protection coverage at the Central City Fire Department compared