GALERIUS: SHEPHERD TO EMPEROR; PERSECUTOR TO TOLERATION; AND HIS FINAL FOURNIER TORMENT

George Halabi *

SYNOPSIS

This article tells the story of a Roman emperor called Galerius. It is one with a bright beginning but woeful ending. From a simple shepherd he enlisted as a soldier. His bravery so impressed emperor Diocletian, that he promoted him to praetorian prefect, then to principi-ivventvtis (leader of the youth), then to caesar, and even gave him his daughter in marriage. Galerius was made caesar within the Tetrarchy established by Diocletian, whom he succeeded as emperor.

Galerius was not only a brutal soldier and despot but also a cruel persecutor of Christians. He inflicted great suffering upon them. He himself became afflicted with a terrible disease that gradually gnawed at him and brought about his death at 51. This disease, judging from the writings of his contemporaries, is now thought to have been Fournier gangrene.

A very short time before his death in 311 AD, he issued an 'Edict of Toleration'. By virtue of this Edict persecution of the Christians ceased. It was about two years later in 313 that Constantine I (the Great) issued the Edict of Milan which guaranteed freedom of worship. This was subsequently followed by the adoption of Christianity in the Roman empire.

The Appendix includes a number of interesting photographs related to Galerius, the Tetrarchy, and some of the exceptional gold coinage issued at that time.

WHO WAS GALERIUS?

He was born in Serdica (modern Sofia / Bulgaria) ca. 260 AD. His father was a Thracian and his mother came from Dacia. His early youth was spent as a shepherd with his father. He then served as soldier under Aurelian and Probus. Later he conducted himself with distinction under Diocletian and was promoted to Praetorian Prefect.

Diocletian established a new system of collegiate rule to administer the vast empire. In 286, he designated his friend and country-man Maximianus as Augustus. Maximianus was

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------* Member, American Numismatic Society; Member, American Numismatic Association;P.E. (Professional Engineer); Fellow, ASCE; Fellow ACE. 1

to be in charge of the western half of the empire, and Diocletian the eastern. In 293, two Caesars were appointed: Flavius Valerius Constantius (Chlorus), to assist and be the heir to Maximianus; and Galerius Valerius Maximianus (Galerius), likewise, to Diocletian. The administration of the empire was thus conducted by the four 'tetrarchs' (= four rulers), hencethe term 'Tetrarchy'.

Galerius found himself obliged to abandon his first wife and accept Diocletian's offer to marry his daughter Valeria (later Galeria Valeria). He was made ruler of the Illyrian provinces and commander of the eastern units. He was sent to Egypt to quell the rebellions at some of the Egyptian cities, which he successfully did.

On the eastern front Narseh (son of Shapur I) became ruler of the Sasanian Empire in 294. He declared war on Rome. Over the next two years, he invaded Armenia, and moved to Mesopotamia where he defeated Galerius. The latter was seriously humiliated by this setback but in 298, with fresh reinforcements, he managed to inflict severe losses on Narseh,and regained all lost territories. The ensuing peace negotiations imposed heavy conditions on the Sasanians, ensuring the continued predominance of Rome.

Galerius became Augustus in 305 when Diocletian decided to abdicate. Diocletian also managed to convince his colleague Maximianus to abdicate with him. But Maximianus managed to come back for a second reign (306 to 308) and even a third in 310. Relations between Galerius and Constatntius Chlorus quickly deteriorated; the tetrarchy was continually undermined until it finally collapsed after the rise of Constantine, first as Caesar (306 to 307), then as 'filius augustorum' (308 to 309), and later as Augustus (310 to 337).

In his last years Galerius suffered the torments of a debilitating disease (now thought to be Fournier gangrene) which literally caused him to waste away up until his death in 311. He was buried in Serdica, his birthplace.

Items 1 and 2 of the Appendix show photos of Galerius' statues. Item 3 shows his Arch and Rotunda / Temple built in Thessalonika. Items 4 and 5 show some of the intricate carvings of this Arch. Item 6 is a view of his massive Rotunda / Temple. Item 6 shows the ruins of his palace, Felix Romuliana, in Gamzigard, east Serbia.

DIOCLETIAN AND THE TETRARCHY

Diocletian (C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus) was born in Dalmatia ca. 245. He progressively advanced in the army ranks to become governor of Moesia then commander of the imperial guard. After Numerian's death and Carinus' assassination, he was in 285 proclaimed emperor by the army.

As mentioned earlier, he introduced joint-rule with his colleague Maximianus. Later in 293 he established a tetrarchy; with himself and Maximianus as emperors; and Galerius and

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Constantius Chlorus, as their respective caesars and heirs. At the time of his retirement in 305, his scheme of a tetrarchic government was well in place. It is said that during his 20 years reign he was distinguished as a statesman; he introduced a number of reforms that hada marked effect on the empire as a whole. However the dark blot of his reign which prominently stands out, is thought to be his consistent and brutal persecution of the Christians; this being carried out with Galerius, first as Caesar and later as Augustus. In fact Galerius continued this brutal policy up until his last dying days when, in desperation, he issued his Edict of Toleration.

It is said that Diocletian died an old, neglected, and broken man, alone at his palace in Split (in modern Croatia). It is also said that he was humiliated and blamed for all ills of the empire. But without doubt, it was with bitterness that he lived to witness the disintegration of his tetrarchic dream, it being destroyed and replaced by the sole rule of the Constantine dynasty.

Perhaps the schematic presentation included in Item 10 of the Appendix, best illustrates the relationships within the Tetrarchy. Full credit goes to friesian.com for this schematic. In the first tier are the emperors Diocletian (1) and Maximianus (2), followed by their caesars Constantius Chlorus (3) and Galerius (4). When Constantius and Galerius become emperors, their caesars are Severus (5) and Maximianus Daia (6).

However things start to get awry at this stage. A usurper in the west, Constantine I (7), appears in the picture, together with Licinius (8). A second usurper also appears in the west:Maxentius. who plots and kills Severus (5), and who, in turn is killed by Constantine I (7). This same Constantine also plots and kills Maximianus (2) and Licinius (8); Licinius having himself previously killed Maximianus Daia (6).

As it transpired, this series of assassinations seemed to have cleared the way for Constantineto become sole emperor, albeit with much blood on his hands. In 326 he even had more blood on his hands: that of his wife Fausta and his eldest son Crispus, both assassinated on his orders.

In the end Constantine I became seriously ill. Apparently, in an attempt to hedge his bets, he arranged to be quickly baptised promising to lead a true Christian life if he recovered from his illness. But this was not to be; he died in 337. This selfsame Constantine was later elevated by the church to sainthood and given the title “isapostolos”, i.e. equal-to-apostles.

PERSECUTION AND THE EDICTS OF TOLERATION AND MILAN

It is considered that the cruellest period of persecution of Christians was during the reigns (and upon the direct orders) of Diocletian and Galerius.

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What Gibbon, the famous historian, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, says, in his inimitable manner, is perhaps unequalled in its pungency. To quote:

“The sanguinary temper of Galerius, the first and principal author of the persecution, was formidable to those Christians, whom their misfortunes had placed them within the limits of his dominions...many persons...very frequently deserted their native country, and sought refuge in the milder climate of the West.”

“But when Galerius had obtained the supreme power and the government of the East, he indulged in their fullest extent his zeal and cruelty...The frequent disappointment of his ambitious views, the experience of six years of persecution, and the salutary reflections which a lingering and painful distemper suggested to the mind of Galerius, at length convinced him that the most violent efforts of despotism are insufficient to extirpate a whole people or to subdue their religious prejudices, Desiring of repairing the mischief that he had occasioned, he published a general edict...”

Edict of Toleration

In the last days of his terrible affliction, and very shortly before his death in 311, Galerius issued what is known as the Edict of Toleration. To quote few excerpts:

“...in view of our most mild clemency and the constant habit by which we are accustomed togrant indulgence to all, we thought that we ought to grant our most prompt indulgence also to these, so that they may again be Christians and may hold their conventicles, provided they do nothing contrary to good order.”

The Edict concludes thus:

“Wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes.”

Despite the pompous wording of this Edict, it indicates a dram of humanity in this otherwisebrutal despot. It perhaps also reflects the desperation of a terminally ill person, clutching at whatever straws remain for recovery: “ought to pray to their God for our safety...”

Item11 of the Appendix shows a picture of the 3 panels of the Edict of Toleration (in Latin, Greek, and Romanian), which stand in front of St. Sofia Church in Sofia, Bulgaria.

The Edict of Milan

In 313 Emperors Constantine and Licinius met in Mediolanum (modern Milan) and issued an edict known as the Edict of Milan. This Edict finally ended all forms of persecution of Christians, ensured religious freedom, and the return to Christians of their confiscated properties and churches. This Edict is perhaps one of the prominent landmarks of religious

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freedom, accommodation, and tolerance. Today, some seventeen hundred years later, religious fanaticism, intolerance, and bigotry are still prevalent in many areas.

Some excerpts:

“...so that we might grant to the Christians and others full authority to observe that religionwhich each preferred...”

“...no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, or that religion which he should think best for himself...”

“...it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever,...concerning the Christians and now anyone of these who wishes to observe Christian religion may do so freely and openly, without molestation...we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship.”

“And since these Christians are known to have possessed not only those places in which they were accustomed to assemble, but also other property, namely the churches... order to be restored, without any hesitation or controversy at all, to these Christians...”

THE NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE

The coinage during the period of the Tetrarchy underwent two major changes, first by Diocletian and then by Constantine I.

Diocletian's changes include substantial revisions, most important of which are: (1) the goldaurei to be struck at 60 to the pound (Roman pound = 328.9 g) instead of the earlier 70, i.e. made heavier than before; (2) a new silver coin was introduced called argenteus (24 argentei = 1 gold aureus); and (3) a new bronze coin called folles (5 folles = 1 silver argenteus).

Constantine I also introduced a number of changes to the coinage. The most prominent include: (1) reduction of the weight of the folles; (2) instead of the aureus a new gold coin was introduced, the solidus, struck at 72 to the pound, i.e. made lighter than before; (3) introduction of the semis (one half solidus) and the scripulum (3/8 solidus); (4) a new silvercoin called siliqua (24 siliqua = 1 solidus), being equivalent to the old argenteus; (5) another new but heavier silver coin called miliarense (3 miliarensia = 4 siliquae).

The coinage of the Tetrarchy was extensive. It was struck at a large number of mints throughout the empire. Photos of some interesting gold coins of Galerius and the Tetrarchy, are included in the Appendix under items C1 to C14. As can be seen, these coins reflect the great skill and mastery of their engravers.

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As in almost all other Roman imperial coinage, the types include: (1) associations with the deities; (2) the emperor's victories / military achievements; (3) the emperor and his family; (4) the emperor with his colleagues / co-rulers; (5) the emperor's designations, attributes, and titles. Throughout, the elements of self-aggrandizement, acclaim, and propaganda are clearly visible in these coins.

The coin photos in the Appendix are briefly identified with names and dates. Perhaps it is best to let the photos tell their stories.

CONCLUSIONS

This article has explored some of the aspects of the life of emperor Galerius, his rise to power and ultimate agony and death. It has also presented some aspects of the Tetrarchy, its establishment and breakup with the rise of the Constantine dynasty.

Two important aspects of this period have been discussed: first the brutal persecution of Christians; then the issue of the Edict of Toleration in 311 and the Edict of Milan in 313. These two documents have laid the foundation for religious freedom and tolerance.

Also presented in this article have been some gold coins of particular interest in relation to this period of history, and which portray those involved in the tetrarchic original but failed system.

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GALERIUS: SHEPHERD TO EMPEROR; PERSECUTOR TO TOLERATION; AND HIS FINAL FOURNIER TORMENT

REFERENCES

The writer is greatly indebted to, and acknowledges with much gratitude the following references. Without the valuable help and assistance of these references, this article would not have been possible.

Publications:

Armstrong, Martin, A., “The Monetary History of the World, Galerius – 305 – 311 AD”, at armstrongeconomics.com. Calico, Xavier E., The Roman Avrei, X.& F. Calico, Barcelona, 2003.

Cohen, Henry, Description Historique des Monnaies Frappee sous L'Empire Romain, Medailles Imperiales, 2nd ed.,Vol. VII, Paris, London, 1888.

Gibbon, Edward, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 2, Basil, 1787.

Halsall, Paul, “Galerius and Constantine: Edicts of Toleration 311/313”, Fordham University, 1996, at fordham.edu. Hill, G. F., A Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins, London, 1899.

Kousoulis, Antonis, MD, et. al., “The Fatal Disease of Emperor Galerius”, Hist. of MedicineDept., University of Athens, American College of Surgeons, Elsevier Inc., 2012.

Leadbetter, Bill, Galerius and the Will of Diocletian, Routledge, Oxon, 2009.

Leadbetter, Bill, “Galerius, Gamzigrad and the Politics of Abdication”, Edith Cowan University, Proceedings, ASCS 31, 2010 Mathisen, Ralph, W.,” Diocletian (284 – 305 A.D.)”, University of South Carolina, 1997, at luc.edu.

Ross, Kelley, l., “Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History”, 2014, at friesian.com. 7

Seaby, H. A., Roman Silver Coins, London 1989.

Sear, David R., Roman Coins and their Values, London, 2000.

Stilo, Aelius, “Diocletian and the Christian Persecution”, at uchicago.edu.

Sullivan, Mary Ann, “Tetrarchs, Corner of Facade, San Marco, Venice, Italy”, at bluffton.edu.

Sutherland, C. H. V. and Carson, A. R. G., The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. VI, London 1967.

Vanderspoel, J., “Lactantius, Of the Manner of which the Persecutors Died (Addressed to Donatus)”, Dept. of Greek, Latin and Ancient History, University of Calgary, 1998, at ucalgary.ca.

Coin Depositories:

Ancient Coin Search Engine: (acsearch.info).

Archive of Ancient Coins: (coinarchives.com).

Data bank of Greek, Roman and Byzantine Coins: (wildwinds.com).

Coin Project: (coinproject.com).

Forvm Ancient Coins: (forumancientcoins.com).

ANS, Mantis: (numismatic.org).

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GALERIUS: SHEPHERD TO EMPEROR; PERSECUTOR TO TOLERATION; AND HIS FINAL FOURNIER TORMENT

APPENDIX

Item1. Statue of Galerius Item 2. Statue of Head

Item 3. Galerius Arch and Rotunda/Temple Item 4. Detail of Arch in Thessalonika

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Item 5. Closeup - Galerius Victory on Persia

Item 6. Rotunda / Temple in Thessalonika

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Item 7. Ruins of Galerius Palace – Felix Romuliana

Item 8. Tetrachs Statue, Doge's Item 9. Closeup – Tetrachs Statue Entrance,Venice (bottom left)

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Item 10. Schematic of the Tetrarchy (from friesian.com)

Item 11. Galerius Edict of Toleration, Sofia(in Latin/Greek/Bulgarian)

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Following is a selection of gold coins of Galerius and the Tetrarchy. Pictures are enlarged for clarity. Aurei and solidi coins have 17 to 20 mm dia. Multiples are larger.

C 1. Aureus ca. 287/289. C 2. Aureus ca. 288. Obv. Maximian'sObv. Diocletian's head, left. Head, left. Rev. COS II, Emperor onRev. COS II, Emperor horse-back. on horse-back.

C 3. Aureus ca. 290/292. Obv. Diocletian'shead, left. Rev. CONCORDIAE, Diocletianand Maximian seated together, left.

C 4. Aureus ca. 293. Obv. Diocletian's head, right. Rev. CONCORDIAE, Diocletian and Maximian seated together, left.

C 5. Aureus ca. 293. Obv. Galerius head, right.Rev. PRINCIPIIVVENTVTIS, Galerius standing,right, holding spear and globe.

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C 6. Aureus ca. 305/6. Obv. Galerius head, right. Rev. HERCVLI VICTORI, Hercules with club, holding lion's skin and apple.

C 7. Gold medallion (54g, 34mm) ca. 293. Exceptional coin of the two Caesars. Obv. Galerius and Constantius I busts, facing. Rev. PRINCIPIIVVENTVTIS, the two caesars standing, with spears and standards, sacrificing over tripod.

C 8. Ten Aurei (54g, 42mm) ca. 294/295. Exceptional coin of the Tetrarchy. Obv. Busts of Diocletian and Maximian, facing. Rev. Busts of Galerius and Constantius I, facing.

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C 9. Five Aurei ca. 303. Obv. Diocletian's bust, left. Rev. FELICITAS TEMPORVM, Diocletian and Maximian, standing, sacrificing over tripod, Felicity in between.

C 10. Aureus ca. 308/309. Galeria Valeria, daughter of Diocletian and wife of Galerius. Obv. Valeria's bust, right, resting on crescent. Rev. VENERI VICTRICI, Venus standing, left, holding apple.

C 11. Nine Aurei (ca. 50g, 40mm) ca. 310. Obv. Bust of Constantine I, right. Rev. PRINCIPIIVVENTVTIS (leader of the youth), Constantine standing, right, holding spear and globe.

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C 12. Aureus ca. 312. Obv. Head of Constantine I, right. Rev. Winged Victory standing, right, with shield inscribed VICTORIM AVG.

C 13. 1.5 Aureus ca. 312. Obv. Bust of Constantine I, left. Rev. Busts of his two sons, facing.

C 14. Solidas ca. 324/325. Helen, mother of Constantine I. Obv. Helen's head, right. Rev. SECVRITAS REIPVBLICE, Helen standing, left, holding branch.

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