Fungal Classification

8/8/2019 Fungal Classification

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Classification of fungi

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INTRODUCTION







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The scientific classification of living organisms started in the 18thcentury and at that time there were only two Kingdoms of livingorganisms—the Plant Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom. Anything that

didn't move was put in the Plant Kingdom, so that's where fungi wereclassified. However, fungi are very strange 'plants' since they don'tmake their own food, as 'ordinary' plants do via photosynthesis. Despitethat, the two-kingdom system was retained into the second half of the20th century. By then, the electron microscope's ability to show fine

microscopic structural detail was making it obvious that the two-Kingdom classification was inadequate.

While everyone now agrees that fungi do not belong in the PlantKingdom, there is still some debate over the number of Kingdoms

needed to accommodate the living world. This means that you are verylikely to see a number of different classification schemes as you look indifferent books or web sites.

The basis of which fungi are classified 1. Nutrition andGrowth

Fungi obtain their food either by infecting living organisms as parasites (Gr. Parasitos-eating beside another), or by attacking dead organic matter as Saprobes (Gr. sapros-

rotten, bios- life).

Fungi which live on dead matter and are incapable of infecting living organisms are calledobligate saprobes. Those fungi capable of causing diseases or of living on dead organic

matter, according to circumstances, facultative parasites (or facultative saprobes), and

those which cannot live except on living protoplasm are called obligate parasites. Some

fungal hyphae show a widespread association with the roots of higher plants and this

association is known as mycorrhiza (Gr. mykes- mushroom + rhiza- root). In these

associations both plant and fungus derive the benefit. Fungi differ from most plants in that

they require already elaborated food inorder to live, and are incapable of manufacturingtheir own. But if given carbohydrates in some form preferably glucose, sucrose or maltose

most fungi can synthesize their own proteins by utilizing inorganic or organic sources of

nitrogen and various mineral elements essential for their growth. Many fungi are capable

of synthesizing vitamins they require for their growth and reproduction. Some, however

are deficient in thiamine or biotin or both and must obtain these or their precursors fromthe substratum. Fungi usually store excess food in the form of glycogen and oil.

Most fungi will grow between 00

and 350

C but optimum temperatures lie in the range of

20-30

0

C. The ability of fungi to withstand extremely low temperatures (as low as –195

0

C)for at least a few hours has been demonstrated.







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They prefer an acid medium for growth, a pH of 6 being near the optimum for most of the

species.

Although light is not required for the growth of fungi, some light is essential for

sporulation in many species. Light also plays a part in spore dispersal, the spore bearing

organs being positively phototrophic and discharging their spores towards the light.

2. Somatic Structures

• The vegetative structure of fungi not differentiated into shoot and root is referred to as

thallus. It consists of microscopic tubular filaments called hyphae (sing: hypha), Mass

of hyphae constituting the thallus is called mycelium (plural: mycelia).

• The hyphae are branched (rarely unbranched), and the branches ramify on or inside the

substratum to form a three dimensional network. Cytoplasmic streaming in fungal

hyphae is unidirectional towards the tip, where growth takes place.

• The hyphae may be septate or unseptate (Fig. 1). The unseptate hyphae have nucleiscattered in the cytoplasm. This is known as coenocytic condition. Depending on the

species, the protoplasm may be continuous throughout or it may be interrupted at

irregular intervals by partitions or crosswalls, which divide the hypha into cells.

• The crosswalls are called septa (sing: septum; septum meaning hedge, partition). In

septate forms, the protoplasts on each side of a septum are connected by living strands,

which pass through a central pore in the septum. Even in the aseptate hyphae septa are

formed to cut off old, empty portions of hyphae in the older region and to delimit the

sex organs in the concentration of cytoplasm and are called adventitious septa.

• Fungi have eukaryotic cell structure (Fig. 2). They have double-membrane bound cellorganelles like nucleus and mitochondria, tubular endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the

golgi bodies and the ribosomes. However, there are some differences from typical

eukaryotic cells, like the ribosomes, lying free in the cytoplasm and not attached to

endoplasmic reticulum.

• Though hypha is the characteristic unit of structure in fungi, there are fungi whose thallus

may consist of a single cell. Some fungi show dimorphism and exist in both mycelial

and unicellular forms in different environments.

• Fungi possess organized, demonstrable nuclei each with a nuclear membrane, a

nucleolus, and chromatin strands, which become organized into chromosomes during

division.

• The chemical composition of the cell wall is not the same in all fungi. In most fungi,

particularly in the higher forms the cell wall is composed chiefly of chitin. In some

forms cellulose is probably the chief constituent. Callose, a complex carbohydrate,

lignin like substances and other organic materials have also been detected in many

fungi.

• The mass of hyphae constituting the thallus of a fungus is called the mycelium. The

mycelium of some of the higher fungi forms thick strands. These strands loose theirindividuality and form complex tissues,







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which exhibit a division of labour. These are called rhizomorphs and are resistant to

adverse conditions and remain dormant until favorable conditions return.

• The mycelium of parasitic fungi grows on the surface of or more often inside, the host

either spreading between the cells or penetrating into them. Intercellular hyphae of

many fungi, especially of obligate parasites of plants, obtain nourishment through

haustoria (sing: haustorium, Latin: haustor = drinker). They are regarded as specialisedabsorbing organs. Haustoria may be knob like in shape, elongate or branched like a

miniature root system. The hyphae of saprobic fungi come in intimate contact with the

substratum and obtain food by dirrect diffusion through the hyphal walls, causing

disintegration of the organic matter which they utilize.

• The mycelium of most of fungi becomes organized into loosely or compactly woven

tissues known as plectenchyma (Greek: pleko = I weave + enchyma = infusion i.e a

woven tissue). There are two general types of Plectenchyma (Fig. 3).

i. Prosenchyma: (Greek: pros = toward + enchyma = infusion i.e approaching a

tissue). It is a rather loosely woven tissue in which the component hyphae liemore or less parallel to one another.

ii. Pseudoparenchyma: (Greek: pseudo = false + parenchyma = a type of plant

tissue). It consists of closely packed more or less isodiametric or oval cells

resembling the parenchyma cells of higher plants.

Prosenchyma and Psuedoparenchyma compose various types of somatic and reproductivestructures which many fungi form. Two such somatic structures are the stroma (plural:

stromata: Greek: stroma = mattress) and the sclerotium (plural: sclerotia ; Greek. skleros =hard).

A stroma is a compact, somatic structure much like a mattress, on which or in which

frutifications are usually formed.

A sclerotium is a hard resting body resistant to unfavorable conditions, it may remain

dormant for long periods of time and germinate upon the return of favorable conditions.







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3. Life Cycles

Many fungi, like other sexually reproducing organisms show an alternation between

haploid and diploid nuclear phases in their life cycles. The haploid phase begins with thecompletion of meiosis and the diploid phase starts with the fusion of the haploid nuclei

during sexual reproduction. In many higher Asco and Basidiomycotina a third phase – thedikaryophase, intervenes the haploid and diploid phases. The nuclei associate in pairs to

form dikaryons which divide simultaneously and the daughter pairs of nuclei form new

cells. This multiplication of the gametic nuclei after karyogamy, results in the formation of

numerous diploid nuclei.

A life cycle involving dikaryons is found only in fungi and nowhere else. Fungi display

different types of life cycles centred around the sexual reproduction. Seven basic types of

life cycles in fungi are generally recognised.

These are:1. Asexual cycle: the entire group of “fungi imperfecti” shows this type of life cycle.

There is no alternation of haploid and diploid nuclear phases. The diploid (2n)

phase is lacking.

2. Haploid cycle: The life cycle is completely haploid (n), the diploid phase is

restricted only to the zygote nucleus. This is the most common type of life

cycle found in majority of lower fungi and Ascomycotina.

3. Hapliod cycle with restricted dikaryon: This type of life cycle is found in

higher Ascomycotina forming (n + n) ascogenous hyphae, which arecompletely dependent on the haploid mycelium. This is predominantly a

haploid life cycle but it differs in the separation of plasmogamy from

karyogamy in space and time. The gametic nuclei pair to form dikaryons

which multiply by conjugate mitotic divisions in the ascogenous hyphae. Thedikaryons finally undergo karyogamy and meiosis in the ascal primordia.

4. Haploid – dikaryotic cycle: Most of the Basidiomycotina, excluding the smuts,

exhibit this type of life cycle in which the dikaryophase (n + n) is more

extensive and also independent of the haploid phase. The cycle comprises of

two roughly equivalent phases and terminates in a single diploid nucleargeneration represented by the diploid zygote nucleus.

5. Dikaryotic cycle: The complete life cycle is passed in dikaryotic phase, and boththe haploid and diploid generations are represented by single nuclear

generation. The immediate products of meiosis like the ascospores or the

basidiospores fuse to initiate the dikaryophase, which persists until karyogamy

occurs. Examples are the rusts and smuts.

6. Haploid – diploid cycle: This type of life cycle, which is characteristic of algae,

occurs only in two groups of fungi like the Blastocladiales and Endomycetales

( Ascocybe grovesii) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this type, haploid and

diploid phases are equally extensive and important.







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7. Diploid cycle: This type of life cycle, that is completely diploid except for the

immediate products of meiosis, is reported in a number of yeasts,

Myxomycetes, Blastocladiales and the Oomycetes.

4. Reproduction:

Reproduction is the formation of new individuals having all the characteristics typical of

the species. Two general types of reproduction are recognized,

Asexual and Sexual

Asexual reproduction, sometimes called somatic or vegetative, does not involve the unionof nuclei, sex cells or sex organs. The union of two nuclei on the other hand characterizes

sexual reproduction.

In the formation of reproductive organs, either sexual or asexual, the entire thallus may be

converted into one or more reproductive structures, so that somatic and reproductivephases do not occur together in the same individual. Fungi, which follow this pattern, are

called holocarpic (Greek. holos = whole + karpos = fruit). In the majority of fungi,

however, the reproductive organs arise from but a portion of the thallus, while the

remainder continues its normal somatic activities. The fungi in this category are called

eucarpic (Greek. eu = good + karpos = fruit). The holocarpic forms are, therefore less

differentiated than the eucarpic and are regarded, for the most part, as more primitive.

• Asexual reproduction:

It is the non–sexual production of specialized reproductive cells such as spores. A broaderdefinition, however, also includes any method of propagation of new individuals, such as

simple division of a unicellular organism into two daughter cells or of a multicellular

thallus into a number of fragments each of which grows into a new individual.

Fungi exhibit the following methods of asexual reproduction.

1. Fragmentation: A detached fragment of the hypha, in suitable conditions, gives

rise to a new individual. This happens frequently in nature.

2. Budding: Budding of vegetative cells is common in yeasts (fig. 4). A soft zone

appears on the cell wall, which bulges out, constricts and finally pinches off toform a daughter cell.

3. Fission: This is characteristic of bacteria and occurs only in ‘fission yeasts’Schizosaccharomyces. In fission, the cell divides in transverse plane into two

cells (by constriction and later formation of a cell wall in between).

4. Spores: Spores are the most common method of asexual reproduction in fungi.

The term spores is used for any small propagative, reproductive or survival unit

which separates from a hypha or a sporogenous cell and gives rise to a new

individual. In contrast to the vegetative mycelium, the spore is characterized by :

i. cessation of cytoplasmic movement







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ii. small water content

iii. slow metabolism and lack of vacuoles.

Asexual spores are also called Mitospores. They are of two main types:

Sporangiospores and Conidia (Fig. 5).

i. Sporangiospores: These are formed within a sac like structure called sporangium(Pl. sporangia) which is borne on undifferentiated or specialized hyphal structure

called sporangiophore. They may be motile or non-motile. The motile

sporangiospores are called zoospores and are provided with one or two flagella, the

nonmotile sporangiospores are called aplanospores, and they lack flagella (fig.5).

Zoospores are naked spores lacking cell wall, which after a swarming period,

encyst, i.e. secrete a wall, and germinate to form a germ tube that develops

into the thallus.

Flagella

The flagella are of two types.

ii. Tinsel type ii. Whiplash type







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The tinsel type flagella have a ‘whip’ having a broader and rigid basal portion and a

thinner, small, flexible distal region. The flagella originate from kernal like granule

called blepharoplast, lying in the cytoplasm close to the plasmamembrane. The

blepharoplast is connected to the nucleus by a strand called rhizoplast. A cross-

section of the shaft of the flagellum shows in electron microphotographs, a 9 + 2

structure (fig.6) which is a characteristic feature of a flagella of all eukaryotic

organisms. The flagellum is composed of eleven fibres, 2 central fibres covered by a

central sheath and a separate outer fibre couplets in the peripheral region. Amembrane surrounds the eleven fibres. Between the outer and central fibres is

composed of 2 sub fibres. Each of 9 outer fibres is composed of 2 sub fibres. One of







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the sub fibres of each outer fibre bears two short projections, designated as arms,

which point in the clockwise direction. The two central fibres are connected to the

blepharoplast. The membrane surrounding the 9 + 2 fibres is continuous with the

plasmamembrane of the spore.

• Uniflagellate zoospore with a posterior whiplash flagellum.

• Uniflagellate zoospore with an anterior tinsel type flagellum.

• Biflagellate zoospore with one flagellum of each type attached apically or

laterally.

• Biflagellate zoospore with two anterior whiplash flagella.

These four types of zoospores form the basis of division of sub division

Mastigomycotina into four classes.

ii. Conidia : They are formed by transformation of pre- existing cells of the thallus andare detached by decay of the hypha, or disarticulation of the cells.

a. Arthrospores: (sing: oidia) are formed by close septation of the distal end of the

hypha, in a basipetalous succession (proceeding from the apex to the base of the

hypha). Both exogenous and endogenous arthrospores are known (fig. 8). The

exogenous arthrospores separate by splitting of the transverse septa. In endogenous

formation of arthrospores transverse septa are laid down as in the exogenous

arthrospores and neighbouring or alternate cells develop a thin wall. The

intermediate cell lose their contents entirely and the thin lateral walls break to freethe arthrospores. Small pieces of hyphal remnants remain attached at both ends of

the arthrospores.

b. Chlamydospores: They are thick walled, resistant spores formed by terminal or

intercalary cells of the hypha and are released after death of hyphae. In the formation

of chlamydospores the cells round off, usually enlarge and develop a thick, often

coloured wall. The cytoplasm becomes dense with enough reserve food forconsumption during unfavorable environment. Chlamydospores are resistant to lysis

by chemicals produced by other soil organisms.

c. Conidiospores: These are formed as new structures on the thallus and are easily

detachable. They are true conidia and are most common in Ascomycotina and fungi

imperfectii. Conidia may be unicellular or multicellular, display varied shapes and

colour. The conidiophores may be free or aggregated to form compound sporophores

like synnemata (sing: synnema) or sporodochia (sing: sporodochium). The

conidiophores of a large number of fungi are borne inside structures called fruitingbodies, which may be saucer shaped acervuli (sing: acervulus). Pycnidium : (sing :

pycnidium) is an ostiolate, spherical or flask shaped fruit body whose innerwall is

lined with short conidiophores.• Sexual reproduction:







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Sexual reproduction involves three principle events Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and

Meiosis, occurring in a cyclic manner. Plasmogamy is the fusion of two sex cells –

a process that results in coming together of compatible sexually differentiated nuclei

in a single protoplast in preparation for nuclear fusion. Karyogamy (fusion of

nuclei) results in the production of a diploid zygote nucleus. Meiosis promotes

genetic recombination through random assortment of chromosomes or crossing over,resulting in the production of genetically different individuals.

The sexual cycle of different fungi may vary due to variations in timings of the

above events. In many Ascomycotina and most Basidiomycotina the plasmogamy

and karyogamy are separated in space and time. The compatible nuclei do not

undergo karyogamy immediately after plasmogamy but remain paired and called adikaryon.

Sex organs of fungi are called gametangia, these form the sex cells – the male and

the female gametes. The male gametangia is called the antheridium and female, theoogonium. The motile male gamete is called antherozoid and the female gametes,

contained inside the oogonium as a differentiated nucleated mass, the egg oroosphere. Morphologically similar gametangia and gametes are called

isogametangia and isogametes respectively.







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Plasmogamy: There are five basic modes of union of sexual elements. These modes of

sexual fusions are often referred to as methods of sexual reproduction.

1. Planogametic copulation: This involves the fusion of two naked, free gametes, one

or both of which may be motile. The motile gametes are called planogametes.

Depending on size and motility of the fusing gametes, there are three types of

planogametic copulation. (Fig. 10)

i. Isogamy: When the two fusing gametes are of the same shape and size, they are

called isogametes and their fusion isogamy.







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ii. Anisogamy: This occurs only in one genus – Allomyces a chytrid, the two

planogametes are morphologically similar but different in size.

iii. Heterogamy: It involves the fusion of a motile male gamete with a non –

motile female gamete (oosphere, contained in an oogonium) the motile

gamete, the antherozoid, enters the oogonium and fertilizes the egg or

oosphere. Heterogamy occurs only in one genus Monoblepharis.2. Gametangial contact: In this type of plasmogamy the male gamete is usually

represented by the nucleus contained inside the antheridium, while the female

gametes is represented by the egg contained in the oogonium (Fig.11).

When the two gametangia come in contact, the male gametic nucleus (or nuclei)

migrates into the oogonium either through a pore dissolved at the point of contact or

through a fertilization tube, especially developed for the purpose by the male

gametangium. The two gametangia do not fuse and retain their identity. The

oogonium undergoes post – copulation changes while the antheridium usually

disintegrates. Examples: Pythium, Albugo, Phytophthora etc.

3. Gametangial copulation: The entire contents of the two gametangia fuse and

become one (Fig.12). It occurs in two ways

a. Direct fusion of gametangia: the two gametangia fuse and become one cell. Eg.

Mucor .

b. Migration of the entire protoplast of one gametangium into other through a pore.

The entire gametangia act as gametes. The recipient gametangium is called thefemale, while the gametangium that empties its contents is the antheridium. Eg.

Rhizophidium.

c. Spermatization: In this minute conidia like male gametes, called spermatia (sing:spermatium) are produced on spermatiophores borne externally on hyphae or

inside cavities called spermogonia (sing: spermogonium) (Fig.13). On contact

with the female organ the spermatia empty their contents through a pore. The

female organ may be a female gametangium a specialized receptive hypha or

even a somatic hypha. The spermatia are carried to the female organ through

wind, water, insects etc. the spermatia differ from conidia in being smaller.

d. Somatogamy: Fusion between undifferentiated vegetative cells or spores is calledsomatic copulation or somatogamy (Fig.14). In mycelial forms anastomosis

(fusion between vegetative hyphae), a phenomenon common in higher fungi but

absent in lower fungi is followed by reciprocal nuclear migration, each mate

fertilizing the other.







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Karyogamy:

After plasmogamy, the two compatible nuclei may undergo fusion (Karyogamy)

immediately to give rise to a diploid (2n) nucleus or may start a dikaryotic (n + n)

association (Dikaryophase) extending for varying periods in different fungi.

Meiosis:

The diploid nucleus in the zygote may undergo meiosis immediately or after an interval. In

many lower fungi the diploid zygote undergoes a resting period for varying duration and

therefore called the resting spore. In such fungi sexual reproduction takes place when

conditions become unfavorable for growth. The resting spores serve for survival. On thereturn of favourable conditions the resting spores germinate indirectly forming zoospores

or directly, through a germ tube. Meiosis occurs during the germination.

The meiosis in Asco and Basidiomycotina occurs in charateristic structures the asci and the

basidia. The products of meiosis are the meiospores like ascospores and basidiosporeswhich on germination give rise to the haploid mycelium.

Heterothallism and Homothallism:Heterothallism is a condition in which the fungi, require another isolate for zygospore

formation. The two isolates or mating types are designated as (+) and (-) strains, as their

gametangia are morphologically similar and indistinguishable into male and female

individuals.

The opposite condition in which an individual originating from a single asexual spore, is

capable of forming zygospore independently is called Homothallism.

In heterothallism the two mating partners are derived from two genetically unlike spores,

designated as (+) and (-) spores.

Homothallic species are more common than heterothallic in all groups of fungi, except

in Basidiomycotina.

Parasexual Cycle:

An alternative method to sexual reproduction was discovered in fungi ( Aspergillus

nidulans) by Pontecorvo and Roper as early as 1952. This they named as the parasexual

cycle. In this process the genetic recombination is achieved through “mitoticcrossingover” and “haploidization”. It is also called as somatic recombination.

In A. nidulans, the parasexual cycle occurs in addition to normal sexual reproduction.

While the events of sexual reproduction are extremely uniform, having a fine coordination

between recombination, seggregation and reduction, there is no such coordination in the

parasexual cycle. The karyogamy and haplodization are accidental events not bound byspace and time. The phenomenon is reported in several fungi belonging to Ascomycotina,

Basidiomycotina and Deuteromycotina. There are strong evidences of its occurrence in

some coenocytic fungi, like Phytophthora cactorum.







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Classification:

Earlier fungi were placed under division Thallophyta of the sub kingdom Cryptogamia of

the kingdom Plantae. Fitzpatrick (1930) divided the thallophyta into sub-divisions

Myxothallophyta (including Myxomycetes) and Euthallophyta (which included lichens,bacteria, algae and fungi).

This is detailed below

Once bacteria, lichens and myxomycetes were included among fungi. Though bacteria

were promptly removed from fungi, the Myxomycetes continued their inclusion amongfungi. These are studied by mycologists by tradition and preserved along with collections

of fungi. Nonetheless, they have always been kept separated from the true bonafide fungi,the Eumycetes. Tippo (1942) removed the division thallophyta because of its heterogenity.

In a very early attempt to classify fungi, the true fungi were divided by Saccardo (1866)

into four classes- Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes, on

the basis of presence or absence of septa and characteristics, sexually produced spores.

(viz. Oospores, zygospores, ascospores and basidiospores).

The Phycomycetes are also sometimes loosely called as ‘lower fungi’ and the fungi

belonging to Asco-, Basidio-, and Deuteromycetes as the ‘higher fungi’. 17

The four class classification of fungi dominated mycology for a long time. However, it

was felt that the sub class Oomycetes was an assemblage of unrelated fo

Phycomycetes) could be separated into two series uniflagellate and biflagellate.

Sparrow emphasized that flagellation was a good taxonomic and phylogenetic criterion.The classes are: o Chytridiomycetes,

o Hypochytridiomycetes

o Oomycetes and

o Plasmodiophoromycetes.

The other sub class Zygomycetes o f the class Phycomycetes was also given class

rank. A group of Phycomycete of arthropods was also elevated to class rank.This resulted in nine classes of fungi :







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1-Chytridiomycetes

Hyphochytridiomycetes2-

3- Oomycetes

Zygomycetes-4

5-Trichomycete6-Ascomycetes

7-. Basidiomycetes

8- Ascomycetes

9- Deuteromycete

Alexopoulos (1962) used this nine class classification his book .the immense popularity of

which made this classification accepted . He named this devision as mycota and separated

Myxomycetes and true fungi under two sub divisions

• The Myxomycotina and

• Eumycotina, respectively

The next important change come in 1966 when Ainsworth proposed aclassification of

fungi which have been used in the Dictionary of fungi and also followed in “The Fungi, An

Advanced Treatise Fungi are treated in this classification as a separate kingdom but those

unable to reconcile with this complete separation of fungi from plants, can continueconsidering them as a sub kingdom of Plantae. Further Hawksworth et al. in 1995 used this

as the basis for classifying fungi .

The kingdom of fungi is divided into two divisions: The Myxomycota, for plasmodialforms and Eumycota for non-plasmodial forms, which are usually mycelial The true fungi

are divided into five sub divisions viz . Mastogomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina,

Basidiomycotina and Deuteromycotina. The outline of the classification of Ainsworth

widely accepted currently is given below.







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KINGDOM MYCOTA (Fungal Kingdom )

I Division: MYXOMYCOTA - (4 Classes)

i. Acrasiomycetes

ii. Hydromyxomycetes

iii. Myxomycetes

iv. Plasmodiophoromycetes

II

Division:Euomycota (5 sub- division)

.

AMASTIGOMYCOTINA- (4 classes)

i. Chytridiomycetesii. Hyphochytridiomycetes

iii. Plasmodiophoromycetes

iv. Oomycetes

BZYGOMYCOTINA - (2 classes)

i. Zygomycetes

ii. Trichomycetes

C .ASCOMYCOTINA - (6 classes) i. Hemiascomycetes

ii. Laculoascomycetes

iii. Plectomycetes

iv. Laboulbeniomycetes

v. Pyrenomycetes

vi. Discomycetes

D.

BASIDIOMYCOTINA - (3 classes)

i. Teliomycetes

ii. Hymenomycetes

iii. Gasteromycetes

E .DEUTEROMYCOTINA - (3 classes) i. Blastomycetes

ii. Hyphomycetes

iii. Coelomycetes







ARE NOT INCLUDES ZYGPMYCOTINA ANDOOMYCETESWHY

? DEUTEROMYCOTINAWITHIN DEVISION

reproduce by sexuallyGOMICOTINA ZY ANDOOMYCETESBecouse

fungi which makeincludes DEUTEROMYCOTINA and ,exually and as

asexually reproduction only.

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Fungal Classification