CHAPTER III

FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SILK I N D U S T R Y

The silk industry is based on the manipulation of a fibre which is of animal origin. The most essential and indispensible factor of the success of the industry is the interesting catterpillar commonly known as silk-worm. The silk-worms can be reared wherewer mulberry leaf, which forms the main food, can be produced. Hardy as the mulberry tree Is, it can grow every where except in the extremes of heat and cold. This means that the industry can be practised successfully in all the countries with temperate climate, and a place where temperature is more or less equable.

This naturally brings before us the factors which govern the distribution of silk-worm rearing industry, ^he most important factors which govern the silk-worm rearing as distinguished from the latter stages of the industry are climate and soil. The reeling process can be done anywhere under any climate; but rearing of silk-worms should have a proper climate and soil where mulberry can grow. Moreover the peasants can take to silk-worm rearing only when it pays

them at least at par with other competing crops. The increase In population Is also responsible for the growthof an Industry like silk; which is subsidiary to agriculture.The social and religious habits of tie people do not exercise

2a powerful influence in the adoption of sericultural activities. The Indian Tariff Board of 1933 Is right in discrediting the

3importance attached to this factor by Prof Maxwell Lefroy and E.C. Ansorage^ who were appointed by the Government of India in the early years of the World War I, to study the

5conditions of the Sericulture Industry in India. They thought that Budhism and Hinduism offer a real obstacle to the growth of Sericultural Industry in India, in so far as they have a rooted objection to the taking of life; such as killing of moths, before they emerge from the enclosing cocoons.^ It has been found beyond the shadew of a doubt from the observations made in Mysore, Madras and even in Kashmir that the lure of economic gain is so great, that the industry has been practised by all the sections of the people including orthodox

7castes as Brahmans and Lingayats. No difficulty whatsoever has been felt on this ground in the Budhist countries like China and Japan, which form the principal centres of silk

Oproduction in the world.

•i

1. I.T.B. (Sericultural Industry) 1933, p»1 *2. Ibid.3. Maxwell-Lefroy, op.cit,, vol.I, p.67.4. Appointed to conduct’ investigations of the Industry in Japan and China regarding silk trade.5. For details see Maxwell-Lef roy,op.cit.,vol.I6. Maxwell Lefroy, op.cltg vol.I,p.67.7. I.T.B.(Sericultural industry) 1933,p.2.8. Ibid.

|M r'; I 'v--

In the successful establishment of the Sericultural industry climate is undoubtedly the most important factor.All climates are not favourable for the flourishing of the silk-worm rearing* It can grow only under certain conditions of temperature and humidity and only in those areas, where its food, the mulberry leaf can be grown successfully and

Qeconomically. Considerable modifications can be made inthese conditions by evolving new races of worms and theircorresponding foods* But nevertheless the limitations imposedby this factor cannot be entirely evaded without serious

10damage to the industry. There are some other varlties of silk-worms such as tussar, muga and eri. but silk-worm rearing on mulberry culture is the most important.

The adoption of silk-worm rearing operations has alwaysbeen a poor man* s occupation. It was primarily the man at theplough who in order to find a subsidiary sources of incometook to this industry. It was thus, the need of the peasantthat promoted the cause of the industry. The industry wasfollowed with a large measure of success in such deeply populatedareas of China, Japan and India and in southern and easternhemisphere where agricultural remunerations were very low,

11h61dings small, and uneconomic. Moreover, the agriculturistshad spare time* It was this spare time which was utilized by

9• Ibid.1©. Ibid.11. Ifjlfl.

A* -** -L

the peasants in silk-worm rearing. Wherever sericulture has been tried as a large scale Industry it has generally failed.In th'e corresponding latitudes of the southern hemisphere, where the climatic conditions were quite favourable for the silk-worm rearing industry, it was this economic consideration

12which ruled out the possibility of the success v£ the industry.

Thus these are the ingredients essential for the silk­worm rearing operations. In addition to these essentials there are two important but fundamental characteristics of the silk-worm rearing industry. The first is the silk-worm seed and the second; as aireddy referred to, is the mulberry leaf.

Seed Production

It was, as already mentioned earlier, during the Kushanrule if not earlier that silk-worm rearing operations started

13in Kashmir* The paucity of contemporary evidence preventsus to say anything definitely regarding the local seedproduction. It seems that when the people of Kashmir learntthe technical knowhow of the industry, they began to produce

14silk-worm seed locally. But during the medieval period15the country entirely depended upon the imported seed. As

12. Ibid..p.3.13* Fordetails see Chapter II - Introduction of the 'Silk Industry in Kashmiri 14. A fact that the spread of the silk industry from one country to another, that whenever it spread from one place to another, technical knowhow was also imported with sia>k-worm seed and mulberry seed, as we have seen in the case of Japan and Greece. Cf. p.1§. Ain-i-Akbari (Jerret) vol. II, p.439; Tuzk-i-Jehangiri(text)p.304« It sum seems that there was always,,the danger Of the disease pccuring In the seed reared locally ana there being no means like the microscope to check the appearance or growth of disease the^Govt. preferred to import the disease lee seed from outside.

latter experience has shown, the outbreak of diseases likepebrinel6 and lack of scientific knowledge of seed productionled to this discontinuance of local seed production* Underthe Mughals the silk-worm seed was mainly imported from othercountries where sericulture was practised and silk—worm seedproduced. According to Abul Fazl silk-worm seed was imported

17from Gilgit and Tibet during the reign of Akbar. Same is18true of Jahangir* s reign. The system continued under Afghans

and Sikhs and its import became an important commodity of19trade with other sericultural countries.

With the establishment of Dogra rule in Kashm-ir this branch of the industry made great headway. Keeping in view the importance of seed as the fundamental ingredient of the industry seed came to be produced in good quantity, though on cottage industry basis, since no scientific guidance was available. However, during the reign of Gulab Singh the State was in a position to produce ti ousands of ounces of silk-worm seed which was free from diseases. During this rule this branch of the industry reached the highest optums of progress in Kashmir. In 1867 M.M. Orio and Consonno two Italian grainers

16. Pebrine is a hereditary disease.17. Ain-i-Akbari (Jerret) vol.II, p.439.18. Tuzk-i-Jehangiri (text), p.3$4.19. Seed production or the trade in silk-worm eggs was itself independently carried on in certain localities in Europe also. Egg-cards constituted an important article of import to Europe from East. In 1865 three million cards of "graine" (seed) were imported by France and Italy from Japan. Each card carried one ounce of seed - cansdale C.H. >"cocoon sllkt p.187.

This seed was examined microscopically by M.M. Vittadani21and Coraalia and was declared sound in every respect.

Under Maharaja Ranbir Singh; in addition to the localseed production some proportion of seed was Imported from

22Europe, China and Japan for it gave better results. Butunfortunately due to the import of some diseased seed from

23Japan, the local seed production suffered heavily. Thusbroke out the most dreadful disease pebrlne in 1876, which

24ultimately brought sericultural operations to an end.

After the organisation of the industry in Kashmir inthe last decade of the 19th century the seed required was

25purchased from Europe, though during certain years localpgseed was also used partly. But with the expansion of the

silk-worm rearing operations, the local seed productiondeveloped Into a highly specialized branch of the industry.As in other sericultural countries, this was done with twoobjectives. First was to maintain and improve the stock bya strict selection of cocoons and the moths used for the

27reproduction of seed and the second was to save the

■“H

20obtained 25,000 ounces of silk-worms seed from Kashmir.

20. Original from Kelber Duseignours French book Nhe cocoon de Soil" cited from H. Maxwell Lefroy*s Report, Vol.lII "Appendices to Vol. X, p.32. Also see Hakim All "The story of Sericulture", p.8.

21. Ibid..p.32.22. Lawrence, op.cit..p.368.23. Maxwell Lefroy. o p .clt.. Vol.I,p.40.24. Lawrence, op.cit..p.%8^69.25» Wardle S .T . , op.clt..p.26. During the years' 1897-96 and 1898-99 local seed was used partly.27.I.T.B. (Sericultural Industry),1933, p.56.

industry from the ravages of hereditary disease likepebrine which in 1878 had brought about a total downfallof the industry in Kashmir. It will not here be cut ofplace to mention that it was the result of the researchesconducted in this field by Pasteur which saved the Industry

30for Kashmir - nay for the entire world. This genius scientist invented the system of microscopical examination of every female moth after she had laid her eggs and the total destruction of all the eggs of any moth in which traces of disease were found. Thus this branch of the industry came to constitute a department of activity by itself and a fundamental part of the overall operations of the industry. Indeed it was treated as an industry by itself and these operations came to be conducted in what are known as Grainages. In Kashmir, the first grainage wasestablished in 1906-07 where reproduction of seed was under-

31taken on scientifically developed lines. In the Jammu province imported seed has always been used. But as late asin 1941-42 a grainage was established at Banihal and there

32too reproduction of seed was undertaken. After the establishment of grainage the reproduction of seed by private individuals was strictly prohibited.^ Because these people

28

28. Ibid.29. Lawrence, op.cit..p.367. Maxwell Lefroy,op.cit,,Vol.I,p.40.30. Wazir Man toohan, op.clt..p.12.31. Adm. Report for the"year 1906-07} Iso see M.GanJu's "Textile Industries in Kashmir", p.197.32. Adm. Report for the year 1941-42.33* Prohibited under Kashmir Silk Protection Regulation of 1963 (1906-07), published in the State Gazzette No.27 dated 14 October 1907»

had no proper training and the lack of scientific knowledge could herald such diseases as pebrine.

During the early years after the establishment of grainage at Srinagar, the reproduction of seed was conducted on somewhat traditional methods, whereas in other sericulturalcountries of Europe, the operations in the grainages were

"34highly developed. In order to bring the grainage operationsto the European level in 1921 Pt. T.C. Vazir, SeniorSericulture Assistant as already referred to, was deputed toEurope to make a study of the practical sericulture there.He strongly recommended the introduction of preliminaryexamination of the cocoons prevalent in Europe which was

35followed from 1921 onwards.

Thus, great care was taken in accepting the cocoons for reproduction. First of all choice was made from their external appearance. Those apparently not good were discarded; those accepted were to pass through a preliminary test which was indeed extremely useful.

; ,4 r~-

34. For detailed information regarding the grainage in Europe see T.C. Wazir's "Notes on a Tour ofSericultural Study in Europe, 1921", pp. 75-109.35. Reorganisation Report of 1942, p.79.

Preliminary Examination

A sample was taken from each rearer's cocoonsbrought into the seed house. These samples were dividedinto two parts each, one part was opened, chrysalises (alive)were taken out and examined. Zf any infection was found, thecocoons of the rearers were all rejected. If, however, therewas none, the emergence of moths from the other part wasartificially expedited. This was done in a small roomheated by fire in the stoye or chimney which raised thetemperature to about 31 to 35 degrees C. This temperature

37was maintained day and night. Samples of cocoons with markson them Indicating which rearer and which cocoons theyrepresented were kept in small baskets on frames one abovethe other. To secure the proper amount of hianidity, a thickcloth drenched in water was hung from the ceiling in themiddle of the room. In this way the emergence of moths fromthese cocoons was expedited by 2 or 3 days compared with the

38time taken in ordinary course. The moths thus emerged, were at once examined. In case of any infection, the cocoons they represented were ^ejected before moths emerged from them in ordinary course. They were at once stifled and thus saved

36. T.C. V/azir, op.cit.. d .83.37. Ibid.

cocoons saved a considerable loss which could otherwiseaccrue to the grainage on account of the emergence of

40infected moths. Stringing was also done In Kashmir whichinvolved skilled labour. In Europe this system waspractically abandoned because it involved more labour

41without any corresponding advantage. It took about 8 to15 days for a moth to emerge from the cocoon after it was

42built, the determining factor being the temperature.

During the short life of the moths which lasted twoor three days, it lived on love and fresh air, for it atenothing till it died. As soon as the male cut through it*

45cocoon, it made a search for a female. The pairing had tobe regulated and in Kashmir pairing of these worms was notallowed for more than 4 or 5 hours. Each male was mixed withtwo females one after the other, so as to make a saving of

44the males and thereby of cocoons. As already hinted, moths were to be examined before pairing, to make sure that they had no defect.

39from becoming pierced.

Thus thia method of preliminary examination of the

59* Ibid.» p.84.40. T.C. Wazir, op.cit..p.63<41. Ibid.. p.88.42. Gantfu, op.cit..p.194.43. Ibid.44. IHd.

Males were then buried underground and females were put into paper or muslin cells where they laid eggs. These females were then crushed and microscopically examined. The seed of those found defective was destroyed.The eviposition cells were then wetted in water, eggs scrapped off, washed, cleaned, dried in the shade and putinto boxes. The ounce weight of seed put in a box variedfrom 30 to 36 grams, the determining factor being the raceof a worm and its yield. The Chinese golden yellow contained36 grams and European yellow had only 30 grams. A moth laid about 300 to 450 eggs. About 90 to 100 layings made an ounce of seed. Sometimes as many as 160 females were required to produce as much quantity. On an average 100 to 110 layings made an ounce. One maund of cocoons yielded about 70 ounces of seed.***5

According to .̂eo Duran, it took about 70 to 60 females46to procuce an ounce of seed. In that case, the reason for

lower yield in Kashmir could be found in the difference of climatic conditions of the two places, one which the silk-worm race belonged to and the other where the seed is reared. It was because of this reason t: at an indigenous silk-worm race

45. Ibid.46. For details see Leo Duran*s "Raw Silk."

79

Hibernation

The seed (univoltine race) before being hatched was to be submitted to cold weather for about three months» cold storage rooms were maintained for this purpose.

During the second decade of the present century thetemperature in Europe in such rooms used to be brought downto the freezing point. But after that period they preferred

482 degree C or 35 degree F. Some grainers brought thetemperature down and then raised it up gradually. Somepreferred abrupt variations. In Kashmir the temperature wasgradually lowered to 30 degree F. and maintained at about

4034 degree and 35 degree F7 till February from November and then gradually raised to about 60 degree F, when inApril, May it was taken out for distribution among the

50rearers.

The importance of this branch of the industry was universally recognised and everywhere in India the governments were requested to have Complete control over the reproduction of seed. Speaking before the Royal Society of Art, fir Norton

47was always preferred to an imported one.

47. Ganju, op.cit.,p.195.48. I.T.B. (Serlcultural Industry) 1933, Vol.II,p.144.49. Ganju, op.cit..p.196.50. Ibid.

Breton, a great London authority on silk remarked "whyshould the Governments of these countries be so concernedin the establishment of sericulture and why should notprivate enterprise do it? I am all out for as littlegovernment interference as possible, but in the case ofsericulture, it is necessary to have the most stringentrules and regulations in regard to the industry if it isto prove successful. Silk-v/orms are prone to infectiousdiseases and the reproduction of eggs has to be verystrictly controlled. However, careful private enterprisein its own interests might be to keep those diseases at bay,if there is no control any Tom, Dick or Harry could startthe business of egg reproduction and start disease in the

51country."

Races of silk-worms

Shere was no indigenous race of silk-worms in the52State. During the period under review, the seed

reproduction in Kashmir was from foreign races such as French, Italian and Baghdad.^ No doubt, fitful attempts had been made in this direction, mainly to get foreign breeds acclimatised in this country. These experiments extended over few generations, but no data was collected or is

51. I.T.B. (Sericultural Industry) 1933» p*31•52. Ganju, op.cit.. p.198} Reorganisation Report of 1942, pp. 81-12153. Ibid.

Abruzza, a race imported from Italy was reproducedfor some years, after which it developed a very highpercentage of Nosema bombycis infection, with the resultthe reproduction of this race rad to be discontinued*Similar was the fate of many other races experimented upon*This was due to the lack of guidance by trained and well­

s'’qualified persons* In 1942 yellow races were undergoing the fourth generation and the Chinese white golden was undergoing the third generation. No serious disease appeared in the seed and if the favourable conditions had continued the races after 7 - 1 0 generations would have been acclimatized. But due to some technical error this attempt also faileo. In 1942 a multivoltine variety from Mysore was obtained to hybridize it with the female univoltine yellow variety.

54available to show what the results had been.

54. Reorganisation Report 1942, p.82.55. Stags Ganju, op.cit.. p.198.56. Ibid.

57operations in this behalf.Following figures will show the extant of

Seed producedPercentage of rejection at microscopic examination ....difier

Y e a r in ounces Pebrine Flacheria causes TOTAL1006-07 10Y21907-08 1791908-09 568V21909-10 14131910-11 21231911-12 29221912-13 35021913-14 37191914-15 37261915-16 44271S16-17 7116V21917-18 64651918-19 14780V21919-20 153791920-21 161103/21921-22 19242 9.4 14.8 4.5 28.71922-23 19871 11 12.2 5.3 28.51923-24 18173 18.9 13.7 4.9 39.51924-25 14323 27.8 10.8 5.3 33.91925-26 158fc9V2 14.2 11.7 5.2 30.91926-27 12821 27.3 13.6 4.9 45.81927-28 18582^2 8.2 23.6 3.7 25.51928-29 17909.2 7.7 22 «& 3.3 33.81929-30 19726.2 12 2.4 6.3 20.71930-31 17062 7.9 4.9 9.5 22.31931-32 16690 4.1 5.6 7.6 17.3

57. Reorganization Report of 1942, pp.74-76.

n r> o

SeedPercentage of rejection at microscopic examinationo t h e r

Y e a r in ounces Pebrine Flacheria causes TOTAL

1932-33 17153.7 12.3 1.4 8.2 21.91933-34 18264.5 3 6.5 10.7 20.21934-35 18596 16.3 - .9*5 28*81935-36 23753.2 5.3 - 7.6 12>91936-37 21693 4.3 - 9.3 13.61937-38 17299 6.8 • 16.1 22.91938-39 25366 6.1 X »9 11.2x9 18.21939-40 44724.6 2.3 .6 9.1 12.01940-41 42354.1 3.1 .6 8.1 11.81941-42 41115.1 14.5 .9 8.6 24.0

Judging the figures of annual production we find that there was a very satisfactory progress. From 10*/2 ounces in1906-07 it rose to over 40,000 ounces towards the end of our period of study. There was also a marked improvement in the proportion o.f rejections as well. This was due to the stricter control being exercised over the selection of cocoons for reproduction including the preliminary examination? But in order to judge the quality of the seed produced, let us now see the comparative yield from the j|eed producedlocally and from that imported from foreign countries.59

5®* Ibid..p.79*59. pp.77-78.

Statement showing the comparative results in rearing of foreign and local seed.

Quantity of seedAverage yield of cocoons per oz. of

reared in seed in seersY e a r Foreiim Loc&X Foreign Local

1892-931893-94 1694-95 1f95-96 1896-97 406 36.151897-98 1920 6400 27.3 —1898-99 6400 12800 24.14 0.101899-1900 18708 — 20.11 0.01900-01 25606 — 19.15 o.c1901-02 25527 — 35.7 0.01902-031903-04 26292 24.13 0.01904-05 30928 — 13.12 0.01905-06 26675 — 33.6 0.01906-07 27533.5 10.6 34.11 46.31907-08 28042 179 — —1906-09 27385V2 56SV2 — —1909-10 30647 1413 45.9 42.61910-11 32035 2123 47.7 45.121911-12 31329 2922 43.14 43.141912-13 32504 3502 41.0 43.11913-14 33016 3719 41.1 47.51914-15 33012 3726 36.5 39.61915-15 33197 4427 36.9 31.81916-17 3C8C9V2 711^/2 35.0 39.21917-16 32195Y2 6465 37.15 38.12

Quantity of seed reared inAverage yield of cocoons per oz. of seed in seers.

Year Foreign Local ...... ZSXfilm.

1918-19 26158V2 14780V2 20.5 29.111919-20 1502?j 2 21123 30.2 29.101920-21 26585V2 14900 29.11 32.91921-22 25683 14482 22.4 28.01922-23 27291¥2 15621 28.8 31.121923-24 26056V2 18045 31.13 31.61924-25 2755GV2 17129 19.12 16.151925-26 28490V2 14323 27.5 27.121926-27 30935V2 15693V2 24.0 20.31927-28 31640V2 12671 31.9 32.121920-29 27272 18574 31.6 34.111929-30 2f>060J/2 19104 29.1 32.81930-31 27138V2 20399V2 31.3 27.91931-32 24161V 2 15632-72 31.3 26.51932-33 8007 16230V2 42.6 40.51933-34 16190 16867V2 40.5 35-131934-33 13005V2 17002 34.6 33.61935-36 16591V2 17996V2 38.4 29.141936-37 15958V2 22197V2 32.11 22.141937-38 18915 19700V2 31.5 30.21936-39 20911 18198V2 22.9 25.151939-40 197981/2 25204 30.11 25.141940-41 5145.4 . 44750.1 26.12 23.151941-42 1C47.9 39654.5 21.10 19.4

From these figures it is clear that the quality of theseed produced in Kashmir deteriorated. Now taking the quinquenniums the following are the averages of the yield

of crop from the local seed, side by side with those60obtained from the foreign seed*

Average yield of cocoons perQuinauennium ounces of

fpLtlm.»eed insj Local

1898-1902 25-14 0.101903-1907 28-7 48-71908-1912 27-6 26-61913-1917 37-15 40-11918-1922 28-1 31*111923-1927 26-4 25-101928-1932 30-14 30-121933-1937 37-9 32-71938-1942 26-9 25-0

Two things are noticeable in the above figures(i) that there has been generally speaking a downward trendin the results obtained from all rearIngs local as well asforeign as compared with the peak years and (ii) that localseed in the beginning was giving better results than foreignseed while towards the ending decade of the period of ourstudy, the tables turned*

ni

A fact about the imported seed that it has to undergoa large variations of temperature in the course of its longtransit. The local seed enjoyed a definite advantage over

61the foreign seed in this respect. It also enjoyed the advantage of being produced by the consumer himself who was greatly interested in getting the best results out of it* This disparity in the results was a very serious problem to be tackled*^

It was perhaps the result of this disparity in the seed production and other branches of the industry that it was deemed necessary to make a thorough investigation into the conditions of the sericulture industry in the State. Following measures were recommended in this behalf in the reorganisation scheme of 1942.

1) The question of the fixation of the indigenous races of silk-worms being one of the extreme and pressing problems, it was recommended to make a systematic study of the suitable races of the silk-worms to fix indigenous races*This task being beyond the capacity of any local officer of the Department, it was also recommended that a foreign expert should be

61* Reorganisation Report of 1942, pp*80-81*62 * Ibid *63. IHd*, pp.81-82*

88

2) Proper conservations of seed through winter and spring untill withdrawn from the Hiber­nation House for distribution among the rearers. For this purpose the construction of a proper Hibernation House equipped with necessary uptodate material for maintaining the temperature and humidity during the hibernation period and permitting full control over these conditions during the critical period immediately proceeding the incubation; was strongly recommended.

3) Stricter control over the seed rearings meant for reproduction of seed and proper selection of cocoons for this purpose

engaged for this purpose.^

64. Ibid..p.82. Mysore had already recognised the validity of this argument and engaged the service first of an Italian Expert Ing Washington Mari and then a Japanese expert# These experts were engaged in Mysore in spite of the fact that Mysore had, what may be termed as indigenous race of India,if not of Mysore proper.65. Ibid..pp.83-84. A great loss was suffered in Kashmir on -this accotint particularly heavy at the time of incubation and serlpositing. This loss was due to some defects both in the seed and methods of rearing.66. Ibid..p.85. In fact European rearings were divided into two kinds those meant for filatures and those meant for reproduction. The former as a rule was not conducted on such high standard of efficiency as the latter. For instance the use of perforated paper was not so common nor was the disinfection of rearing rooms and appliance done bo well. They were also inferior so far as the skill of rearers, the sanitation of rearing-houses and the material and the construction of appliances used were concerned.

o o

4) Stricter control in the microscopic examination.5) Decentralizations of grainage work. For this

purpose it was recommended that in Kashmir the work should be divided into three centres. One in the Northern, other in the southern Wazaratgoand the third continuing where it was. The69Seed House at Banihal was to continue. 7

These recommendations were accepted by the government and implementation of the vchemes was not undertaken till the end of our period more because of the international turn out as a result of the Great War II and its impact on India.

Mulberry Culture

Mulberry (Moris Alba^0) though indigenous to China^ existed in Kashmir since remote paftwhen the tree was introduced into Kashmir, is not known; but it seems quite evident that the tree existed In Kashmir long before silk­worm rearing was introduced in the Valley. As already pointedout the Yagnopavita ceremony has been in vogue since Vedic

ttimes; and since the use of mulberry tings at the ceremony

67

67. Ibid.. pp.85-8668. Ibid., pp.89-9069. T E H . ,p .91.70. There are many varieties of mulberry such as *Moris Alba* and ’Moris Nigra', found In Kashmir. But 'Moris Alba' is the oldest variety grown in Kashmir.71. Simmonds, op.cit.. p.

was essential, therefore, it is to be assumed thatmulberry tree must have been in existence since Vedict i me s M or e ov e r Kashmir; words like Tulla Bagh, Tulla

74Wari and Tulla Pathar are proofs positive to thefact that the tree existed In Kashmir In yery olden timesand it has found place In the language and culture ofKashmir. The tree continued to occupy a place of reverenceand there are eight places reserved In Srinagar for the

75worship of Bhilravas, the lieutenants of Lord Shivavery old trees existed in these places which are worshippedby the Hindus.

When sericulture came to be practised by the people of Kashmir, the mulberry tree proved of immense economic benefit to them. Thus keeping in view the Importance ofthe silk industry the Government restricted the lumbering

7fiof the mulberry trees#

It seems that during the early times the mulberry trees grew wild; large number of trees existed in the fields, near villages, along water courses, which grew to a considerable height and were in some areas the predominant

73. See Supra, p.̂ i74. Tulla Bagh and Tulla Wari refer to the garden of mulberry and Tulla Pathar refers to the place where mulberry is grown.75. G.H.Beg Arif "A Hand Book of Sericulture in Kashmir", pp. 1-2.76. Maxwell Lefroy, op.cit.. Vol I, p.40.

77 78trees. Who planted them or how they came Is not known.The paucity of contemporary evidence prevents us to saywhether or not the people paid any specific attentiontowards the cultivation of mulberry trees. But as we haveseen that silk-worm rearing operations were conducted inKashmir during ancient period, for which historical evidenceis available; this might have definitely motivated thepeople to preserve the existing trees and plantation offresh ones.

In view of the importance of the mulberry trees asthe only food for the silk-worms, during the medieval period,the Sultans of Kashmir especially Zain-ul-Abidin paidgreet attention towards the development of mulberry culture.A large number of such trees was planted during his region.

79And when Mirza Haider Dughlat came to Kashmir in about 1540 A.D., he found a large number of mulberry trees existing in Kashmir. To quote him, "Among the wonders of Kashmir are the quantities of mulberry trees cultivated for their leaves from which silk is obtained.

Under the Mughals, great attention was paid towards the preservation of mulberry trees. We have it on the

77. Ibid.78. jHbid.79* 5he celebrated author of *Tarikh-i-Rashidi*.80. 'Tarikh-i-Rashidi1, (E & R), p.425.

authority of Abul Fazl that during the reign of Akbar, the mulberry trees were strictly reserved for the silk­worm rearing operations and the cattle were not allowed

82to eat this precious leaf* A large number of freshtrees were planted during tKis period and Jehangir in•Tuzk-i-Jahangiri’ says, "There are mulberries everywhere,from the foot of every mulberry tree a vine caeeper grows*The mulberry of Kashmir are not fit to eat with theexception of some trees grown In gardens, but the leaves

83are used to feed the silk-worms* *

Under the Sikhs also the mulberry culture receivedgreat state encouragement* As we have seen that duringthe Sikh rule the production of silk in Kashmir reached

84the high op turns, this was mainly due to the proper supply of basla ingredient, the mulberry leaf, though details in this behalf are lacking*

With tie beginning of our period of study, the silk industry began to flourish by leaps and bounds* But as it seems, the state began to utilize the existing resources of mulberry leaf inherited from the ancestors, instead of

04

81 * Author of *Aln-i-Akbari*182* Ain-i-Akbarl (Jerret)Vol*II, p.439.83* Tuzk-i-Jahangiri (text), p*304*84.For details see Chapter "Process of Production Silk*

encouraging fresh plantation and establishing statenurseries. When Maharaja Ranbir Singh revived the industryin Kashmir, he offered many privileges to the silk-worm

85rearers. They were to exercise strict supervision overthe mulberry trees last these should be cut off or injuredby the people. As already hiftted, a 'Kiram Kash* couldtake leaf free from the trees of a private land-owner and

87in doing so he had the state law at his back, ' Moreover, a tree standing in the private land of an agriculturalist could not be cut by him without proper permission of the

OQcompetent authority. Thus an agriculturalist after planting mulberry trees did not get any out-turn from it, if he was not a silk-worm rearer himself. On the other hand, this state of affairs created an apathy among the people towards

gothe mulberry and its culture. Thus there is no gainsayingthe fact that the very revival scheme of Maharaja RanbirSingh was greatly responsible for decay of this particular

qnbranch of the Industry. And when the silk-worm disease91pebrine broke-out in Kashmir in 1878, the progress of the

industry got totally arrested, the state lost all Interest92in the silk industry. During this period a large number

85. Lawrence, op.cit., p.367-68.86. Ibid.87. I.S’.B. (Sericultural Industiry) 1933, p.32.88. Reorganization Report of 1942, pp.7-8.89. Ganju, op.cit.,p.<57. Lawrence, op.cit..p.368.90. Lawrence, op.cit..p.368.91. Maxwell LefrbV. opccit..Vol.I. p.40.92. Lawrence, op.clt..p.%8.

of mulberry trees were cut off by people due to their93apathy towards it.

When the Britishers Involved themselves in the future of the silk industry during the last decade of the 19th century, they well know the importance of mulberry tree as a basic or fundamental characteristic of the industry* Thus after establishing Sericulture Development Department in about 1892, the lines on which the industry was established in the beginning were as under.

1) Preservation of mulberry trees on state aswell as private land by State law, the tree being declared as royal, which no one could cut without the permission of the competent authority prescribed by law.

2) Propagation and fresh growth of mulberry tree through state effort*

Control

During the early years after the organization of sericulture Department, the' control of the mulberry and

93* Ganju, op.cit..p.158.94. Reorganisation Report of 1942, pp.7-8.

But when Sir Thomas War die came to Kashmir in 1903 toadvise the Darbar regarding the methods of conductingthe sericulture! operations, effective measures wereadopted for the protection of existing trees and propagation

96of fresh treds. Thus to ensure promptness in this matter and ensure strict supervision of the trees, the control of the mulberry culture was transferred to the Director ofHorticulture^ in 1904-05* under the general supervision

qnof Settlement Commissioner* Keeping in view the extra responsibilities it involved a separate office of the mulberry culture was established and Mr* Neame was placed in

QQcharge of the operations. He died the very next year i*e*100in 1905 and Mr. L.C. Sharma an Indian graduate was

appointed in his place to fill up the vacancy. As we haveseen that in 1907, a separate Directorate for Jammu

101Sericulture was established, the control of the mulberry culture was assigned to the Director of Sericulture,Jammu.

In 1910, the control of the mulberry culture in Kashmir102was divided into two divisions the Southern Division

95*Adm Report for S. vears 1961, pp.108-110.96. Ibid.97. At that time Mr. Peychand was Director Horticulture.98. Adm. Report for S* Year 1961, pp.209—220.99. Ibid.100. L.C.Sharma was an Indian Graduate of Cirenceter College.101. Reorganization Report of 1942, p.6.102. Settlement Commissioner's Report to the Revenue Miniate# of His Highness the Maharaja of Jammu anti Kashmir on 20th June, 1910.

95its culture was in the hands of the revenue officers.

comprising Anantnag, Awantipora, Kulgam and ¥2 of Shahr-i-Khas and Northern Division consisting rest of the valley. In 1912-13 the control of the Southern Division was transferred from the Director of Horticulture to the Director of Sericulture and that of the Northern Division still remaining under the control of Director Horticulture?till 1926-27* In that year, the Northern Division of mulberry culture in Kashmir was amalgamated with the Southern Division and Director Sericulture Kashmir took over the control of both the Divisions10'* and retained it till the end of our period of study. In the Jammu province, the operations continued to be under the charge of the Director Sericulture Jammu and his assistants.10^

Nursery work and Plantation

For purpose of transplantation, the Department started a net-work of State nurseries, wherefrom thousands of plants were distributed among the rearers for transplantation* In 1933the number of such nurseries in Kashmir increased to 6 in

1G7 if joKashmir and 10 in Jammu. The number was increased from time to time fend by the end of our period the number

103. Ibid.104. aHbu Report for S. Year 1969, pp. 40-41.105. Adm. Report for S.Year 1983 and first half of 1984.106. Ibid.107. I.T.B. (Sericultural Industry),1933, p.40.106. Ibid.

* I O Q G U U U 1 1 0was raised to 16, in case of Kashmir^ 8 in case of Jammu.To induce the land-owners to replenish and increase thestock of mulberry trees in the State, the Durbar in 1928-29offered a small compensation for the labour involved inattending to the plants for the first three years after

111transplantation. The work involved vas watering the plantsthree or four times in seasons of drought, protecting themfrom the cattle and hoeing them three or four times in ayear. The payment was made at the rate of jbur annas a plantin the first year and two annas in each of the two successive

112years. According to the Indian Tariff Board of 1933,this scale of payment was a sufficient remuneration to induce

11bthe land-owners to plant more trees. By 1933 sixty percent of the mulberry trees stood in the State land and forty

114per cent in the private land. In order to encouragemulberry plantation a further concession was granted to theland-owners by which they were allowed to retain free ofcharge the mulberry wood of the mulberry trees dead or fallenon their land. In order to plant more and more trees, theplantation was also done on suitable localities, karewas

115and ravines almost every year.

109. A.H.Beg Arif "Notes on Sericulture Industry in Kashmir",p.3-4110. Ibid.111. TTfTB.(Sericultural Industry)1933,p.46.112. Ibid.113. UH.,p.47.114. TblcT.115. iee Adm. Report from 1920-21 to 1930-33.

Following nurseries had been established by the Department till the end of our period of study;

„ 1*16 Kashmir ProvinceS.No. Name of the Nursery Area1. Harwan —

2. Sarnal 743. Rampur 2174. Losdanow 1045. Tumlabal 4206. Las,) an —

7. Central Nursery,Srlna gar 2506. New Theed 69. Sangrampura (Baagam) 14010. Lalpur 12011. Nihalpura 3212. Kitchama 10213. Watlab 14714. Mirgund 20015. Langet 3116. Martand

116. G.H.Beg Arif, op.cit.. pp.3-4

117Jammu Province

No. Name of the Nurserv Area (kanals)1. Samandar Bagh 442. Warainpura 603. Dlnglra 294. Ghorri 645. Sailsallan 596. Katra 637. Garan 538. Nalla 1019. Sunderbani 2610. Roni 4811. Nowshera 3512. Kamban 6013. Devgol 2314. Dalwan 6015. Kashtwar 2316. Doda 4917. Basic Seed Farm Udhanipur 8018. Basic Seed Farm Banihal 38

117. Ibid.

monopoly, as such the State tried its level best to increasethe number of plants through State effort. In January 1917

118the following rules regarding the plantation were made*-

Since the industry in Jammu and Kashmir was a State

(A) Grant of State waste-land for mulberry plantation»

1} His Highness the Maharaja Sahib Bahadur could on the recommendations of the ^evenue Minister grant state waste-land in plots for mulberry plantations,

2) The grant was to be subjected to the following conditions -

(a) that the grantee was to show duediligence in planting the whole area of land granted to him with raulberry trees and in tending them.(b) that the number of trees planted and grown was to be at the rate of35 per Kanal'^S and 25 where small

ghumaons were in use.(c) that in the case of grant of half a ghumaon or more, the grantee was to provide within five years of the grant and with the help of such advances from the Durbar, if necessary as was permissible under the rules in force for that purpose, such accommo­dation for rearing, if not existing already, as £he was required to do,by the inspectors of the mulberry culture in the Kashmir province.

118. Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee, pp.45-46. ’Allan* No.4 vide Chief Minister letter No.6702dated 1st January, 1917#119. A Kanal was equal to y8*of an acre.

3) That the grant was to be liable to resumptionunder the orders of the Revenue Minister if anyof the conditions mentioned above was notfulfilled, provided that a period of two yearsfrom the date of grant was to be allowed to thegrantee tc show due diligence in planting the

120land with anil berry trees*1214) Grants made to such persons as were entitled

to break up the land to cultivation free of revenue, was to be held revenue free for the term of settlement or for seven years whichever was longer*

5) Grants made to persons not entitled to break upthe land granted to cultivation free of revenue.

122was to be held revenue free for seven years.6) Lands granted under these rules iwhen assessed

to revenue, was not to fee assessed at a higher rate than tl at fixed for similar lands under ordinary agricultural cultivation.

7) Assaml rights in the land ^ranted under theserules were to be conferred upon the grantee byHis Highness, the Maharaja Sahib Bahadur, assoon as the plantation was declared by the Revenue

123Minister to have been thoroughly established.

101

120. For details, see Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee.121. Before the grant was made.122. Report of Mulberry Rules Committee.123. Ibid.

(B) Plantations of land assessed to revenue!

8) Zamindars wishing to plant mulberry treeson plots of cultivated land of their holding could do so with the sanction of the Revenue Minister obtained on the application made to the local revenue and settlement officers provided that such plots had a maximum area of one Kanal and a maximum area of one ghumaon.

9) If the Revenue Minister was satisfied that theplots of land in regard to which such sanctionhad been given were fully and satisfactorilyplanted with mulberry trees he was after threeyears from the date of their plantation to remitthe revenue assessed on lands for a period of124seven years.

10) The period of remission of revenue under fore­going rule was liable to curtailment and the revenue remitted was liable to realization if the land-holder was found to have failed to show due diligence in planting and tending the mulberry trees. No revenue was to be assessedon the land to which these rules applied by125reason of Zaerdarakhte cultivation* ^

System of PlariationThe grown up plants were supplied to the peasants for

124.* Provided land did not come under assessment, owing to its having been planted with mulberry trees at an earlier date than it would have come if it had not been so planted*125. For details see Report of the Mulberry Rules committee.

plantation in their own land and Kahcharai lands* Hieplants which were planted in the private property weregiven the proprietory rights, but were not allowed to cutthem till dried. The leaves of the rest of the trees wereutilized by the silk-worm rearing community according totheir needs. Sometimes the punishment in violation of themulberry rules were very harsh and the growers were fed upwith it which caused an apathetic attitude among the people

127in general which we shall see in the following pages.

System of Pruning

In order to ensure better cultivation the rules for pruning were formulated and were imparted by the Inspectorsto the rearers after the transplantation of plants* These

128rules may be summarised belowi-

1) Each circle was taken up bit by bit, as shown under and then pruning was done*

2) Only one-third of the mulberry trees of each village were to be pruned which would consist mostly of the full grown up and old trees.

126

126. Kahacharai land was that land which was utilized and sometimes cultivated by the peasants, but had no proprietory rights over it.127. I.T.B. Oral evidence recorded during the enquiry on the grant of protection to sericultural Industry,Vol.Ill, p.138.128. For details see Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee.

3) The small trees as well as these which had been lately pruned off, by the rearers were to be left untouched.

4) The diameter of any cut-off and was not to exceed five Inches, but generally it was to be 2V2 inches.It was necessary to give a good shape to the tree.

5) The pruned off wood and cuttings were to be collected at a centre already fixed for the purpose. It was necessary to see that the entries as tcthe quantity of wood and the number of coolies who worked. Sections were to be duly made into the prescribed register and attested by the Lambardar concerned.

6) A careful supervision was to be exercised over the mulberry wood while being collected at the fixed centres.

7) It was to be seen that the chapraals deputed to work under Mulberry Assistants did not unnecessarily trouble the people and worked under the closest supervision.

8) The holes of the mulberry plantation were to be dug up according to the instructions of the Inspector.

Ft. T.C. Wazir, after making a survey of the European 129sericulture in 1921 made the following recommendations

130regarding mulberry culture.

129. T.C. Wazir "Life Story*, pp.138-190.130. T.C. Wazir, op.cit.. p.14.

1 4

1' n

*An abundant supply of good leaf being the main-stay of silk industry* it is necessary, in view of the apathetic attitude of the people in general here, that strenous efforts should be made to preserve the existing supply and improve it in every way possible, in order to maintain the progressive character of the industry. As matters stand at present it seems that steps should be taken direct towards*t-^-^

1) Ascertaining the best varieties of mulberry.2) Diffusing rational knowledge of mulberry

culture.3) Adopting a vigorous policy of propagation.4) Removing as far as possible the inequities

of the present system, if anyj and5) Creating Interest in zamindars for mulberry

culture. To give stimulus to the zamindars in general for taking interest in the mulberry cultivation, he recommended the introduction of the system of rewards to these who showed extra-ordinary interest in plantation of mulberry.

All these recommendations were accepted by the government and steps in this direction were taken. The result was that In Kashmir during 37 years from 1906 to 1942, the Department

131. Ibid.

v s

planted no fewer than 1,645,849 trees* In Jammu the Department planted about 218,304 trees from 1911 to 1942.1»

During those days no distinction was made between a rearer having mulberry tree of his own and one who

134depended on the state for the supply of mulberry leaf.Mr. Wazir recommended thatthe former should receive a higher remuneration for the leaf and the labour combined than the latter who was to receive remuneration for labour a l o n e . T h i s really would have enabled the former to appreciate the value of his mulberry trees and stimulate interest in it and encourage plantation even on the part of those who did not possess mulberry trees of their own. Such voluntary appreciation of the value of mulberry trees on the Zamindars wfauld have been more helpful than compulsory preservation by State Law. But as ill luck would have it, the recommendation could not be implemented, though the government had formally agreed to do so.

132

132. Reorganization Report of 1942, pp.16-17.133. Ibid.134. f’.t. Wazir,gp*cit.,p.17.135. Ibid.

Following figures will offer an interesting study regarding mulberry plantation in the State*

Kashmir Province

YearNo*of trees planted

1892-93 N.A.1893-94 N.A.1894-95 N.A.1895-96 N.A.1896-97 N.A.1897-98 N.A.1898-99 N.A.1899-1900 N.A.1900-01 N.A.1901-02 N.A.1902-03 N.A.1903-04 N.A.1904-05 N.A. 4«t/'1905-06 30,339 ^1906-07 42,3821907-08 31,3251908-09 22,6241909-10 15,7031910-11 35,1631911-12 15,830t5?1912-13 5, 0001381913-14 10,682159

Costincurred in

136. Reorganization Report of 1942,p*9•137. Ibid.138* Adm* Report for s*Year 1969,pp*40-41 *13®* Adm. Report for S.year 1970,pp*50-51•

No.of trees CostYear planted Incurred in1914-15 16,0581401915-16 47.3981411916-17 30.7311421917-18 41,9801431918-19 32,4851441919-20 35»8631451920-21 20,9471921-22 28,7591922-23 28,4391923-24 35,4901461924-25 44,1281925-26 42,1431471926-27 5,0721481927-28 45,6451491928-29 48,1161501929-30 41,1161511930-31 46,7501931-32 40,7001932-33 51,4511933-34 61,8401934-35 70,132*1935-36 85,0001531936-37 75,685154

140.tt*dpu Report for1S42,p*9«141. Ibid.142. Adm.Report for S.year 1974, pp.22-24.143. Ibid.144. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.9.145. Ibid.146. pioU147. SdiTReport for S.year 1981. Of these plants 1973 were planted in Northern Division and 24,293 in Southern Division.148. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.9.149. Adm.Report for the year 1927-28,pp.21 -22.150. Adm.Report for the year 1928-29,p.22.151* Adm.Report for the year 1929-30,p.22.152. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.10.1053.Adm.Report for S.Year 1992—93,pp.28-29.154. Adm.Report for S.year 1993-94,p.56.

No.of trees CostYear planted incurred In1937-38 90,000155 fe1938-39 81,8701561939-40 44,4601571940-41 84,8711581941-42 91,6261591942-43 117,0121601943-44 N.A.1944-45 430.1241611945-46 N.A.1946-47 N.A.

Jammu Province

1907-08 N.A.1908-09 N.A.1909-10 N.A.1910-11 4871911-12 73871621912-13 101,8551631913-14 10,876

1641914-15 9,838 9,1381915-16 5,650165 9,9321916-17 5,415156 9,5521917-18 4,857167 9,0391918-19 2,756168 10,1681919-20 3,253169 11,671

155. Adm.Report for S.year 1994-95,p.118.156. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.10.157. Adm.Report for S.year 1997-98,pp.139-140158. ^organisation Report of 1942,p.10.159. Adm.Report for S.year 1929,pp.143**145.160. Ibid.,pp.144-145*161. Adm.Report for S.year 2001, pp.66-69.162. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.9.163. Adm.Report for S.year 1969.pp.40-41.164. Re-organisation Report of 1942.p.9.165. Adm.Report for S.year 1972,pp.47-48.166. Adm.Report for S.year 1974,pp.22-24.167. Ibid.168. Adm.Report for S.year 1975>PP*29-32.169. Adm.Report for S.year 1976,pp.;

110

Year1920-211921-22

1922-231923-241924-251925-261926-271927-281928-291929-301930-311931-321932-331933-341934-351935-361936-371937-381938-39

No.of trees planted2,6441701.5751711,6821723,2051732.3181745.01417*2,6591763,3401774,4321785.4701795,845550

9,98118015,89013,84218112,39218212,14618314,32l]?J18,103185

Costincurred in11,67110,21410,91811,192

11,62919,5585,64815,65514,03015,41415,38314,12211,36112,59012,64012,90613.88213,83912,792

170. Adm. Report for S.year 1977-79, pp.38-43.171• Ibid.172. Ibid.173. Mm. Report for S.year 1980.174. Reorganisation Report of 1942, pp.9-10.175. Ibid.,p.10.176. Adm. Report for S.year 1984,p.22.177. Adm. Report for the S.year 1984—85 to 1986-87,pp.21-22.178. Ibid.179. TEXq .180. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.10.181. Ibid.182. Adm. Report for S.year 1992-93, pp.28-29.183. Adm.Report for S.year 1993-94, pp.55 56.184. Adm. Report for S.year 1994-95, pp.118-120.185. Ada.Report for S.year 1997-98,pp.140-141.

1939-40 18t13C1861940-41 15,9031871941-42 23,0191881942-43 24,7021891943-44 N.A.1944-45 25,2181901945-46 N.A.1946-47 NAA.

Year_____ plantedNo.of trees CostIncurred! in

18,36413,546N.A.N.A.N.A*N.A.N.A.N.A.

Preservation of Mulberry Trees

When the industry was organised on modern lines duringthe last decade of the 19th century, the first step takentowards this direction was the protection of the existingmu l b e r r y trees and fresh plantation on state as well asprivate land by state law, the tree being declared as royalwhich no one could cut without the permission of competent

191authority prescribed by law. ̂ But when in 1904-05 a separate branch of mulberry culture was established and L.C. Shariaa took over the charge of the operations after the death of Mr Nearae in 1905-06 he revised the existing

186. Ibid..also see Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.10.187. Adm. Report for S.year 1997-98, pp.140-141.188. Adm.Report for the 2nd half of 1998 and 1999,pp.143-45189. Ibid.190. Adm.Report for S.year 2001, pp.68-69.191. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.7.

1 1 2

rules for the preservation of mulberry trees and made192them more strict. Under these rules the cutting of

the mulberry trees, without, the proper permission ofcompetent authority was strictly prohibited and restricted.Restrictions were placed on the sale and supply of the

193mulberry wood to the private individuals.194These rules may be summarised as underj-

1) All the cutting of the mulberry trees and branches thereof was declared to be a criminal offence. Unless done under the authority of the Inspector of mulberry culture.

2) Zamindars were responsible for mulberry trees standing in their land. If any one else damaged them, the Zamindars had to report the matter at once to the Inspector or to the Lambardar.

3) The Lambardars were similarly responsible for the mulberry trees in their villages and Chowkidar was responsible for reporting to the Lambardar all cases of damage to such trees.

4) Holders of previous permits to cut mulberry wood were warned on 10th of Magh (1962) 1906 that all wood held by them under these permits was to be consumed within six months from that date.Mulberry wood afterwards found in their possession

192. Adm. Report for S.year 1962, pp.46-49.193. Ibid.194. Haxwell Lefroy, op.cit..Vol.Ill,pp.39-40.

without the permission of Inspector was to be deemed to have been held in contravention of these rules*

5) Cropping of mulberry trees for fodder, without the prior authority was to be treated an offence if proved,

6) The Zamindars were not allowed to use mulberry1Q5wood for ploughs etc. '

7) The silk-worm rearers also were not allowed to use any mulberry wood for heating the rearing houses.

8) The sale of mulberry wood except to the Sericulture Department was absolutely prohibited.

9) All fallen Mulberry wood or trees cut under proper authority was to be collected at suitable places and disposed under the orders of theInsrector of Mulberry Culture.

10) The rules for preservation and conservation ofmulberry trees having already been issued in196about 1899* appeared to the officials that the cases having frequently come to the notice in wx ich officials of the different departments of the state had cut mulberry trees, and when an explanation was called for, they stated that they had done so as & past practice and no action was taken against them for any such offince. It was

195. They could obtain such wood from State forests.196. Issued uncer resolution No.15, dated 24th February, 1694.

considered, therefore, necessary that all theofficial© were once for all informed that theywere equally with the general public forbiddento cut any mulberry tree in contravention of theserules and it was, therefore, notified that anyperson whether an official or private individualwho infringed these rules was liable to punishment197and rules were to be strictly enforced.

11) If at any time the cutting of mulberry tree appeared inevitable for some state purpose, the Inspector of mulberry culture was to be previously Informed and the wood was at once to be made over to him unless required for the use of Department concerned and In that case too the previous 198permission of the Inspector was to be obtained.

12) Mulberry wood was to be supplied to the paraos except on special occasions, such as journey1s of Deodhi-i-Khas and a viceregal and other very large camps and only then, if sufficient wood was not obtainable from other sources. When mulberry wood was supplied the arrangements were to be made through the Inspector of Mulberry Culture, who was to receive as such previous notice as was possible and the wood was to be transported under passes1QQgiven by him.

13) The rate of payment for mulberry wood was two kharwars per rupee to be realised in cash, in case of persons not entitled to free fuelj in ether case the Inspector could take a book credit in his accounts for thewood used.

197. Maxvell Lefroy, op.cit..Vol.III.p.39.198. Ibid.199. IBIcT.200. Ybio., pp.39-40. For details also see Report of the Kulterry Rules Committee.

o

14) Mulberry trees In cantonment were to be under the control of the General Officer Commanding,provided the wood was used in contonaent

201limits.15) No mulberry wood in possession of any state

Department (including public works department) could be shifted from one place to another, without previous notice to the Inspector.

16) In urgent cases (.e.g. mulberry tree falling into a canal) trees were to be cut by the orders of the sub-Divisional Officer of the Public Works Department without previous reference to the Inspector, who was, however, to be informed immediately through the Divisional Engineer. Any mulberry tree so cut by the i-epartment, or mulberry trees growing within the public works Department boundaries, could be used for departmental purposes, if required, but only with the previous permissionof the Inspector, which was not to be withheld without_ » . 202 good reasons being given.

17) All the departments were required to inform the Inspector, if any mulberry wood, vas in their possession. They were asked to refrain, in future, from acquiring such wood, or moving it from one place to another without previous intimation to the Inspector. The Inspector was ordered to treat as contraband any wood dealt with otherwise, than according to the above rules. The Inspector could

201. Maxwell Lefroy, op.cit., Vol.III, p.39.202. Ibid.

detain it2^3 and communicate the matter tothe Head of the Department. If he was unable todispose of the case, he was to report the natterto the Settlement Commissioner for the orders of204the higher authorities.

18) The Inspector had the authority to examine the Patwari*s record for purpose of the work.

Trial of Kulberrv CasesThe mulberry rules were implemented and the cases

tried by the Inspector of Mulberry Culture appointed for this purpose.2^ Mulberry Culture, as we have seen, was a separate Department in Kashmir and the mulberry offences were tried by Officer Incharge of Mulberry Culture. With the promulgation of land Regulation Act of 1981 (1925) however the practice ceased and the mulberry cases came to be tried exclusively by the Revenue Officers and this practice continued uptil 1942.2^

In Jammu province mulberry culture has always remaineda part of Sericulture Department and by an explicit clausein the mulberry rules, Director Sericulture, Jammu was

207competent to try cases which came to his notice.

203. Any expenditure involved by such detention being boiTie by the Department concerned.204. mxwell Lefrcy, cp.cit.» Vol.III,p.39.205. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.30.206. Ibid.207. ffiough theoretically this was the position but in practice the cases In which the power was exercised

were few and far between.

Result of Trial in Revenue Courts

The fate of the mulberry cases in Revenue Courts was•imply deplorable. In a large majority of cases no actionwas taken for years, with the result the offenders were

208increasingly encouraged to damage the mulberry trees.In such eases where action was taken, the punishmentinflicted was so inadequate that it not only had no deterrenteffects upon the offenders but actually encouraged them to

209commit more and more offences, of graver nature. Therewere some instances in vhich the Zamindsrs hsd flouted theinspectors and openly threatened tc destroy the mulberrytrees, not ior the fun of destroying the mulberry trees,but as a matter of pure and simple business, because inreturn of a fine of a rupee, they cculd get wood worth

210fc 10/-. It was the pathetic sight to see the helplessnessof the sericultural officials in this matter. In addition tothis till 1925 even the permits for cutting the mulberrytrees were issued by the Revenue JDepartaent which led tosuch an abuse of power by the Revenue Officials, that the

211power had to be withdrawn in 1925*

208. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.31.2°9- Ibid..pp.31-32.210, The result of this sort of settlement of mulberry cases in a certain tehail in the Jammu province had led to a substantial reduction of sericultural operation in that tehsil. Reorganisation Reportof 1942, p.32.211. Reorganisation Report of 1942,p.32.

This being the fate of the Department of Mulberry Culture in the State, Director Sericulture, Jammu, who was appointed the Officer on Special Duty to enquire into the conditions of the Department in 1942; after a thorough investigation made the following re commendations in this behalf.212

1. Revision of mulberry Rules with a view to removing the defects experienced in practical administration and bringing as far as possible uniformity in the rules as applicable in the different ilaqas in the State*

2* Effective steps to be taken to enlist thewhole-heatted cooperation of other Departments of the State, the Revenue Department in particular*

Thus, as a result of these recommendations sanctionwas accorded to consolidate and revise the mulberry rules*For this purpose a committee was appointed consisting of

213the following members*

(1) Chief Director Sericulture .* Chairman(2) Two provincial Directors of Sericulture(3) Forest Research Officer.(4) Two Revenue Officers.(5) Two non-official members*

212* Ibid..p p .33-34*213* Keport of the Mulberry Rules Committee, p.1;sanctioned vide Council order No* 832-C of 1942 dated 4th August,1942*

The Committee held three series of meetings, twoat Srinagar in the month of December, 1942 and June, 1943

214and one in Jammu in the month of October, 1943.

The Committee studied the rules and regulations in force with regard to the protection of mulberry trees, which revealed a very unsatisfactory state of affairs. These rules were in some cases vague and indefinite and in others incomplete and ambiguous* Some of the so-called rules were nothing more than so-called administrative orders issued bythe heads of the Departments who were in charge of the

215administration of the Departments.

Some of the rules had by subsequent legislation orotherwise become definitely obsolete and meaningless, butwere still finding a place in the rules supposed to be inforce* In certain cases powers, not conferred by the rules,

216were exercised without any Challenge from any quarter.

Accordingly on taking stock of all the circumstances217the committee came to the following conclusions•*

1) That there should be a separate and self- sufficient Mulberry Act on Statute Book of the State.

214. Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee,pp.1-4. 215* Ibid.216. Ibid..p p.60-65.217. Ibid.

2) That offences under this Act should continueto be tried by the Revenue Officer,

in3) That£ofier to remove the defect of inordinate delays and inadequate punishments as the existing system of trial of mulberry offences should be made compoundable and powers of compoundingsuch cases should be vested in the Sericulture officials.

4) That with the large reduction in the number of challanable cases which was bound to result in many difficulties, it should be possible to look for the settlement of such cases at the hands of Revenue Officers within a reasonable period of time and on lines truly favourable to the protection of mulberry trees.

In addition to this the other important matters fully218discussed in the committee were -

(a) The heavy damage done to the mulberry trees21Qin Kashmir by camels; *(b) The most suitable ways of compensating the

Zamindars for leaf taken from their land when they do not require it or have it in excess of their requirements for their own rearings.

So the Committee drafted its report and submitted it to the Government which was accepted and came to be called as Kashmir Mulberry Act of 1898-99.

218. Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee,pp.3-4.219* The concessions to be granted to the Zamindars for encouraging the fresh mulberry plantation was also discussed.

Some of the important provisions of the Act are as under!

(I)

(II)

i) Mulberry trees on the State or private land should he protected solely in the interests of silk-worm rearing;

ii) Neither it shall be damaged nor its leaf or wood be used otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of this Act;

iii) (a) Possession of mulberry wood in any form, unless under proper and written permit, was prohibited.(b) In case of a contraband where? such wood was not proved to be pertaining to a private land of the offender, it shall in addition to its being presumed as illegally cut and acquired, be deemed to have been stolen from the state or any other land.

i) Mulberry trees on private land shall be be the property of the owners of such land or their occupancy tenants holding tenure directly under the state, except in so far as they cannot be cut, lopped or pruned and when failed, their wood cannot be removed or used in any way without the previous permission of the Sericulture Department*

ii) The owners of mulberry trees were to be responsible for the protection of those trees Lambardars and Chowkidars had to see

220. Ibid.,pp.65-90.

that mulberry trees were act to be damaged in any way and exercise the vigilance to prevent offences under this

iii) In case of a mulberry tree constituting a danger to the life or property, application from a person affected and likely to be affected other than the owner of the tree, shall also be entertained.

(Ill) i) The ownership of the mulberry trees all state land vests in the State. Such trees including those standing on land, in the possession of the other Government Departments shall be under the exclusive ccntrol of the Sericulture Department*

ii) The responsibility for the protection ofmulberry trees standing in the compound orpremises of the Government office or Institutionrests with the Head of the Office or Institution

222concerned*iii) The pruning of the mulberry trees, in cases

where necessary, shall be done and branches so pruned, disposed of according to the instructions of the Sericulture Department,

iv) The Sericulture Department shall exercise all the powers regarding the cutting, lopping or removal of the mulberry trees dead or alive on all state land and the disposal of the wood.

221. Under this Act the owners of the mulberry trees and their tenants shall allow other silk-worm rearers and their representatives use of the leaves required for their own rearings.222. For mulberry trees on State land other than the said compound or premises the lambardars and Chowkidars were responsible for their protection.

v) The sericulture department shall receive credit for the sale proceeds of wood ot mulberry trees on state land when sold*

vi) Exceptions -(a) Gontonment areas where mulberry trees shall be under the control of the Commanding Officer, provided that the wood is used only within the Cantonment areas.(b) Forest areas where the control of the mulberry trees and disposal of their wood shall be regulated by such agreements as may mutually be agreed upon between the Departments•(c) If a mulberry tree falls upon a P.W.D. building, or into a canal obstructing the flow of water so as to cause inundation and affect adversely the strength of the canal-bank and k5 an imminent danger of falling, with similar consequences, the falling and the removal of the tree may be authorised by an officer of the P.W.D., not below the rank of Sub-Divisional Officer incharge of the building and the canal, provided that Sericultural Officer of the Village concerned is not available to take the necessary action immediately when an officer of the Revenue, P.W.D., Electrical, Telegraph or Telephone Departments authorises the felling and the removal of a mulberry tree and a branch or branches theretff, he shall arrange the mulberry wood so cut or removed to be collected in a safe placeand place it under proper custody pending the sanction of the Sericulture Department regarding its disposal*

Punishments1) A person found guilty of having contravened any of

the provisions of the Act, shall in addition to any punishment to which he may be liable under criminal

law in force for the time being, be liable to a fine which may be extended to fifty rupees for each offence and also make good the loss caused by such act to the State.22*

2) Whoever having once been convicted of an offence punishable under the Act, is again found guilty of the same offence, shall be liable for every subsequent offence to a sentence not exceeding the double of the punishment provided above. *

Investigation and Search

1. All local village officials and residents of the place in general were to help in the investigation being conducted by the authorised officers of the Department*22*̂

2. Any Revenue Officer of the rank of a Naib-Tehsildar and above or any officer of the Sericulture Department of the rank of Inspector or above, having sufficient reason to believe that the mulberry wood is in contravention of the provisions of this Act, in possession of a person in any place, may enter such place with the object of carrying outa thorough search for the contraband wood and its confiscation in accordance with the provisions of the criminal procedure code, relating to searches.22^

223* Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee,p. 224, Ibid.225» i h c T.226. For details see Ibid.

3. The mulberry wood found as being held incontravention of the provisions of this Act shall, pendingthe decision of the case by competent authority beconfiscated and left on * supardnama* duly witnessed by theChowkidar, Lambardar, Zaildar or any other respectable

227resident of the locality*Power of trial

1. Offences under this Act shall be triable only by Assistant Collectors of 2nd Class (Tehsildars and Naib-

228Tehsildars) in the Halqas allotted to them in each Tehsil.2. The tfcying officer shall decide such cases after or

without personal inspection of the spot, as they nay deem necessary, within two months of the institution of such easel?9

250Powers of Compounding

1. Offences under this Act were compoundable.2. The power of compounding was to be exercised by

the Sericulture officials as follows t-(a) Inspectors and Assistants upto Is 10*(b) Deputy Director upto fe 25*(c) Directors upto te 50*(d) Chief Director of Sericulture above fe 50*

227. Ibid*228. Report of the Mulberry Rules Committee.229. Ibid.230. jfplci. See also Reorganisation Report of 1942.