“They had all this strange equipment and weights and mirrors and bars. But the weirdest part of the physical therapy room was the staircase. There was this staircase with a handrail on either side but the stairs didn't go anywhere -- they went right into the wall! The physical therapist would come up to me and say, "Walk up the stairs." And I'd say, "Why? They don't go anywhere." But she'd say, "Never mind, walk up the stairs." So, I'd walk up the stairs and nearly kill myself getting up there. When I got to the top the physical therapist would say, "Good! Now walk back down the stairs." I'd say, "Wait a minute! If you didn't want me up here in the first place, why did you ask me to walk up here?“

-Norman Kunc, “The Stairs Don’t Go Anywhere”http://www.normemma.com/articles/arstairs.htm

Welcome to Week 7 of Functional Assessment!

Functional Routine Video Example

UpdatesTask Analysis on Functional Skills due

today!Article Review #2 & Task Analysis on

Communication Skills due Next Week May 16th

Task analysis on academics due May 23rd

Ecological Assessment Report due June 6th

Quick Review

• When designing an instructional plan for a student there are two general categories of strategies.

• What are these two categories of strategies?• What are some antecedent strategies? – Think prompt (correct responses) & prevent (errors)

• Why consequence strategies? – To reinforce (increase) expected behaviors– To make errors extinct – Effectively respond to correct & incorrect behaviors

Antecedent Strategies

Time Delay Constant (CTD; Miracle et al., 2001) Progressive (Wolery et al., 1992)

Prompting Systems Gestural, verbal, pre-recorded auditory prompts,

pictorial prompts, model prompts, physical prompts, mixed prompts

System of Least Prompts (or least-to-most prompting

Most-to-Least Prompts

Consequence Strategies

Think about how you will respond to:Correct answers/ behaviors

want to reinforce theseErrors

want to put these on extinction Corrective feedback Quickly prompt towards correct answers

Consequence Strategies

Differential reinforcement Reinforcing correct (desired) responses, while

withholding reinforcement for incorrect (non-desired) responses.

Determine reinforcers through preference assessments to ensure effectiveness

Always pair with natural consequence (e.g., if completion of task results in praise, pair external reinforcer with verbal praise)

Schedules of reinforcement Frequency and pattern behaviors are reinforced Ratio (according to # of responses) or interval

(passage of time in relation to performance) schedules

Fixed vs Variable Schedules

Fixed: absolute predetermined number Ratio (Fixed ratio; every 10 correct responses) Intervals (Fixed intervals; every 10 seconds)

Variable: changing, non-fixed number of reinforcements, but offer reinforcement on a schedule that is an average of the reinforcement pattern selected. Variable ratio: (VR:5=average of every fifth

response; e.g., after 3, 7, 2, 8 [total 20..avg 5] Variable interval: (VI:5=average of every five

minutes; same example above)

“Rules to scheduling reinforcement when planning instruction (from Snell &

Brown, 2011”1. During acquisition stage of learning more

instances of behavior should be encouraged by the continuous provision of small amounts of contingent reiforcement (e.g., a smile and task-specific praise, fulfilling a request, “high five”, or “Yes!”) instead of large amounts of reinforcement given less often.

Rule #22. After a higher rate or more accurate

behavior has been established, reinforcers should be faded slowly from a continuous to a fixed schedule, which requires more behavior for each reinforcement.

This will strengthen the behavior as the student learns to tolerate periods of nonreinforcement instead of abruptly giving up & not responding when reinforcment is not forthcoming

Rule #3Because students may learn to predict

when reinforcement will occur, uneven patterns may result (e.g., rewarded for cleaning every Friday…won’t clean until Friday…vs random spot checks), so switch to a variable schedule

based on average of every fifth time, but may occur after 2nd behavior or 10th behavior…student doesn’t know so continues working hard!

Rule #4Reinforcers must be assessed periodically

so that they continue to be reinforcing to the student.

Wise to offer students the opportunity to choose their reinforcer from a group of preferred activities/items.

Rule #5Reinforcers must be suited to student’s

chronological age, the activity, and the learning situation.

Aim for replacing less appropriate reinforcers with ones that have more availability in the natural environments encountered by the student.

Rule #6The more immediately a reinforcer is

presented following the peformance of the behavior, the greater will be its effect.

Error CorrectionErrors include: incorrect responses,

problem behavior, and nonresponses Missed steps in a chained response Discrimination errors in a discrete behavior (e.g.,

signing “eat” instead of “help”) Taking longer than the expected response latency

Want to determine if it is an error due to “can’t do or won’t do” If can’t do…need to re-teach or use different

prompting system (think antecedents). If won’t do…need to look at motivation/function &

reinforcement schedule

Strategies for handling incorrect responses

During acquisition: Gently interrupt errors with a prompt After an error provide feedback (pause, hold up

index finger, say “not quite”) and give another immediate opportunity to perform while increasing the assistance (as in a system of least prompts).

Gently stop an error and see if a student will self-correct. Direct the student to the relevant task stimuli, add prompts as needed.

Reinforce any self-corrections

Correction strategies later in learning

Wait for student to self-correctIf this does not occur, give assistance to

correct the error.Simplify those responses that are

frequently missed or performed incorrectlyGently interrupt errors and provide several

immediate opportunities to practice the missed response (or steps in chained task) that are frequently missed.

Components of Instructional Plan

Short-term objective- based on task analysis

Materials Instructional Strategies

Antecedent/prompting Consequence Provide step by step procedures Rationale Evidence base Criterion for fading

Plan for maintenance and generalization

Generalization“Appropriate responding in untrained

situations” (Haring, 1988).What would be features of untrained

situations? How determine relevant features of

untrained situations?

Albin & Horner, 1988Generalization

Equally important for a particular behavior to NOT occur when it is not appropriate.

Entry Activity #1 Please form groups of 3-4 peopleTurn to Chapter 8 in your textbookYou will receive a number of generalization

strategiesAs a group follow the prompts on the

handout & prepare to share with the rest of the class

Strategies Identified to Promote Generalization

Antecedent Generalization StrategiesThink Instructional Design

Teach in natural setting Use sufficient exemplars Train loosely

(varying stimuli, responses, reinforcers allowed) Program common stimuli

Training setting contains stimuli that are also in the generalization setting

General Case Design Using several specific exemplars based on the

learner’s “instructional universe”

Consequence Generalization Strategies

Introducing natural maintaining consequences Teaches skill during acquisition period that will

be reinforced by natural contingencies in the environment in which behavior will occur, instead of artificial reinforcers that were used during acquisition

Using Indiscriminable Contingencies Use of intermittent schedule of reinforcement Does not know when, where, or what will result

in reinforcementTraining to generalize: differential reinforcement

in “generalization” condition rather than original condition

General Case Design (GCD)

1. Define the Instructional Universe-how?

2. Define the range of relevant stimulus and response variation-important to identify generic response-all important stimuli that could prompt the target responses listed-possible variations of stimulus classes listed-ways in which the learner might respond outlined -List of anticipated problems, errors, exceptions

GCD Cont’d3. Select examples for teaching and probe

testing -teaching: general case-probe: testing generalization/variation

-don’t need all “stores”, but adequately represent all variations of important stimuli & responses-positive & negative teaching examples

GCD Cont’d4. Sequence the teaching examples

Guidelines for sequencing:A. Teach multiple components of an activity within an instructional sessionB. Present variations within individual sessions. Teach as many examples as possible within instructional sessionsC. Juxtapose most similar positive and negative examples.D. Use cumulative programming. If all examples cannot be taught in one session, work on a few at a time, adding new examples to already learned examples in each new session. E. Teach the general case before exceptions.

GCD cont’d5. Teach sequence

6. Test using the non-trained probe examples -to determine whether generalization has occurred.

Consider these steps when collaborating and designing instruction for students.

Example: Fast-food restaurant Generic Response Components (Steps)

SD(Natural Cue)

Range of stimulus characteristics

Response variation

Anticipated problems/exceptions

1. Enter Door-single-double-automatic

People entering/exiting

Door type

People present

Push or pull.

Walk through automatic door

Follow others in/out

Push or pull and hold open for others

Door location varies

Student may hold door for too many people

ActivityOn back of entry activity, use the

functional skill/routine you are planning to teach and outline the variations in stimuli, responses, and anticipated errors/exceptions

Teaching Skill Maintenance

Maintenance: skill continuing to occur for as long as it is needed without having to be taught again.

Common error in teaching is that the skill is learned and generalized, but not practiced sufficiently beyond initial learning

Maintenance strategies should be used in addition to generalization strategies

Maintenance Strategies

Overlearning Continue practicing a skill Overlearning opportunities should be at least 50%

of the opportunities necessary for the student to initially learn the objective.

Distributed Practice Practice during distributed learning sessions Practice is spread out across the day (vs massed

practice)Intermittent ReinforcementUsing a maintenance schedule- build in

practice for infrequently used skills

ActivityComplete the section on Maintenance and

Generalization for the example instructional plan.

You may need a separate piece of paper!If you finish this, think about the student

you will/are working with.This will not be turned in, it is for you to

keep as an example.

Functional Routines InstructionCue(opportunity to respond)

Response/Behavior

Consequence Pause

FR Environment provides a natural cue

Student does each step needed to complete the activity

Student gets natural outcome of activity

Student focuses on next routine

EX Student’s bus arrives and door opens.

Other students get off bus

S gets off bus, goes in the correct direction, enters building, goes to class, puts away materials

Student is now inside with other students and has inviting activities to do. Teacher offers praise

Student transitions to next routine

Discrete Trial Training

Cue(opportunity to respond)

Response/Behavior

Consequence Pause

DTT T provides instructional cue (prompting may be needed)

Student Responds

Teacher praises and give child a positive reinforcer

There is a pause

EX 1. Student indicates interest in chips

2. Teacher says “Give me a car”

Student gives car to teacher

Teacher praises student and gives student a chip

Student eats chip and teacher waits a few seconds before next cue

Video Examples

Pivotal Response Training

Cue(opportunity to respond)

Response/Behavior

Consequence Pause

PRT 1. S indicates interest

2. Teacher withholds access to desired item/activity

Student Responds

S gets desired item

There is a pause

EX 1. Student reaches for car.

2. Teacher withholds and says, “Car”

Student imitates the word car.

Teacher gives student access to car

Student plays with car

Video Examples