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l i iL l ! l i l l r , t. l \Ltrr t :l l j r ' f r \

, IA('K (J R](JIIIRI)S

FunLronol Engl sh Granrnaf

Ldc :1r lo l 1 l ' " : . "

"^iJll,,:,:,.ir;;":;-:',;* : I;- """';' '

AAnd,s for stcond knsurst utnq s'nn L' Mt [t\

Ren{fiT .$hirs n Smrd lngrrgc Clssons 'r

{Rictuats o1n chtna I'n )ri

EJudns Sod Lbss' Cbildnn

Undcrr'ntlc Conruni@rdn ir S

t|s(.diMl.d|alr:\'ngin

rundonlDg!shcmr:An

Tdbcs s Cou txrelopg 'dr

Clsr0on-b$.d lvluatlon in s!'o

trircnsilc Rmding in rhe Smond Lrnsnlg' CrNron 'r n"/ |

cr.lploJinghd|lrlmd,t . i n t ' ' " t

t , tn. t -" tn t " r t - ' ' '

Functional EnelishGrammarAn introduction forsecond language teachers

Graham Lock

.{

l

,;Y

CAMBRIDGE

0t19e

lJ'1

r 'is

tk n Dngh. subld t ndory qltriotr

i ltht4 4 tu tr^ ,thr1h ^r

r.hnt) .ors!' Litut44tn.P'dtelb, Dd!

I !o (cmibide Lss dNni)

Contents

Scries cdiror's prerace ix

I Sone bdic conceph LL L Fomal and fuDdioil gln II.2 Flncroml srmmr 'rd lsge t.hinglj rev.ls ofnlysh 31.5 Meaninsh grmr 3.6 Gtrmarical dions l0

Yy rems intoduced 13Dhcu$ionofiasks 20

Repe*iting rhings l: Nouns and noun sroups 22

Key ts inloduccd 37

3 Rcpr.3riis rhinss II More on

:16 Pdf ll$ 5:: r7 | }o!$knlLNtr L$s l l r i r$ 53

I

Key rem intodulcJ :

Doing a.d hppeniD! | | ir trrr\fr Ly olc1loi process

42 A.tion prcceses 7l

Key hs itodmed 82

Dois and happ.nins ll: Erydivir. 0rr$l vcrbs, ard nhd.5.1 Cau$r and afieded 75.2 veihs rollowcd by pftposto's ,2

Key tos int d.ed 100

seei4,liking. L\inking, *an!ing, ad eyins ic hnsiriuq ofmel snd vel prccds l0l

6.1 Menral pro..sd 1046.2 Menl rctioD prcc*ss I 16.3 vebal pro.e$es l1l

Key rems inimdced 122

Beins and hlvins The tnsiriviry olreliional and exieniial

7.1 Ahibuive ielatiol pfo.eses 1267.2 ld.diryin8 Elrrioml proce*s 157r Posssive rslrionl prcces* ll374 Erisrcnrial pft*$s ll9

Kcy rems inoduccd 14?

Rcffnrins tim: Tcn$ nd rempoIt I lhc rcDs rynsn 143

3.1 Dificrcnr ideprertiors ofred. rr3 4 Lmmins nd reachins rss l33.5 Cn.usbiial Adjunds olrime 1663.6 conjunclve Adju'cb or'ic 1633.7 cipeoo l Adj uicb of ric 163

Key cms intoduccd 170

Iniemcrion: Spech acts rid nmd l?4

9.3 Mood smcbre l?7

9.6 Lcaning and bdhiE nood .td spe.h acb 137

Key refrs itoduced 190

Ex prcsing j udgnenb md ariiud$: Modl u ilin* n'l

10.1 Orhr ars olmodalirY 20910.4 SMry or nodal iililries md th.irneaninsr 212l0 5 l\.ladlity, c@rr and spceh sct 21210.6 L.ins md teachins nodlny 214

Key hs inhdu@d 216

ornizins m*sa36: Theme d rmus 219

lL.l Md.d nd urked word ord 22rlL.2 Thcc nd Rh.c 221l I Mkcd lnd urmikcd-rhemes 221ll4 Sclcdionofm ed Thcmcs 223ll.5 l-cda,ii! d u!.higTltmc Rlie'neiruruas 22711.6 Notrciticrl.dtr'Lrl&s zlelL 7 | .0 ' r or ' i ' r l i "n i ln ' 2rrLl$ lxlN snrr trlorx{' qr [F Ni$rc

12 Cobinin8 csss.s: ( utr s

12.2 Sttodun'lidf om rit\ 1.tr!c$ clluses 243l2j rogicr rcrorniils hr{!i .Ltrscs ?55

Do$ioi orsls 261

13 hsues in ihc rcami,,8,i r.rr,iigd gfhr 265

13 2 Cmei 'nemi!.

ddd coruricdiod 26713.3 Leamins how to meani8rcnrly 27

13.5 Merhodo losical oprions 27013 6 The *y foNad 276

Series editor s preJhce

Allhogh theF are nuercus vorks disi provide ss'micl de$dptonsof ErgLh. 6 well as matry Elercnce eMn olE4lhh inrhd.d lor u$by lgugc behrq rhis book oE a diffcEd hcatucnt ol pedagosiclBrulmi lor it appoeches the sobjed lm i tundionl posperivc Therem,.rnal h^ a nunb olneaings ln liErns, but r L.ck\ bokit reB ro an apprch to undesnding gsr rh r@uss on horl"ng..dc *o I \ oa. l .ve ! ' ) oiive puDoss The enph.s is rhus on h! rho pupdc lor h ich lans$ceis uscd d lbe contxs in hich ir appeam afeci rhe .hois sp.kcB nd*ennre rork rws, ii prhular, or rh.vork rM A. K. Halliday,which hA ben usd in wide nge olapplicd linsuisrics nbrs bu 6nor well known amons ESL lehobook is hence s welcome inrodction r lundional prspedive on E-

RsdeB *ho rre scquainred with other ppmches ro gramtr * ill fi ndsomemrrialthathfmilirinLeL\fuicrionald*cnpionorEnglish,swell as much ihd is difief . Thc dicxplain Ih nlationshipsbeNeen dilTereDteLmcts ofgnnma. and howrey inbnd o cfeae mcanlns,s ii conExr Dn*'n8 0f ! w're sncc ihenric exmpGs ro illustre ho rorm nd runcrion aE irel.ed Lnguge use, rhe book *ill6e ofpriculr ]trcrcr ro le4rase tachfls.Tho iLy3 ofkcy lrmmatical categoriB and .onpoeis ii Etrglish andrhe explmrions of 'Tical nmblenacqunitrs vrios asp{c of lrrmchr uidcfratrd$s ofthe naturc of gffir bui aho sirh mny ideas onh o* trb ing .!r sddres typ ical leamme pmblems.

Preface

Thh b@k p$enrs s tundioml ppb.ch b Sramr hat is, gMU Eviewed $ a Esout fdr malng nning in spokcn md wnftr dncoue.This is vcry diffeEnt om th. view offt b be pplied evd shm they s.em aitary. By htirg tucionlpenpsrive, this boo* is ble ro povid. t.lcheB wii'r Mys ol ihinkinsbo nglh g_mrr u- ttr q

"' be rble b d'as on :n v1.

specb or rh.ir vork, 'ncludins:

. InEglaring r tunctional peGpecivc on snmmr io English l4uag.dhin8 pfogms and mnedahLnder.L1d'ng r\e t nds of probhms le,trh tuy hde 4:Lh JiI'm'Evaluaig ouf.bookr ud gmar rcfftn.e drialsH.lpnE lenea de\elop ocar

'nlerndrg of e 1n('id 'cThe fint chptr rovides an oieblion b hciiol gt,lmd d

inrrcducB ounbd dfbNic..pb Subs.{udt chlpleB *plo ere$rms or the sIlrm lor doing a tumb.r or rhinss. tncluding:t Repenrins /l rgr (Chapbfs 2 and 3 )'

Rep"enn4 \m'o {nd. of p.avi su.h 6 doing, hppengrhinlins, peeivirg, likine, vntins, beins 'd havins (Chpe6 4

. Represtuinc rime (chapr* 3)

. Exprcsins arilud* andjudgmenb (chapre' l0)

. OrS!izine mEsces $ rhar rbey

. cEahs comphx sicnc* (chlptr 12)F ionol EElilh Gruru s d.sigred so rhr it c b0 usd cnher $

$r ror prcsnicc rd in+cryi.c c{chq cducriotr prcsnms o for sr-{udy No rovious dtrdy ol lrlih Snrrn o li4uisiics h N$mcdlhd, drntr urirs trtrFtr !(rnrlcN, i|| rlnisnhlr |t r.{d t

rLrr !\ rr L iusrid qu$ions rl'ar crcoFr ( r oN rr rldilion, h. rli1.hti-

dir liod ni8r ordr tr\ mc incudcdin rh

^pp!tuljrd irc rcrcrai h '|fq,al'o L,! luor \, 'lDlrh fldrt ca pdally drs hoD rhsdiJIeEnrs.rmxi!l

ol cxnplcs rc also,!ivci liom lulL u$ orlru rha trgLh TbAc ars D { iid, othe. lanentrses ifier from

E slish nd some olrbe prubt,s lgrn,oA ol la,slish mdy.onsqlcnrly

lh! u{ 4r . '.rh

1tr$ lxDlrsc llo*evei effot hs

bee dc to kccp rcminology ro thc d ii,itri' i whcrc po$ible rosts which my be limilir ro Eden or whov

'neniss me lnly

rnspM| Ar dE eidoaca.b.bnrein rhe chapiei Equivalenr (ornearlyequiv ent) rcms usd by oth* s-marilis r lred shft $pmpriere

symbols an abbrevilidns use tri thc cxmplcs ii rbis boolt lvarir

An ar{isk is us.d prccedirg dr .riph ro indi.at rhlr rcprcss a

'h! nq wt th.E belbE ln..rss, th*e ,y be eo6 prcdLced byleamem! in orhr.6s, rhey n,ay 6e e4npGs invenled ro illrrat ar

A qucsion aik is u$d p4ccding rn exanple ro idi.aie rhsr n represns a lom which Muld be unacerkble ro mor peofLo. or sould b.

I addnion. numberd exmplss !r. frcqucnrly aLrl'er sis ofsFken or nnftn ErElsh. Those lollos by t,,,/ wd. invhtd by rhc

ple is rollowd by rhc lc(c a or or cerc , rhs exmpLe variar!ofai.rliccxampk wilh rh sr'e number

copy of H11idy\ ,1, /^trcra o F n hht ca hnt \Lontta EdNai lamold,2dcd. l99a) l$b(omeveryrel lwon. lhave lsodwivaluable insigt lrom Chnsi MbE'pttr Etsbh S!:ktltakyo, raipei and Dlls: lnrhallonaLS.i-e.es Publishe, in prc*} wbi.h lr Bcicrously nde evllabk ro mebcforc ir wcnr to pEs, rd from L R Manir's EnElxh Ts^: Stste tu1Srn.,, (Aftlerdm and Phildclph$: Bmjsniis, I 99?. How*e! becruse n\is b.ok intnded lo re.h. Dh& rhar rof linguisG f rerrnLyss, I hvc r.Lr tuc ro adepr, reintarc( rnd u$ sledively rhe in-sigl provided by the abov*menlioned orks, aid rheE ry be sonemreril in rhh book rhar rhe* aurh

Orber *os rhr I hve fcqucitly con$xcd with plofir 3re srrrJ:,.1Frrctional tpt.Crdt Ihttib'r by Talmy Givon (Am*en dPhikderph: Benjimins, vol. I r934,drot 2 tee1):ca iCoRUILDE Elnh G.ahrlLa ar atlt cl^stow: Colllns, I )90)i 3id rh iidhp.'ssbte,a c.pren^iE Grannat f / tr gi ,gt,s by RandolphQunk, Sidney cenbum, ceofiiey f,ech, aid Jan Svarvlk (London ndNew Yok Longr, I935)

I hove bnefitd enusly fn leedback given by rhe followins ol-lsg!*, *ho rook rhe rin io md md comnenr on dnfis of cbpt6 or, insofr@sq oftbewholebook: JackieGeiwood, LarEnce L,u, MarilynLe*is, Dvid LiChor Shing, Charlcs Lckhafr, Lind$yMiller, Manha CPcnn insror, GillEn Ferer, lnd Amyoutsbiding tudioil lingisb, chriropher NBbi ad 6ucnd Plun, fofnsweing (eGcho'iclly nd fac+loLco my flany quers. Tha.ls lsob the MA]ESL $udcn$ ofn\e Cny Univfsiiy fHoi8 Kong for poinringout incoasisEncGs and abiClirid i

udc !o rbc sries .diroi Jack cRichdrds, lor hh cncoungement ad dvice r all 3g ln rhe prcpamnon

c$cfilly rl 'r lrvrLo|nl b! I

I Some basic concepts

Thh chaptr will .dsidtr ihevenca r lnguaee lmig andbasic or8mizaioll principl.rgramr end neanins. Filly,

narure f furclond glmI and ib rcle'r$.hing. Ir will rhen bsgin b explore smeof sr rnd rhe Elaridhip be.na nnber ol gDrhl ludions will bc

t

f

l.l Fomal and tunclol grammar

c aE mny *ays or dscribinc ine gffar or las8e one ,Pprcach ses grsllrmr N a s! of ler rbich stecify ll rhe posible gnn_marical rructurs of rhe l5sase h thh appma.h, de disrinco suu.lly nade beseer 8rnnarical (soneti* sllcd rrtr,l) s_tsces ad ungmaricsl snrenes. The prisry 6ncom is *i eJr,rof glllmtisl stucbres ttd fien rehrionship io one ano$e, 1hcr ih,n*rh el msn',g. or re.' !*\ o fflenr .ore{ { c@iniftFsbd ir rhk kind or desriplion will ofien use for nlvsis *nEnesrharhav.bee mde uD to illushre direrc c@aricaldlca ruiher rha!se e.cs dM fro real wodd sourc6.

Anh qrpruch s.! l.nguge firei md fnmor s r svten ofcon_muicarion and rnalyzs s'"]rrlm ro dk.ove how i is orgized io altowseakcB nd witss b nke nd excho; r chii dislindion b.em emmarical and uerifldil lomi thcfeus h trsully on thc apprcpriaeie$ of a lom lor a pdiul& conun icalivc pu'lose a pli.ulu mnr* The priarv concen is *t!h rhe,r4r, ur i 'uLr ' nd rh. i ' .oF

' - " - . "oJ " fh

er rs inc! incodcxr. A snmmia inrercred in hh kind of d*oiprion k llkcly o usednrd non lurhcnric rsB (rhc tcm ,:r is u*d hcrc for both spoken ndwrirlcn k'nsusO i" sp!.ific conrcrs

'I ir lnnu ryproiclr b !nricl rnllysir k onei clLel lorml,wliit lF ltrr trrpr !l n 'nr'lly $LLl fndlorl. Th{ rlo _

r,.irr s!rL!!u. romLilyrs mj d(Ld, i [r vlci moe de*fiplions ot

L,lrr r! orL rprcclies canbe bncflyand simpy i unrdrerh rtu (, is r! sutrdirc:(r) Ihdsol l i ( \ 'qL[ \ ] ! , \ r i . , r ]rtr nlrzine rhe,on( of lrN s.ilorlc. r l, iDrrnt fundiontsmm ans

"!uLl agrc! in !r A ii r /rs(

'd scntm How.vci a

romr g,alrrmI *ord be J)|inrnL! !a{qLrn fndins fte be$ ab-rrrr. scnr..cnd itr ho* irishr be

( l r . I h. l\ tuq [y d d reFdld ncFor exarc. .trr.s .n bc si our ro s

!- ( )rlrcmolcrunrolrhecoirucnr, /tr,/&/4, ro osion ,r hpreposiriorr; (:)lhemofmcrol rbcco'fnu.l4rorhc ffonrof llrseftfte aid its cbongc in fom 10 nd (3) rhc ch cc tun r,,rclde.t (n dow fom o

'he krb) ro /l .dn il/?.l (a pa$trr

Atuidioil grdmrinyouldahobcbveen rhe ae xnd D$ive shdurcs. Howcyei hg o. she wouLd b.

as(t) lrow .onnunicali!c efledof th. mcsssc i die senrme h diitu whcd ir b*ins wirh / rarher rhaDwi'h //E /a-.!ror (2) whhc sncd of pune r /frr ar e.nd orr $nrica, nd (r) whd re

dive voic 'r'h6c kinlsofqusdns!ouldlcadrl'clinguislhconsidcf rhgmlcofrhcwsr-reminoqanizLsifofrrior wirhin snienes nd rexb, and itr cotriburing ro .oh.nrcommunicdion (quefions ftr yill be.onsid*.d in ch4itr li orrh

1.2 Functionalsramma and laguage teachngLcamig a $ond hn8uEc haId wconsidenble comnenr orrDc aid !fiod. The work ry lndiriu: 6Ld'joyltc. b' hc tu nor sully trDdrxkc \'rh r w rlru ric

mqurih.c sih unlamilixr snmnmi.l pdrcms ijrd elesrr p,ndlgsol lms,bultormorlene6rhcpyo will berlicrbilnyb.ommurrrwrriolrisplkssorwnronhelaismsc To be oafet use ro trnauScLerms d reach.n. rl'crr.r. { dcr.npdon ollbe sam.rof tr lneuage

rh rodl ar rru.tufts oJ rhehrg!!9.. lr nlcds ro sho\y Lvbd rhcy F lbf and ho* rhcy rfo usd.

^slrcrdy rcd. rlf pfim'r inolr tundioralgnmdic| antys tr rogug! sevs s a nsoN! fomkins

nd e{dDngi ns ca ngs ^

hniontsnm'n h ltrcrufoF rhe klnd orgmnurros likdy to bave sLrhiigs o sy ro lanlmsc le$* ai(liechen (hscs gn m'm and knluse rer hi ie !rc .r ploEd mor tu y

A nunbd of "bnndJ of fundion, gmDm l[vc ape rcd [nhnr 0Elelt lree ro sled nd drpr ilgrrs from numb ofsourc*. Howevr, dsood de,l or d' hcorerical nd nlyri. | tncrofk dopred fl rh booti.6 vcr !s mch of ihe tnio ogy. drim nom dic wolk or syrcn'ctunctorl I'nBsG, ln pni.ula\,1. A K irattiayG.g, H idy 1973,199) Oe lhe )effi, Halliday h$ had grcd innrcnce oi boh moherrongue od scond lrisuagc.ducalion j d syrc'ni.-tui.rioiL nalyses orEtrglh Cnnr h.vs rl.idy pmved rhcs$ vey slut I nubrof ppricdions, mngjng ro nullilnisot rxr gertlrjon by conDrcrG.e., Bdea d r r99l) ro rrc developne orfi4r tnsuree hemcy(eg.Madin r993.Chrrerar l992rRorhefy t934nd t993) r iseesrikely ar vo& .omrng fro rt rndirron snt hrvc n iicEsins mtc ra[ arcas ofmricd ]inguisrics.

Fn.tiandt E)t)jx,t r)nrr

histrBh of rlL $h@h recogize sEnlrolLo*,nA rour lcveh m those NuslLy

{

1.3 Levels ol analyssln s udying hos hngurss wofks,dLfiernr hvch ot .alr,:a. Tbe

Phorologr rcfen ro rbc souid syicm ora pari.ulr Lansuse. mLghtycm pronncrio ln this book, pho

Dobsr- wil bc rorrrd upof ony bfierl],atrg!. rghty.orcspo i'lg 1o rh.

Il,rr r. ffns..it or{ords and (2)

a) rbhlrqi!brr i '

r , i !lLd! d\ so d. ls,[itrc ro tom a meningful

l! \qrd i?/ cn b. ividcd hrLrfrsc fi rdLor $dthe scond

inir | $lli mDholDgY The rocussemiricsrcrc6rodrfron\o kr,girultrguasc.Joiexmple,

how sntences rclt ro 'ht

r,1\$lJor|u,P.. rd'ons,phcN.rd$on.Thcrc rc m dcarctrr divid s irc5 hd\r(' ri'd ror hvels ol phono -

oly, leris,sImr, id ri[nrics: drlLrur rDlI*s w]Ll kc rlrc d'siom indiffercnr\rys Trkln8! aicisconcm.d$nhe,s to a Duchmlghi b. In orhe. \'onk. thh bookmrins might prcLr to del wnh sAnd slnce ih book truscs oi ho( gdiDr'.ri crPresmeiirg, iralssondims bc.on* dimcdi ro d.as cLs lii hv. eamMf ndhrk (rhe rwo re ir fad edis pur oi the same 1!vd rd rerered ro as

1,4 Th organizalion ol gammr

spc,rc* orEnglish lcnemlly ag1ee ovc. buDdries bdR.cn *drirnGindern mcy abour whcrc some

wods besri ad ond. torexmpLe, shoutd tr. tr;c,,, s,Jr4 e-.l i

"u! . - .o ome I

(cchiicrlf rsr c/ ,e) wherc e *nns systrm hN tuo of Diorc wodrryzeds onc roiicar irem Gompc,rtru&

't |ue!a,lit:a tt.*"id as ir is usurlly utrdsroo sill b.lr ho ne.esary ro

'eogdzc nks bdsen sirence md wod. Forexmple, compare rhc lollowins *nrencc qirh sncicc l.(1) PNPk {bo ie gh* hos.

Lik imbr 3 (pg.,r/ r,", "r), rh srcd.e an 5e ralyz.d inrothree nit, Two ol thcic us.m bc rcgrded I exnlois ofsingte

(,) PopG who rc ii grs hoNs (.F,o^ oiF,rtu)(i) shoddnr rcq GllNio or r

-lhc urils crlledgroDs.Norc r c ofrhe sroups (iitcoislisonly one word. b n nill rcfored o a a em$. Thus. rhis sDrcncc.orsht of rhEe grcups, ea.h or w

^norher *ay or $yins rr,is rh4 lbe *ords afc unirs whi.rr sf connq-

cnrof rhsmups idrhc hEesroupsarcunrs\yhilhfsconfitu.nrorrhc *ione This G *iod in Fisr I L

Funhe pf*ns or or$iizdior ca be Ecoencd wrhi rh sroupslne$ wi be de nh whei rhc tnrml rfrctures ofrhc lfjous .yp* oasroqs rre exnind. tln no. necesy ro rcosd,e aiy nk bcrween

f is eccsxry. r'o\yever. ro ncoge D ddrror ffk bdwoon srcurd senler. Trk, for lrmptc, ic(5r sidr 8tu tun bu. hcr hrsbid s nrhf drL

The orsnizdioi ol en itself cDi now be onsnlc.cd Two impona..eps u..ecded fo this. dnl ed cls

Rnk relc6 ro ditrer lereh ol oq.ntrio "ri

sraml conrdef

t3) P@Prc 'hdv

roB tdlThis $r.h of lisge cosrs of onc $itice and rbtc vords. S-

mnatical ol!nizioi, whLch i EDg ish m rccogkd i rh! lvnng sldruf aid fiid full rop (of othef lina1 pururdon ntrk) and rbe lief bvspcs berwcan th! unns asRl be *en lrcr. idmli.drloi orsctrttrccsli sccch s nor so rrighrforrrd I

Trie vo trdftliicd urirs de ca ed 3lss. Th s cn6 consish otol a nuber ofg.oups, whrh tr.

rulv.s consi oriu,nbdofrords,s sholvn D Figur | 2. ths ryord ,wr"dh rrr ul,rdion ndjoiN rh. r*ocLtr{s. rLocs nol rc y blong ro

s.orvcnlio LLy natyzed r trdogti! ri hc

,a

Fnctionl EneEh 9r tal

al

I(10) soconyw6crds{a!criig.dfhod!

i r l

( B) a|n6r iv rriry. rhe sB!.us oiNote rharr,,,r, sch as tq sl'c nd , are .esrdcd $ r sub.aregory

l II

FiSu^ L2 Srnrcnk. rlu* !ro!r nLl sod

rcmsllkcnou(N)andverb(v) crio$n as p! 6 ,/pea./ rhc lords

Thesneck$ Labehft lsou$drolb.lhc groups Thus. ii nubrPeapeho lit ii slust how6 it ln !, s,"! OG) rn rrdrldr ? /m! r

rso dhe mr ]Md chks aa rdjmiiv (Ad) d dvrb (Adv) trdo t*et rhc goups, fo cxlmpte

rn ol rid.l$er oftdiordLy

wherc ihe iem s@,], has bc u$d here, sone glmds Ee d,e rphrr6e, ro ex!ph, ,rr" ,,?r ard tu,/i,, r/ras. for noun srotrpmd adverb goup Bowever, in rhft bool lhc only kind ofpbras whfh 6acognied is he Drep$irion ph.$.

A dar dbridion can be nede beccr groups nd phnses as all rheprev'ous exmpres of Sfous show' Sfoup ff b otrc]l of as m cx.nrdol wrd. A phnse, howevcq is more like r nii.lus. For exdlpE,e fnowins crsuses conrdn a vo gup fo|osrd by a noun sroup Thenoutr cop tuncriois .s wh La@r will be caled rhe l?.

^

p cposn,oml phm* h* a comparble rrucr'E, vnh a pnposnon (awkt tikr b,litn, tuhind n,an yjr, rrb,lr nd a", oa complex0bnos tion strlr s ,, ,,r I rn rptu t aid br ,,5 ,, rouo*cd b) trRrsriomr or{'. ftr *mpr!:

rFutbnl Egt sh q.mht|

ncr,sir'o$ inPrcPosiriotr,l Phmss\ btrl ,i,5 or tposiriors. rrcPon

rionlllmsesm Lh! 'tqLfu' I

niksgroups wnNu d.ifiLy srlnk. rha thlilur lRn']) ru{

Oc of rhe noun groups ,i fu'nlrcr 4 r!!t tla liE t slds hoxvNcorrins wirhLnr ds! , /fr!/dr loPs cssofrhBkind,rhcroneunir hukdsco.iilumrnl, .rc k'own as ebddifg. Tbl \ rdo. . d, .b .n!r . r t .1" . t ! t hs/s/',LJJ. Embjddirg\vill bc considcd i'rnnrcdll jsecrjon 3 42

1. Aa yze lhe flowlc senlencs by idenliJving clauses, grolps,ad phEses, ionornO cases oi ebdding

2. Labelthe word class oi each qfoup (You mav lind I useiu lo okback at fte examples giv in Seclion i 4 2 )a Mosr probably lhe studenls w I be prcdclnq some very good

ln my opinlon the changs wef made loo qu ck y.H6 opned lh6 door and strode nto the lrallColumbus may nol have d scovered Americ, b h s accom'p shents bfoughl llr-" edevlworld inlo a new aal rhe slan ol rhe wek, hopeslofa pacetu ooclson loftedispule were qurc hgh

A I iask6 are discussed or asered al the end of each chpter Thereader s adv sed lo do lhe lsks and read th6 discussons brore

1.5 Meanng n grammar

'

e orr .h - r i r J Ltrngi '

| ' ' l l r 'dfun19", l 'maexferlenriel mdnn3, int.pe.$nt nenins. and errul mc.nir8.

r | n|u| l ' Inai |4| ' |hh'

1 5.1 Expetenal neanng

.. r,.tr1 mie be nswcd bycrpldiing whd n is abou. l is bout one peao. (?ss/) pfomiie drciion he ps' {d,n2,4 d r min rinc ( ie Jr) Mcnins in rhn *D$kraNnaseuerierdrnering Expieiialr,eninghrsrodowirl,rhcway! igugc rcpfs.nb or expeftce Gd$L $d viaiou9 or rheworrd m Ren s ft iin *ord of ouf lbough6 nd teetinss. rn orhervords, iiis concemed *iih howwe brkrbour {rions, hltipcnigs, fceli.ss. bliers. stuarois. rdcs. lrd s on, .he people ard thi.ss ,nvolvd rrhcn. ,id rhc rhvrl cnq,nranes of rime, place, $icr d so on.

1.5.2 tntepeGanal eanigTric following sercncas iE alsoposibk(r1) Did P.gs rdrc d srr(rt b. P.cgY igbl b!\c red 3:0

r rbe sc hings s numbr lr oiednoi crromlng n c1io t cerain [ne ine p*r so rlry horh hlvc

rt 1,r Ho{eYei .hey dill in orhdScnrcncc 1,1 irfoms rhc lisker rh d,e evenr rook placc, qhcps

ntrmb l4a cds on thc lhtcner r confim o deny rbai e evenr rookrrcc T[e rm r4ns,r uscd ro refer io $ren.es Likc nunbg 14. nd

o seftncs tike ubs t4a.onqctnns c turh co'sid.rcd ii SB.lon 9.1.)

scnrn.c r4b herLLa soGen| br I inroducs inio rhcscnrilcmo .

-

l ie \ , dor 5c! ,r" . r . . . L, 'ns

rcnN or rhdn iib,l).^oial mcanine Inr.rprsonl morDln8 has ro rosh r wy\rr !hich we cr upotr otrc iorhq rhrough tisusc givine

opt ro do h1nes, rnd ofifitrs 6 do!lri'r8s otradlcs fd rr'. w,!\ in whEli we exprcs ojudeneis anddrrtrrcs L,r{nf {icr, rr,n8s stikclihood. trk*siry. ind dssi.biLily.

I r r ( ' r r

drdNi ls r$h(t ' t t r* .ur iL ' t f t

qr l t r t r rhi4.rL,r r' \tr,(r i, trtrt,1!

I1a Funcrnat Engltsh gtannar

I ri .l ro refet to somdhing ]i thccoitr (c !.. pErrir! scotr \.tt { ?.ss kl tr

' th !'ltrQ d dbotu

3) 'o

knos lho 5rc r'\ k,drr lis be orgliized so rbar

rhee is rr.3 rnDs of !(il ^sin.

,li! fener woul nccd .o rfr ro$'. spe olrh.conrcn tu nkr\nd {lrr Lhls {ftrdrhsb*n usdrocx.ph, anorhsp.kr,isl'r lr!clu{$Ld//.f rta(rr.r

ns sscd ro dcny rhrr it wrs Kn.y aidlrn d,ar Ms Pesgy who lrlvcdxr 3.r0.

Numben 14. afd l4ddifier fron iu r4 (nd nomedhoh)rcn,,/rtri,s r.rrl mningLtsrodovnlrh.wxysn'\DLch

h nponani in.hc.rediotr or.ohercncc ii .kci rd w len rexrNsrLy cver, dus of EgLish sin

spes of c$ine subsequenr chplca or dN book *ill uiPhf nf

1.6 Grammatical lunctlonsti ordtrroexplorcrhe cont,burion to mdDingof $yutritof Emlri.Lsructure, ir is rccssry ro lonsidft ih tunchon in .ontxr Ho*evci therod rundion has bcli used m vny or Luys in linsuiics rd Itlnsudgc tcching ?nd il is n(cs*ry to .kiry how 1e sm f belis usd

I', rhe approch ro lnguase rerching u.ntlly crttettJtttandt lnsnsein," tu.

' .u .u h . i in! l ' d i r io '

dsibing poplc d phes, hlkin8 boulic p$r, andso on In orhrords, runcrions cfsr o Po$iblc rr or losugc.

Funclior ir rh sens is noi vcry usetu sbnrg point for thc inrs.aa.lon orcmnmai Fnr, hft no asecd-upon lhl ofrbe tohLnu'hm..such nclion ii triglish no n thc( d asrced upon c1sifierior ot demSecord. it isnohclrrul basLenjusronctu.riontoerhsntnccorc{hufumce. as ve havc f. erch clus simulorcously snbodies rhrc.kinds olsiing expencnrial. i clllcnoml. rnd rexrul and dtv LLiced ro be kui ido Rcount ro unde^td how rhe clus. tuncrions m

rjfu y. sucli ljis ol rlrc iliditnlhsr!!.i,, rri!sdi\rlir rhrvr.r

clu lnh dilf*enr lngun evftej I is

'norc usctul ro rn tiom rhe

rc h.N Logus! irsttB orgnized ro!e.pe dlc ' " . t rd.^ . .n.

at Th 6rf lp niodro nrcrpirhe furcrio s of 8mD mdcal rrudmcs n rhcir co Ltuens Fui.liour u

,i4arrt,. r,,r Theserrbe kindsor rnchons lr,ar rhis book irty co'cemed urh

1 .6.1 Twa g.annat@l lunctions: Subjact and Fintelu w^ noied

'n sedion r.l2h!wo s nd eroups c' bc trbclcd ofd-

I ng ro ds For cxp t, rhe conrnueir of rhc folosing clause (ftomExkd 4) n be hbclcd inrh way

rrn w r q!s.k

HoLlevc(.his ddcs not ideri il fui.rlons of.he conrituenb, ial F,whr ihe dir'lcrm crsss oflifxss nd lronps aE doitrs ii rbtu panicuLfcLuse One tundor rhar may befailiar is rh or Snbjcr. (Fro now onlr fi^ lcG oajr,r,s vill elwys b! uppeus) In rhis cltus. drenou' sfoup rr r-Jt'r h fundining m rhe sublecr Aohef \!y ofpuingn is bvylhalrh. subjed fundion ii rh cluse is Eljz (i e..rp,".s) by rlrc nour goup , 5 rrr,r

a rncrioi croslLy lsocided wiib subr ha! ot Fini.g rn rhischus, the aBrlrl G subcbs ofve6)

-,1 is fuDcnonins m Fiine. Th

rrcboN subF d Fitrir! ..ruciaLoibcFalizronof," rh,c, a'o-.- rd {

'h n, .1p'rnion o

'

1ncnoiLmenin!. Mood yilrb ekprord ii sme derail inchsprr9. Thisdrprer is.on.e.,ed ju$ Llnh c idcnlilion nd sone ofdre lonrdrmdenf f s of subc6 nd Finns.

'llicr,{ (nrlhrird*ayro Ldcnriry rhe sbjcrr'ric onoun in rhc

sfr!!.r oIri. r s!. jf,sf qt ir rtu taLlow D!

d

(19) Th 'hqr

would a!(d r olcrr8 sL;"rdessc" c

F.doEt End'sh at anal

(16) !t rhdd ',r atro\ n lnrrt

(r7) rhr rhid cxr r* m mn! r1s0 clD. w6d1_'

113) Yo er

{2e) Bori $!9r t!!! ![s ]l{r!lrrrl!i!!ll:o LIF or l t rhrnd r l t \ rcrbr+ \ rhe r 'r i .rhcrc forc chu$s con 1ig v! rctis b' gi nnri gbe nonirik claNes. ror cxnrik:

t r , L gosp.r f '

! ru$alb! \4nn|! !I l jc '0. \ctr ' r '10/J.nL|,aradJ rr .4 n! bt rnLeorno

Sane basc @ncepts 15

1. don'r knowwhy heawaysgels so anofy aboul a re slldnls

2. The answers qven bythe slodels have n lh whole beon very

3. Dspirea ourhardwoi lheprolclwi l lnotbolnshdonl ime.4. The rrirory in order lo survlve and prosper wil need poli.a

5. Toeris lruman,lotogve s oul ol e queslion.6 fhe s de-lthe nab ed machins of precsion lo b made7. only Princss D anas wedd ng dress was aw led moro impa

iinrly grted more enlhusiasrcally, ad cop ed oe s avish yianare newideas n psycho ocy.

I TLe'edepbo1swir \ hiden r io lorr ' -

16 Fniol E,tEh a'tnn'l

olesuos for d scuss on

. ;^"j";il::."::'1 .: ": ii ,i, ."-";:li.J"Ti.r ",i-;ih::,"* iili".:r:r;t+Jr*:rr;

1 6 2 Mte lnctions: obiect cpent Adiunt' and

F' l icd1

1A Fun.tionl Enstsh Arl

2. f_o levels ofllgtrhft rl)sn.n be Ldenthd: sdncs (mean-in!), gnmr llhe tuisenenr ol ! ord* md word shPc), lex (vG. rbuhy), !d phonology ( rnii Na on )

I Wirhii emn irscll rour ranks ofol!trn%tor.n b. rc.Dgnted:sdnlq d$q srcuphhn$. $d lvod

sh.ture rhich mk$ ir nmre lke iticluse5 Embedins ekcs place vhen un ofotre rnk is uscd d a conrihr

wnhir amllicr rnr r c same or d a rowcrmnki r . ou lb.d6' e nJ Li ! r '

7 Ncll elery d!u{ cxp.es$ thtc knds ol frcnlg: cxpeentLmcniig, {hich is coc.mcd snh drc .prcsnron oi ou.ipeaence.frc *oLd nJ ofrhe im{ rorld ofour though$ and feel'igsl

cemed wirh Langage as Liteirc

'io xnd

'hc cxpresion orjudsicrG

ing, $rLi.h orEnes ihc fonner r*d kiids of moing 'to

co[ed

3. Five chue anr Ari dnal firnctions rc SBbi ect, F innc, ptdrato

9. Subj ecb nom LLy Drcede rlre Finit ln d(laniive claus 3 trd detFDine rhc Fson rl nunber or the FiDit (irmsrke) subjds rclyoi$lly re1izcd by notr eoups.

l0 Finilcs e omlLy mdkcd for tnse nd mv bc m.ked for iumberrgEder! (i.c ! asrceios wirh ihe peson :nd nber of rhe Subied)

ll. Predi.ror tundion h rcined by everyhiiE in rlre rb gioup r?r

12. Obtftt lypildlly rollow rhc rinire rnd PEdicaror in dechriveclauscs. A consitu.it ruiconin! as Objed r dt chuse cannomllly becne thc Subi ccr or Elrcd nasive d au$ Obj.t FqpKL\ Rdl*d bJ noln SrolPs

i . . Aor.n ' . 'G.cd"^ 'l ont i rn

e ? n broae s b* ' rrc dcd clsuses nd car oftcr be ontucd aduns arc tvticrllv realized by dvtrb soups nd prcpostonaL oha.s

se basc coeps 19

(This 1cm somclimcs .ove6 Dned oqed.lndtrecr oblecr. dd conplcmc )

re1iiarioD (lor embeddis offirnc datrss

FoposirionI. ideional (rh Lan ftm i'duds losicd maDjig s wells dpcric.

Key lerms inoduced

phns (u$d ior bdh srcup Ddpbrs)

pMhipirl phs, ifi nnivc phr$

rhe hole vb group. indudlng hc Firi.s

Att.nutrls) usea it . lietdsomerims id.d i o Adl'mc. aooui.

]).trgDa. liLndion tbh rm is soc.iess'udcd k covcf nrcrp. aol', Die,jnet

ft

20 F ndtl Ergtsh I'an@l

Nc = ou croup r vc = ve Eupi Adjc = adctive Eroupildverb sroup; FP * prcposlrloml phm$i conl : .juico

tonl ol lhe re eid h picken up hy r t^E @re dE . enlr,?) 8nd c lhclor be idefiicd

^ rhe subter Howcwr, rhe

Finc nked lor unb alfchc wirh rhe .oLLo!,ing noun gruuD(r lsi i. foml wircn Ength).

r. lrre adjunch rc a und*Li'ed

swiig !9!q b re mrce ro his-wid nEtrid.brh;;-2, In th sentnce, rhe ad.lunds d inromrion bour iiDe (/f ,,

y"lh), ptace @ aino), nte lx ! stddhsr n^siary). ffeqb)cya4dndrt srlhptu e|or hi: ||itd nishs.feborcleo rn5eare rr kinds orn,,r,s circutrrcer afe tyricarry exprcsen byAdi. f , rb '1 'hr \$ uusc.. e e,r o .c, Lnd. o. AaFn i .crudinc smc rhich expres i elp.^ann1enc {.e s., lnlotMktr,.&?)l pm4) and $nc which expms crul dnins G.s j drew:htherhand,nhld r) 1S.e Srdions 9 5.4, 10 I 6, id I l6

l. The vb groups ./1 !{rr& nd , dp coisis oty ota prdra,or, and arc rbeelofe non.ne veb 8rcups.

r r rdrid4 ( ree) adrcr d rc+{rndd {ic.. rq.smD amdr. h Lards d rift (s* ssr! 3.5.]).

a !!! p!qq![ 'he

studcds

. 4 9!!!4

hqpss for re&.l corcusn b 'he

dttrt !9!9

, rr? ;4) eDbdd wrhii i.

h rsrrisbtrG q99s!

(b) subject, /l4 Finite: s.r2 sjed: rhc a*rs eiw I the ataenb Finio haL Subjed: r?roca Finq ril4. Subjed: rr krirI Finirq {

(b) subjed: b/',Ea. Finibr riSubjc. ?' s;d+ru1, Finne: a, ds)et: Prhos Dindr \t&linE dres, Fiine ,r The subler mdFinit of the se.ord ad ird linib cluss in this sdtnce hav. beDomiied and aF u,r'eo,l to be ihe sme 6 in !h 6r clau* (irlPhnces Di"d \ ,?adinE rus vasl sEet d not "husixti aL\ zrdtPrines Dianai tdE drts vasl .apied . ). ,ht?t : Fr idp a, , /nt 4. r 'ofSubdd rolLowed by Finfc isrcvcrscdhd

l. strbjc ]r4.FitricNdul rn i!mrlftn r'rn'drNsLdr s this ((hrid,lly h$wn N (1,rr'l,r*tr), r^'oturt I

l

Bepreniw thngs t: Nat hd ntun qbw 23

2 Represenring things I: Nounsand noun groups

This chq,br will exploe somc of L\e Esouc* ol Figlish gnmmr iorrcpres.ntins what .$ be canen r i,sr or ,rrb The key vorl ds rorperromi'g rhx ridir k r|t das ol nouns, hdnioally denned rbemes or pesonq plscs, or thigs -rhis defini

'lisringdshed .oDso- ! .D. " \ ich \e - der ned . , r '

qor.1. .Ged oeLpre- do s.

happe ing, or be ing Such d. fi tritiois arc nor rerlly dcq!re For explc,sads lch I arto,, 2pantkn an lor.re ckaay expos

'roinc or

happeitrg, yd rhey are nouns iot vtuth id lhs trdirioial denions. Everydry nouns, su.h 6 rla .,pe6o., book, at .hor do rtpt.sent things tha we can sfr or toch, d

. . , ,L aL nd ,oor"ef ,n ' Joi ' 1. 'pl t r - i ' csid beins when spekcs or witrs expro$.nain kitrds ol dois, hap_penin!, ard beins by nous nh.hoosiiE to tr iher s if d,ey *ee rhings. Therc may be nunbs orEasns tor doins is, some ol which will be exploEd in Sc.rion 3.5

Declde qh ch ol lhe lol olng wods aE o nouns, and stalo, sexplicilly as you can, how you ehed your decsion in each case:releence. hed ile,kick. kcked, ivd,sunshne. ofien, aclvlv on,acl lark, lving, lon iness.

rollowingl1.(hoDotrnsiicolun1E.l6sicd$mdsnouns thosein.olumn 2 rc clas'fied as count noutrl2rubbh Crubb shcs)advice ('advic*) an idc,ldeasdsticny (NcreclciiieO xn itrch, inchesbrurery (ibmvent

Like s'y orher smlmdicrl disiinclion, ths disirdion betufti nss and cour noun is bded on nem Eprcsnring .orcring d o..urine i fte fo.n ol discft enriries,hich can b outd (, e, &? e[J, and so on), whetd whcn wese a ras noun we c re?re*rling soerhiiE as ai unditrerendaredwhole which rior be counied. Names oannh nd sub$ar.es (e.g .kx/, r sErs) and ies or abrnr mrirs G.s.. lw, ttlsrp,wr) rc all rypnlly ms nouns, wh*e6 nmes ofings hich oeurh individual unit G 9.. ./, za ,r) and n,ns or patu ora *Lole (e.s.,/ r/?4 ,/') , au i]"rcally cunr ouis.

AIlhoug he distincrio brween ndi rb u24 one. _ .oe, rdd fo' a hmr. of tdL \h ro e' r \.er3ouns should bc mo$ rhtr rban count, o vice ves Fo cxph, rhefollo*rE noutr are en ued s cou ou$ by l.rmeB: L\ is, ey arcokhd used ii rhe plml (,s in rhe cxamples siven) or rher t usd ir rhel[su]r preceded by o or a, h rould b. mas Erhe. rlEn cour (or irdeed vhdher rerc m 3ny onrexkli *ich i1 igh be lccdpbble to us tln

^ mmi rcm9.

2.1 Counrablry

^ major some or pobGns ror lemere rhe ra or Lol,, ri

Nauns whrh ae bth @l and asttudhd comnli.lrinE rrror ror lener is t! y

0[ \ coLnoun,nJ ,mnorn, Howe! tlrercllflini.c li mcanLns beeen a noun use a .ounr

tt.1.2

2.1.1 Ma* and caunl naunsNouis ii Etrglrh can bc ch$lfiu(t s !'nlsinsu rrt I w'lf.'trx.ornrs nournlh. i

22

Thorolownonounsrol lnusedbolhascounlnounsandasmassnon4. n ooch co6o 0rink of a conlxl n whch the noun could beuaao ar n co" ' i "o ' { nfd 1 .or lo.

'nwh'cF rco-dbusonasarnnr\de Clmol^to la voty la oti?-s Help yoUrcatt tol

lvaroNotahere

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

la Lple of cho@ht6 counl) whaloonefaLzatonscanvoumkabut the dli;aaan mean nc beeen lh 6unl and ss I Kes

cheese clroco ale experincewine lil kndnessmelacak3

Mrv ou$shLch ff th$koaas rypmllv couri or N rfif v ms 4'be usd 6 muns ir rre qpdire cdegorv in cai( olten smeqh'runus$l,onErs. Forsxlnph.nisiorvervdifi'trxtoiilof conrcxtsiqhih ) oun likc.zr. which omLLv connl could b. u$d s r mAs

(1) asrheeqded. sews srrrold 'h.

wds.reen hrlc) cr nighr v hd ror 6' il dLnq l,vlBc.lur ofrhis,I n sneri'ns dgu.d ihal ve shold not da$ili nomsh cui atrd !$ Inread c should clsiry the,r ohros in'o counor nas Horevr, mo$ nos aconrexB in which they F Dor fiequedlv usdi id lrom c leni3Doir of vGw. ir s worh nt lemiih. ai"s

-d N*r

-d llk"lv

'o bc ecomErc'r' Larer, lcnere mv

.s "

.. ; !.1"" .0 "

-

D o Drii h 'ne. or rh ' here'' v

'.! \e d'fie er'

'

' rnounsasslitd*irh.iydifercccsrrhcncoutrbbilirvsrusm'rrv

2.1 3 lnvatabe plul nauns and @lledve naunsa sal l cl$ or nouff h.ve onlv pluaL roms The

'or 'onnon oi s se

re nour *hich fcfr ro rooh snd corhs rhich have svmttLd pns

rhrc lso subdds ofcor ios which shen sngurar Dv rvcnhel*s be refend b by Plunl proroms s.h A

", d which s

5ubP b dr 're , li 'l I fc

, , ; . " -" , . . a* snd - :4 d no- \ . LLJ torr"h ' c

, " i^.n.+o": . '

usullv dlends o qherher h spekcr or wrcr rb inkin! '

I rh group rra lhoLo;oreFoup6rcmtotdorindivrdual msDbs |d rrn'l!

1 ' " ' . ] ' ' . ' ' " '

Repesentng thng l: Nouns and h I'ops 25(r) rhe comil h^ ind b ldkc b.he .(4) The @'@ird heve roud i bd

'd {eL .omn$s

(5) My raniy n rig li l(ula LunP(6) My raniy ar io{ rr LlvhB o!*s tr,l(?) ou sbnis cviis ry d tttl6) Oftf cl iigdyqudi.dTheE is so. difrcrnce be$en U.S $d Bnh us8 \ritl' colkchveous ln romal Ameri.ar Enslish, pdiculrly siten Eslnh, the use orplMl pnous and plurlinis wirh such nos h Cnmllv avidcd

Studeors .y .orusc colledive nou

(9) we hve recrutd i) i.a rrs rcdr, (npare aai, /ev

Wods such as pp .are, n'l rE whi.h, whe ructoning tr suo'j. slways rcqnc phml rinn4, rrlv. nos l losever for he hmer, they are probablv b*r ftded as

0u6st ons lo di6cussion. Think of a contexl inwhch all or mGI orlhe nouns usedwouLd b

@unl nouns and aconlexlln which all or mosl oi h nous@u db m4s nouns, How can lhese @nlexls be explolled tor leachrng

suggest som acl villes lor advancd Learners lo sens I z lre lodlfrences ln mean no belween I

a n'cLl r ChspLer l, nou A@ups.in be (grded e\pided no!rs

l l0lr tl tr/a r!l 'cfiisdrcnt! //rtrn'l.NiNL d0 rih otif 'LrEd i rc !trr! Nrk. lo l rr ol '.r' u r\rr 'otrr

'lsNr rlr h

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

lvaroRealce

26 Funcot Engttsh qmnal

2.2.1 Ihe s|tucturc at naun gtuupslhe $n.turc or r mm sruun s.h rs rr

, Pferingtu qLiryingstishtb .aar

c|Nsilyiigvha tausht sruDa. hr )?a, qtflitfhe res of this.haprcr wiLLbe.once

words which pcfom the tundion of rcferirs nomLLy .oru firelin rheoun eou rhey previle irfom.ior bour tu $ooc ol rclnice or rheThins teesnted by rhe head). rhfurcriorlcoisnucnr olrh roui gotrt'

Beptentns thss t Nauns and natn sotps 21

2,3.1 Geher, tndhte. and de hne ebtehce

1E 1,19.,!l!!!l!The herd ofrh! str rh. nounrl,os experiltrirltundior to reptu_$ c rt! *]rE rs colrs horh in,imre ad rilt indtrdLisbuman ntidcs Tl,e rerm Thing u*d to rrcr ro rliis ncon A nolngrou inay indude orhc srou\, phrscs, of even cluses embcd'led rhi (*. scdion 1 4 4). ftus rbe noun $aw th rdtt he battr can6ln\ri', irsposfrodiner prcpo!nofLphms (int ? l/r, a.onrituenroahich (/e'r, die Prepolrionrr objdr) L nslrs muneoupqh sorn premodis + held {ncrure.

1. Decide which of fie lo o ng unls are ronoun grops:. Be a erp.( I s vr'"n aoo' I

'o roL rada vo- de ros

3 denlilylh head ol eadi noun Eoupth conlinua heary fanbecaus otlhe arge numberol applicanls

are be nq subjcl lo aftack

llie Ohost in lhe machielhe lower ng ol lh nl r draiage basin by aboul a fool every

about Yesterday s mel ng

lh on youlold e aboul asl nghl

2.2.2 Furcians tuhn rcun gt@Ps

(r0) rhe so dish'lr mfrous sn r'ho 6ugh1sdni lis Fr t,rul

.o a,n: a lrgcumbofcoDruerurdions. Th! hoirl rdui /adrrr \ tu

ncrcrs ry sieml *herlef hole .r.s or rtunes is bdng rclntn b orJudr!r/ofa c rs Fo.esmpl,t.mhem s das all tacheB re consideEd by rhe speak{to be odd. lnthir.sc ZERO (i.e., rbe /dc[ orrn *plrcii Rerer beiorc the hed),ldsdher *irh ihe plul lom of rhe oun, signls !ha1 tho rcM.u s o dNs or in8s Gl'hough rhis itirano depcids also on contxt, m will

llawc\cr. a tthlr u earhs El ttu'* ri, sil d@s ior rcrd ro 8LLllehds bul ro a subsct, in thi.a* i subser ofore tacher Herc the

Thc Rcfcr!^ y l$ sigrvhrhd asraetisuttar! o n'./dr Fof *mple, a k.rr in .hc .bove cxamplc noi idenliiierl rhe

w exdly whtrh leachft 901 ddikllowcv( iii

'/k, ,r,r r'ro trsht us Enst^h t sotue bt ra' tte

ttlcr of ]d i\ rorcd ro rollcrud $ (hc onc' lho rrughr us trglnh Lircrurc hf yc rd noorlsn |hc folcroncr a ntn0ritiirfrtrLr, l'! tr{'L'llh l;,dri. ro.i uiidcdifcd subsr is inde-n|' nlnNq r rl'r nsrd0lnrr rdan.(. l ri$! {r rl'( rq' l | lLfn lLr . r l ' rB l r4 j r r f , 'n l t ) nfL: ' |k l r rh.rnr,^

l lLi r r , ' , r i id |n lom\ili

F hct )ana I Eng | sh g E l

The rcr of .haPb wrlrand posesivcs The mcrus ve

Thc \ords \,i nd a'l Pllo*cvcr. they dru used in wYs.ould equllY *ell bc drsired

crplorc c Dk of ricles, deonfhvcs.Relcrtn wiLLbe turher.oNiend in ihe

lso onen iicluded .oE the ftrcresillcn no drc other Rerercf ilds Qunricn. lor convenicice, thenin Scdion 3.2, on Qaries

pos*ss G u1ly erclsire lrro pduce scqmmes lilc /t ,r' r,r

Bepesentns thrnqs t Nans and nn gps 29

Which ol llre to low nq noungroups (lakn lrom Extacb 1,2,4 5,6md 7) wo! d you cons der lo have genr c refe nce whicli ndeli_nt. and which definile? (Yo wilLneedlo feler lo lhe exlfacls.)Tbefirsl erample in each exlracl h6 akeady ben done.

E tacl l ke kwline 1l = qenerc lerece (Th relrence is losl lk iw6-kwis * a c lass )

Asttat. s equ ! cte natanat sybot ltine 6)l stls an the end al hen bng bl lline 11)Etuacl2 h6e cunb* vrhbh ae alleced bv the aNsooN8,4lNs{ll 1) = delinil reference (Th rclerence s lo lh subc assol @unlries affcled by lhe nonsoon rans, and noolher@unl s )fhe popuktion t Ma@on Aia lt ne 9lECALAGICAL NICHES (t ne 9)lhese e@tosil hiches ( e 12)

'

DEMOGRAPHIC |BANSITION (iE lAIExtact 4 a sna otun k Jiansna, {lie 1 ) = indl niG rereren@one lacl thal lhe loan is named in ihe Jiret pan ol fie senlenc doesiol ake the felofence deliiler nole ie d lercnce I the reterenclsG def nire: ttriirg is rhe sn// lown k Jangtun - l/u Rn, tneono menlioned lsi now )

lho Crce h s whrch ins the towh \tine 3)

a an.eating tget (l ne 121h. snatt chitdtq (1ne 16)Ar.d5 a/@(lnol)=Oenericrererence fTherclerenceislolrrewholo class ol rvers.lhal is. dvers in qnral (see Secl on 2.3 2) lfh conrtanl tubbing atd btnpng ol th$e atenats an the hvd

vious uses *ill di be dclr *itl'An(les, demorrives, rnd

on rheodhnd,rhesneani.le(zERo)usedslhouSh in 13 rh. rcfererc isindcfirir. nd,i 14(tr) sodd yotr lik. qlP! o !!9!!l! wiih v@r drinks'

r, ,' z[Ro (i c, no expr*cd Relret

r. heL h6, wrr 04 theit Pat I Ruin t etdll !h.,: hah at.h .v'r, niLh.. h.

d, nol]r! r ,/tr, and $ on.Thce ro simple, oc b n! lrionship bccn the *l{ron d'

RereE md e rhrcc rcrrnce carcsoios generi.. iidenit. id delineFor sr, lhe choica of Refercr depends upo' {her io h'd

'm' - l - iLUe- "

oq \ u "aee. ofo 46lorh' ' rp-rcno cen'r"

rcr*Ne Gm*ic reteFne k dp$cd bv *rendi'8 rhc nses or borhdcfinire and iidefilc snrcks Thu. sendic relcrcncc

'Mv bc expE$d

ne lom aY be '

eaEtd r one., ."*9* ' " . "n- . -a n ndhers defnr inJe r le- ' r "_-R.rore.mplc eunoe rdno nc'p" rru1b(F I 0 T

m!/r ' a ' l 'erh ' f3"hJ h Ic anic ler?ndin 12 i r iszERo

0 am-'q! r,"- .aorio.." Lhe

yau pe@ at papet line 7)the specal plastc sl \ine 111

Efia 7 @atlty ltine 2) = seneti.. lllte

the powet ta nanPutae thn ( ^e

4)

23.2 Mote on gererc reeten@'Iree foms ofseneic refecc.!r be rond

30 Fnctb@t Ength qanal

Extact 6 the pe@n lin3) = delinite (The rcJerence is lo anidentilied prcon in lhe qudenl s pictr l

Try subsl l|ning lhe diferenl lorms tor one anolhar ( q., r6enan*ey o taEiet ankeys t@nel lo fhe a6et ankeyf@resr) and decide wh ch a ac@plble nd which rolWhd q1'"lil"lion. cn you nr bo

'i O'" e4. _-q n

lhe use ol the difieret ioms and (ii)the cote{s ln whch youwould exped ro liid one tofm morc @mmony used thn

a. The leiet onke! .afeslrcn the ledary era and stands arth6 cossroads on lh6 volulionary cha(where man and apebranch of lrom one anothe.

. Ih-.ocoto1.t movps -

hc oTTo wo.dofr... os. rwhal mosl ol lhem @!ld ca I rea .

c. G/bbors keep loglhr in fam lis and lin up n1fs.d. D,/el divislors musl be seen as a producr ol e unive6al

tendency ot speeh habits b vary.e, Boys have low voces and they always wear baqqies2 and

Representng thnqs L Nons nd nan qow 31

ile s a co leclion ol related iniormalionThe tonl o, a tppy dtsk is soorh, whle the bk has visible

2

l nol vcry difictr ii oiie r

(lt) M',), ri*'i rr! io tr i$, rldhfrs

Ls.

1 r + singulrcour ndn (es., tri,,2. ZERO + pluml nun d na$ oun (e.s., ti,sr ranr)3. + singuhr Dm Doun (c.s., wr)

fhe rom + singulr cout non s Ldenried s h!vi8 generic EJeFencc on 1e gomds n\ rhe infoali ii rhe rexr applies b all fivcs, trorj6rore nide ificd rivei Hftoneqaph ofr ddsbas,

'n *ns..

beEi picked out ro rprestr! rh whole clas The sfr. enonenon pefhps chf ii rhe followins $funcel0t a oamr ai niroL {hrch scki$ is yolrs.

The deuion is here clc y ment ro pply ro // n'mrLs

From ih point ol view ol lhe leamer (and lhe teacher). I is ol vervhelptullo be lold lhal lhefe are lhfewaysin which counl nouns canhve cenefic rirence. Thelhree ioms r nol in lacl, f.ee y nlrchanqble. Below ar som addilonal erampls or lrro lhroodiflrl ioms ofgonoric rolornco wilh count nouns.

The fon zRo + pluBl .ou troui cm somrines bc inersrd as.neric elemce (as in ,/i in Exhad ll rd somdimes as indel,nercrcnce (6 in .ol,//ra,-^ in Exdcr 4) thcrc is, in r@, soowhatuzy line bdwc rhc gn*ic nd iodeoile ilrpIebrios. whar can bFid is Lbt Ihe seDei. is deftulr inythiig in rhe.ontxlro sugger otheNise, apluEl noutr wi the ZEROiicle 11 be inldpreled as refEfjnl r all ebe ol a c1$ of ihings arld o.an us is to try puning Q$ ifids G sedion 1.1.2) sch a er0r 4,), iio suqh noui group Ifisposibl odothhwiou!loogrca! chm8e in mening, rhe tfence is indefinirs, or snenc. Fo exmple:16) rhcstunhnswhthnis.rowie.owfdfr!9!.oroituross

ongtnd, hich lrks rhe word

vd!ld[rcdlyd,rnschc'neni!of rhcon8inal (Extad l, line 3); thatis,lr wotrl(ln'$!i rh rl'm rc soDc

^

rn['lc (Ditrrr ti rny ldn.r\ \lirli ]lncr! L,ngugc bacLr{ t r . r1. . . !

"f'l 32 Funclanat Enqtrsh 9rrrct,ne is inrendcd (i r. rredig n * ir ir w*e a ma$ nom} td

ILB) 'c.nocrI 'shcrnydruq6bbssA usrul tulc ot rhuDb for rena h r sidgular count nouns can

be used iihoui.n dicLc or orhr Rerea ercpr shsr nrcy pp!.rofaiu'nbdordiomd,. prposnjdi, riruscs. \trcli N orldr

Somc.lcs.h.Ncvcr. posiblcrharthelem{siplydocsrotft e pannuhrnoun iscoudioun for exxn'ple,(r9) rTnicro r Kry'!is drL o'e(comprc cr.nlc le wnh n4l( dRtr.k rflrt jn is ti.ious )

Orhcr lcafre ns //i ror senen. 'drhos relering o bscr nrirics. ro exxmplc

c0) rlic Lor is rh. mor ,nFnfl rhB h c \qldcmyovtr lmm e iat iarivc

ero6. May Enropa Lansuages us fom .omprblc ro EgLish rr fo'rhe kind ofgeDerirclcM.cli nb 20. rs i', rhe Frn.h ? r,

Howcvc( r lisvids ro such dblisrene o rcad. l( hcy ,slii ro b! ablc to idcnli] llic ref.nrb(rus rbe inromd,on n*ded is vaihbh sonewh{c in thcconurL. For*drLc, in rh. norn gp rrg el,,

n tt .$ o ide r ieJ \o nerv/inl r,vi: The $s"rr r, ofconero . 71l , , r .n hr p.

Look back ar lhe noun oroups you idedlied n fsk 2d as havgdsl n le reierece Slal where lh inlormalon .an bo loLnd lhalwouldalowrhlenerorreade o del ty lhe referenl,lhal is, whal

li doing Tsk 2f, you lill hvc r.uid rhd rh. iir.mrioi ic.dd blcnriry rcfererh is locatd i nub ol difibrcnr plcs Sometmes,urb intomdior isin the pedirg f.i. s in . cx!plc ton Exrad l

Representng thnqs I Narns and na soups lS

W-.r lorr oOeE'. r" f " ren wo. ld r l be lo i user. oeafers 10 learn lisr? why?ELggesr(o-e$lh word br aoproo' ide ro ' 1od.( i 0,heolher tofs or gener c relefenc

l his is cLLcn bcxwrd-potndl8 rereren.e. Exnple 24 the nor

o crli roun greup h the $c n s bead (/ov).'l lrg rcferen.e can ois b. on idned. Fo explc, to idcnily r/s

e/ (xter5.llicl)srcfengto'hewalhor,bGuref'tu//45,heh lcr hs ro rcfs blk 10 thlr carlis ioun group ar./ drus upon a kiowll[r oi rhe wodd that i.c1ud6 hc ld hd vllcys ay h.ve alk. s,r.t rn . !L t .u Lu aEl.lrcncc.0urlnorLcdgcolthewoll ilics l. D houscr. ,rd rnilielrhtr'sl, o chld.cn h c prcviously bn merrioned in rhe rory, thcFl.ltrDlccli icrsoixb|ybcj'ppo*lknrci (!\d1 ,,u!,. L'm 16) vhtrb e p3n or the bwn or Yrc tt

h krtr. u'r.s, rlL. cru',ur rry nolhk, l{ird t)n'hd' olrcrlr l' cr r!, 7i!r u.]i,r ([xtrxd 5.line s)

sd ir5i r r r$, v h m, l1 i ,wir r l . f f r r ior fc$r,y

233 Morc an delnte relet,@Defnire Res siesL L\r n\e relcrc idcniicn iD $mu wry Po*ssiv* ad demonrRliv* nn*lveidenticliooriliercferent Pos*ssilsdorhbyderinsroaposN$LDemonstdivs insenal mdicdc thcproximj) ol'hc rcrcrcr eihe.retr rhe spmks \rirf (til/r.'?) or tnh{ .*y liom

'h! sPcd of

*irs (rrlrrdr). rhc Proriniry catr be in 'ems

ot spKe i,nclrL'l's 1rc!rvnhii rhe text or or timo f-o 6!mpro:(2r) Lr( q!:orc rt nNb Dlu

'he rM ooc. ('.o Ltrr(t) Trw dys rcbldy vori6 nu b i. bL !!1!9 , r i w \ ,.

s{drd 3s i scnos drrrL (iio() rhn ! $ oi u,r,LpL qrniih, jIL

14 FnLtanal Englsh scnnt

ct . 'h

nfi$ k I|.ded by rhe NioNsooNc) rh! popur'io o. \b$lon \ ({ncrz)lrTr rh! ,ook qh \hh a olq rcs s L"Liqs (Enftd 5)

A rcfdeice which poDN foN?l i

lD xsnplcs25 rhrotreh27. ilh r6tnMis in the emc ndn gr.Prbi'di.ale!hi.h pordarionorroolso!duntics!rc b.ins rcl'edro ltis vcrt' como ror delinio Rcrcm ro rD,trr n' rh wy ro Ldcnlly,sconiirucn( ir d'c smc noun gfoutrsec n die nor commo ry! ofpoing a$ocrsd rh {hc dcDrrnick r,e lhogh rl,n trsse so'nerimcs lcnds.o b. igorcd Lntcching

Thc r*o catsorfl bxck*dl-polnr ii8 id foL*ard po in d ng re not nturlly !x.Lusiv SoDcDi.srhe infom.rion nedcd ro idediry a refrcrlay be round borh erlier and hl* For *pk. in El'r er (tsxt@r 4,lne l2), a,. rcqt( us ro look brck ro rru! ?v {Line 11) as *ell road to rhe *odl'i5r

'i thc \trt trou g.otrp

Brckrdd.poiidn8 atrd roNard poinring refeor.0 borh pinr to 'nro.mdiotr some{herc \'nhii rhc Nxt. llo*Ber the infomior iceded roL

idenriclion n somdim* oubide rhe 1cf. For ramplc. sith rr,: ,,([xhc' 6, lin4 a dnd ) wc Lvold hIrow lirc.isely vhtrh pdsoD s?: being rforcd ro in each * A lnscnpr conbinin! only dE words spoken dos no1 provide sum.d

ReleM.s hich poi6 beyond the txt i rhk *ay .n be called

$i(h ourwd Doin.nc rererence, lbc (rcrcn e ny be or ro somelhingLn rhe imcdilrc situation. b to somclhin! in a *id oiterr. knosledseor which is asumed to bc sh4d by speak o wric rd hctr or federFor.r!nple, rcnigliibe in c1ifonihe bEgirilrg ofthe ne*s bmadc$lon a l@al do ration(23) Lsr risln ,he eovFq ^duicd his iitiio ro fr$s trh l

To inoprd rh r rlerins b he or. hmn be$s ro d hl iic olrhenewsbroel.!$ o.curiesrhe po$as8o!mor of cdiron'ia. rhc lricncbr shrc wih he *s4df ( r) rlo@l bnedcas i clifomia !rc 10califonia unlcs somc orher coexi is invokcd 3d (2) rh. knowhdgc rhdthc poliiical syremolclifoiaiccdiloi h6 otrly otre sovemor d r t c

Thtr kind orowrl rci'r rE s oicn !

36 Funanat Ength gnnt Repsnhg tngs I Nns nd n qps 37Po$esive Rcfcfcs, ciccpr 4

auhoush mos ol then nnsr chan!! hcn lom dlghdy

DeoDsiivs and po$.slves s heds cs rake po$modifies lik!odinary hed iouDs. However, they D 6e podiliod Ly by rhc indu'sive all by iiclusivcs id Qmtiris roned *i /(thesc vill becumined'n sccos I L and r3). Fo exmple:

L Sonc Nuns hav oily oic rotr ad .nior b. ..uddd. Thcs r

d.an bc coutrrd Thesc ft knoM s .ounr noDis2 Mny nouN rc trsd as bolh ns

s s noms .n calgs m nolly or gcn.rJ and br.r

l. The b*r rnctuE or ioun sro

4 The *perie'iial tundion ofi]tbedisbEpre*nrihe ThiDs.! Ref*n pEodifiefwhich indi.4e vhdhs Ihe referencs ofrhe

rhis ceren. ('o the whole das), denire (ro an idenrified rLbs), orindcrite lo ,n uld.nritd subd)

Thsercfomain kindsof Refem6, dicles, demorimin$,poss-

7, Th. slecrion ol ppropnde Relenus dcpcnds o rhe kin of slttn.c0id wherer nle hed oun k si ringLa( or plml

t, Ddonrniiv* and po$ssives Lsoo(ur$ nonrgup heads.2 3 6 Leaning and teachng the lehce systeThe Referer tunction within rhe noun group ckrlJ pnsts s numbs orporentil pblcms fo has. Thc ELarionships beseetr ihe Releneand rhe rcrercnce cetegories ofseDeric, idenire, nd denirc rc ior on+o.dc, ,nd Flerin8 atr +pmprisre R. fercr o ficn dcmands coDsiden bressnivilyro conrxr.li is or surpfisiiS ha h6 is an ftr in vhfh eveDrhc mor advsrced l$nen E pmm ro em.

Arepts o re{h clqcncc tbrough C.ienLizdtotrs or nles bour rbcGe of ea.h fom, illurmd wnh example sntnce5 oulofdonl.rr. arcunllkely b b. sDcc.$fDl The various ypes or rclFnle nd rbi rsnee ro bs urdc6.ood and diced

ouest ons lo dlscussionl -whro d dol ld yo- rrrod erol-dne'stedi le 'enlLspco'r .e '1del 'nfear.e ( q.nr i ' . bol-9. f i rsrnpnjo aa),seese.lion 2.3.4)and e dileenl ses olthedelinil anic e lhe (.e..gndc, backward poi.t0. loard poinlio, oulward.ponlng

Itn

tlr

!o,i'

.;

alanoti$ be ' Lhelea

see Sslin 2.3 3)? why?'

Suggest conlerls in whch lh varous us$ ol nd lhe cou d beinrroducd and pradiced

! Lookbackatlaskn. How could you adapt such alaskror usew(hinlemed al sldnls o. dvancd oarnrs? Bow usofuwoud rl

3a Frctnal Englsh gannal

fhe lolloving canor be nouns: ts'. kt.rd, ttu, al Cti@ri^y

Repesenig thngs I Nauns and n $ps

so Ll 5r | . f l , ,nvo' re. n jJ " tpru orno, ' .weHD t l . cfore be fnly cdrlii rht words su.h referw odtui\ and lanl

Adcet vords rh{c rc 4aitr orhd wo ciasFs G.s , ricles d

!c$cd by puning it wnhin r fc made up orsuch wdi Fo eraFl,

usetu1 fsrcncca good! hrda Lively adiviry

hlk

he ietrjble lonelirss

'ihe quierhid kickcd

This rns ns rlar rhe lint .isht of hes

I Cnnmarical tudir -on gielm*iol

b. rcalizd by nouns G rha! of Subjd

The rclercnc. .an be lound in h bookLile

may bc PaituI.

Tl,ir is rnfhur iri.n l, i(LNi|y

ddr !i,r, 4rl L\e substuce vsus difemr kin,h or 1yp6 ol lbc

.ake, e$ h.nte d, subrmce s a ms !us the su&bnco sitrdividul unit wi cledly dcfed shr;s

1, Nb4 w. th, *dEs: J\e thins or divny in gcicl vc^us

,rs's, rhe adiviry i senel veBus d oqaiaion cryiis o rhe

w* rhe divity veFus pnud ofaristic or irr.lle.tu{l ldivityIn g!n.61, coutrr uses ar nore specific and concrere and Ns u*s are

2.

fuiction in rho cllsc [Bt ny(se cbpc l). rhus. *e cr

l, Th. lolwing arc ior iorn ercups,b6use of he l,e Dub.r of pplicansrc bcig subjed ro arckbo yeredy\ egrgPobb ) r- -oJ ucful."r b'

'

ou ' s,oup s

'h b' m3,:c,l r.

io cf Ge Task 2), Thus! ror exanrhe nou ff, lone, co fucrin s lhc subjed orr .hs, ror exmplelfto onriiusl hry Bii h Moyins.tloweg, beue qfe laee nmbe o/pprira,rr cnmr tundion m

.Bc.!u$ or rh LCe nnmb.i or ppll'r rtud.of'heno.n Fouprrc' 1.e.d Ioa. :pL.. zhdq ta'

.nt natonol srbol -

d.nitralttt br!:lrtt

't frnir.

4a FDnctot E91sh qannal Repre*nrng thngs l: ^kuns

ad non 1rcDps 41

cribia). l cnot be usd whert tho Elcrcncc wotrld bc $nbisous *ithGfinire Efefticc or whr rhe das G vi*ed in bms of ns irlividualncnbrs: for exmple, /i g,o, lr,er ry . ta n nor cepbble bcus the adion f lini4 up in tees etrhils seeins gibho$ s iub ors?fre iidirid$ls. ,1 + singuhr iound t.hnical liriry, *pe.iallr lor dennions. Agin, i canrot be trsdvhcE rherc *ould be mbiguity *h indcfinire trence.

lBtnliu\ e.luttt tu ratioral'lnbol bh. couityrdtr. (l hd is,_

lJ;;*sive Rereffi nsrf .onrins rhe infomatior needed for

fh? a^: aa,h.caa, t t, I aa'p.oo4,4"c4o aJ th.r na tttaa lh )-0 9h,rd kos edK lhd bfd(h\ nd

'

pepulrcn aJ Mansao| aa a ftran:aor

thep colaEieat nhs cfirrc

d deosrdpht. |"titian irdcnnt

the sfth hlttt whnh tin4 tht towl defrtc

d h-utnE tiq t lndenrith snal .hit tn"

'1et\ni

Ihe ..neant bbry h bn'pins I th6 1dktjats an th i|r hql

lor piee al pawr defrn\tethe swciat pt6ti. iqlf deri

the powto atiDulak thd definlte

F, to r,,ll ro, Ji!!t4 (fiNt snrenc4sreet hs ttirh ins tt bw - L vhnh ihq L\e bw

r, !or , . c"n0..o e.m-nd' Err , drhe\ i tudioror 'he_

rcrddssed n EdD3! doryalv s!,r 10 ru dils (rhe pEvi06 !e!ph)a lnutt thttN 4e. l,u (pR\ om line)nn'grahl Th,srclftnc w LLbe i*Bfd lser

.R .olrLt athzr o aaloEt.annh?sl)n

$nbncc (disc$*d later in th

t ! . t , -d.14inqa, buf , t . tn" .?fa.?-cl oth.- , , hd taal tt\ntt^ n thc tivs btr r?/lr b r',//q (lim li dBcu$cd

Tle ZERO + plurul nonn rom cn bc used ror senerir tlcrcic ii ncarlvrllnixk, hhoqh o.cdionslly it may n! bc.l.ri whdhrso!r. oirdennie reffnce n iendcd t !+re both much f.fc rcfacred ,n rh

c n,l lclhirc!l w'in's elrc I Idru'r'tdior }rc nNl. rhotrr r d*.1|ticndtr,u (,Ntrlly diNlhy cr

1/d,i)" o rh. lllc ort|t PrcviousrM, !i rh.liN hrllollho sinc $n@mc(ie. rhe Esuhof'hs racr-rhd 11,.

'di,r ro.l d slosly ovr vsry lnB dri.ds ofri'n.)

lr,./r, [, !h( lrrc,l htw]c(iA. rltrf rl,oc rrisls oily otrc cdht-f l(tu.'ll 1" rl'i|{,l,ir)

42 FUMnt Englsh qtmal

&tr , ro the pcotr indicdcd by rhe rechr in n\e child s picru (we;s reades oflhc tiscripr cannol idediry $i.h peren: dcussd latr

tourDtal taD ,o ' l 'e(h, d th. Frhsul l i rg ro' 'h" ; ; . . "1;1; ' ;

, ,u 'o.p '

r Jn'he\hm., 'o"redseo,s eand- d 'hr ' \er{ ' i !Ph{ l . i o t r .

'he (.he' sone' ime

th pawf t haniptlak thch ta to ,ltkptlte thntt. hnkry b ,.ink6 6nid in rhl sms sr.trce

, orpmddiIingtutu'ioml

i , i \c l \ ra , / / . . '

or ne$ r "

r \e.e. d.a, { i5 'h!

po. ' .lusiv*. rhcrc is ledisircrion b

olc (e.C.. / z^) md relercnce ro i\e eoup as cmpo*d ofin'livllulsfhc pasirive nclnsves arc iri ,r, . rc usd when oly rwo thines rc rcreredhdn,durk, uhileoi, L'fs r.'he3 rs s,hok Forelmplel

i i o'hq 6s BqcL.ts re cinh nov.n.nLnrc !4! .rrs srcs fd

'Bhs ,rEn snduiry

and al rc u*d when mo itun orler ro rhe sup s copo*d oaind

) l'q[ bsr hir bd b nq bo0 | rNc ! d'sin d qr41 vq dr

t!) wl rir '

{trsitr'i :L!l !r oE!rc'rd cqulBrdrd.s arrl.f !trd e,N i uu,l !h$rrtu hM,r[in$\crcldrodb

3 Representing things II: Moreon noun groups

' lls chaper w,u fiBt look ai

idtr ln?r rd !derh e'efe (e . 'orcopkt9o.po,hi g.e "e

inclusive Refeft^ nd rhen .dsid threcsitomrof ihenor gmup amrieG,h *ill hen exmin. rh ajo kinds orthcnomcno, or troDimlizrion will be

a3

44 Functanal Englsh saal(6) \E!!q ferd Hny d'Gcrd nc(7) . . rh. fir nedDcd @6

'h{n !! spar ngh . .lnclusivcs .!n ccmc in vious ways *irh oth RcfcrcK ,l md

.r, catr d,Hlly prc.sdc dcfirnc Rcrrc (ra de'noNfttils, 'd pos

(3) ch.k 'ld 4Ltlrq

!n$ e soEd(e) B rbc. bmks $y . strE

l1o) l:l-ffie. cd.i rd das sh

Representhg lhings n: ^4ate

non grcrps

Whch ol lhe lnexacl ouantifiers listed ar lhe bglnninq ol secton32 i can bep e(eded b/ / l rhede, in{ear(edre. '2 'possessve

Aiorhor poc ial poblcn lor learen is knowi4 which ol rhe inexadarines b us $i'h mas, sngu

0.rhcEh3!(bc{nuchqeunqror 'hsis$c{13) .wc hy. ro. fc$ r.od for so !.h sqlc.

Mant. ?Ent. a ta t lJ*dl+'rotrs;rh ti ,^dti(le8 anly usd wi hds nous..t rr,4/o/,1l$, and ar my be usd snh 6oh count ard mms nou.s. alihoush0n. people *ill or ccet lrs and /i nh counr os in loma

L.me'. trr.o-rtr 4 v 8nd,, "

*\ 1", En tt l. 4 !.' a l simply indic d smll quanrity, *hile /,ative connorarion, for *mple, rhar rhe qumiry!.d.d or hoped ror. md so on For xmph:O iFs peple liked rh rer sys $h

Theorhinclusie*.niorditrdly prcccdeotherRelereBinlhiswy.Howcv{, o$ iicrusivcs htrve vafinq\1h I, su.hns at of, blth ol d, ,J hich c.n be usd belorc deniite Rerercn nd nolly ue'lwhen . hed is a prcoun (e.g.. eh aLhewirtsud bdt.th) r\eexcephons F #r (dnc cainot say aev! aft^ ea at rrry o|lhen)nd, vhich h$ re rom,, betre o/

a pocn.hl problem for has is knons which inclusiv* ro u* wilhn$s, sinCllan atrd plural nouns. ror', l d , aE uscd viih prunLfd's Eilher each, ewr! nnd.a are u*d ir sjnculsr ou's ,.1/] and,o

o**ei leamd sohenmcs poduce

(11) iEEry ct$ should 6, spois

3.2 QuanlfisrsLike Refmerq Quarlie6 limi! rhe scver rhey pde infomation no! abdu vrrl ritics or mriiy b abouthav an! ernies, ot h, hrh eiry. Ir oth words, rh.r indicals quanriry some*h* bdwer ,// rbeMen i'*aci Quntifie6 d orac Quarifie6

3,2,1 tnqact Quanttetsrnexaci Quine6 incrude r,r !ch, a tat af, vvt, th, art dkrld titte, ls, tittl. fe\|e4 Iwe, ks, tt ore, nd na!

a porentil ptuble ror le8ffis lies the Mys rh*e Qurnifig^ cico'osu wiL\ Rlme6. or ermplc, r.r','r rlkr is rcccphblc.\|ne t .n n.h htp is n

,lso hve o/v!ai Eed bcldc dcfric Rcfcrc6.

.. dL c dioE d !q4r e Nrd\ nq{ FrisN jouois

. . Mrd'h.b*tr d4941ny sc|qd ir3rioo7)a)

d. u 'f tr'. clNii.r hcr s Quflfirs.ndl(NN!lr!utr Id dilillriidtrsnm ir rl,c

orf . er .4.s. re u"n , ndrs.ed .o.ro o. . n-s p!

npl! 1 . r / uu uf'h 'oLlvIJ

.orc|os, a indcina,nn dnJ tn@trc r3 r ' , o. 'o lhe'oLro u-pdr r9 r , r . rh- T. 'ng5o ?llowlns rro s ntccs rrc quiie diffrcnr:) h! r'cv ncf\ qho rumld u! {!f d sppoiird rrlC) r .s!d or!dq"rbncdu

4{ dr,d!"/ft rhi i d Lr

"l

|li

46 Frclan.t Engtsh gnnal

nrrcscd !,, (pnounced A hncdns likc indefiit Reffl usd, like ihe ZERO .nicLc (Sedion 2.r a), berorc m$ nos ai{rplul cou nous For examplel(20) otr non c rhruc bN! orCl) rlrqe ac snc b6trr *!n i r sden.

Reptentng thngs ll: tte on rcn youps

3.2.2

Ho*eve en d@s havc ! qurmirying vo( x n indiots . nfuictioiin n\e mouDr or number refered ro. aLrhough rhc difiece been rr3'd ihe zERo ari.lc cai be que sbrle, as

'n(2 wod yo prq!oji&? rr12' wdLd ya pctu so. .on.r lml

Stcsel r4 (prcnoumed /s^/) s in, ,br exmpls.{24) . iow sm. nueuns Eiiy { wnh s*Lrs{25) I k in som. resp*6 k r r(,fl

:/r 4"ry is indrared by nu'enh rrch m d tu ,'E /,4 md $o Thse F nomaLLy quic si8hroruanl for l.acrs HdNcvcr, oncFurce orconfirsion can be with rhe use olplnl nummls su.h as ,,:,rtnad t,1^tr 'va qir r 'qr i .hreu.- n.{3. rL ,er . q. , . i01.,s.. Huibens fppte

-re there). f,ems lodimcs podue inrd-

ndic foms, strch s rr /id. ol peete aa rtz hkaredl

1.3 Paditives

In thes examples, Jo orhrs wiih ncltrses sch s 4 d, assuch, clealy rcre6 ro rcrided quniiq.

l,tnitiv.s e rrctuEs which consisi ortwo nouns lirked by l for exam\tL, a pi{e af cab, an itm of nfls, a trav aloaL r d.ap of||d- ttlhs!exmpleqthefinrDounlptu qtl,hrp,nddrop)uinorsoc

lhd whi.h in.||ecrallows, 'nds

ob ialyzed as no srcps {ilh ihe fist noun as hed nd rhe s*ond noun| 0d of! poemodii ne 0c oiSresed sos ca dso be uscd *iL\ sirsul ours asvarimi or e indefinit snicle in whd wd Ffcrcd ro

finrmentior usage, fo cxmph(?) soe sirLy d hd bdrsp! orghs borhs in k. pt!!! qlqE

lnltudclng rhis usee io leades would pmbabLy 01 be hiSh p.iorityn,}' has r similar B'se fuses. Unsrcssd ,, usd like n indciite

Refere bcforc plunl lnd rss 'ouns

in nesrive nd inhogative (i.e .qs1oo cr sq fd *mpre:(27) I hvs\ gor rtry scudos kn bd I(rB) . . do you hN any iiomr

'hsc oq piiesl

(r0) comol6dcnyonq.hs63e.reumey.ddu.srlt{lLrcsor!]!}

Sftsed aJ u sd rs kird ol cmpheric u.ianr olrhe inde finic adrc rcin rbal s rcrcrcd ro in chptr 2 as rhe any uc, rlr is, ro indicare tl'athE .hoice .ompletely rerricred, fo ermple:(291 r*e ary d ro rhc p.k. l.otPe: Ioke a ard rc ke PqlThis cxt.ds to a usase in vhich hc carlng or,,) s dce b rb( ot !r

It as alredy bed nocd rhd i.1usiv6 rd aMiiifie m hak sinilrrloms TheE , r lad, a some*hai ,zzy dtindion bd*een pdirivedu r ' nJ.nciu\ .e rdQ,r ' .1:c^ 'o-cdr i rh r ' 's kut u, l r

lntol rLd"n '

\a "

" Ed \

"tt- nou ,,r,r rl . d.!r n rrbmARemei, ofrhe F i,h (r,, p m J. x is rc' nomll) posib (y. t t a. L t t . - t Irs 'op.1J r ,ors ' .p[ \Ou"nf ic < _ik ) . i 3.o orl

tny r tr4 ot ha h\ to4 a r ?? not o atab- at h da Ltik,/

'lE' s

'o rcd lna,r', s mpk\ aGmiffl

r foqa Ap'$non., . " ,o

r \f l "n ' ta3\" l {? ol in-rJ . .

' l t r r \ae Qud' fea r . . . . e fo lo ins .o,n J

I 1I4a F|anl Englsh g@nnalwjrh re imrusivs fonned *irh ol rheB is a similf ridcncy ro uscplu.rl Finncs s cll r nl!L poscsrvs whm rhe ndm ftr / is dunl.as in, for cramp le, d, .trr rrl,

^ haw t he an boak and aote fL\.

r/s,6 ru , tr,/ lr rhc ese or.,i ol rhis sase B berd in spe.h,pniculdy rhere use ol the sgulrr lom would nc..$lbtc using loctr'rions such s r 0 /i for /J): Hovplunl Finit is trsully onsidered idlor.c Ii rhe cse or

", /bob

sinsul rd plul aft nomslly rcepted. even in wirin8; for cxfLc:(3 a hp !y k 6i a Nel

Flpresentng thts : Lue oh tuuh groups

c! su. shich hN Glrc)) flki)

sev.ml Des]b4, as ir e oxaple inarhere is moF ihn one Dsaib. the order or

lowov, vcry oicr !h disrinclion lnvoles ! rie bur rhe rcG of rhehins (EpHentd by the hsd) in rhe prss Eprcsiied by

'l'c Fri.iplcfa cttnp],, in a ba,iry t@he. the relo$hip be$en e pariciplelti,s d dre Thins r* can be plnphnsed as sdbig like ht rq ||ha baa ?aple (pt6rbly lhc $ude6). ln rhd wo,ns. *henll! vs fom is n*d, the fting is in

Dscnbie wods rell us somdhins rboul quLiry ofrhc Thlng nprckircdby ihe bed roui or aboDr rhc sp,lefor *amplc, r 1, vr (qrality) nd a! /i,,rlc w! (aditude)Words whi.h prlom hh dcsnbiig tundiotr nnl be clle D6.ib.s.

On ths orh* hnd, in du s' he Elatiochip beseen ,a/and.rl cn be prmpbmscd s s.me\hing likc t ae 1'ro is bapa Md\r].an?oi. a a .."d"4 t n a4th,s a. \orrolp Lo ?'lls ,ods, vhei rhe 'l panici!le is 6cd, c thing is lhe edrfy feced

ih crion. f,ees *h* lngs! hA nothi4 comparable io suchni.iples wili sonelin* ontue rm.

4,2 Oe t Desqrbe

3.4,1 fyp$ of DesqibeG1i. cLo$ ol words rhi.h mor olten runclion s Desribe6 is thr old)iE Ermples ftom the exacb in the Apperdix include: !44!ub, l t th. Dr", t \kE

-t \ A a'. !j!!:!!.,

-,,

h".' rt ^

t 4, ,t t d;ts,

Dcscibere cn rhe,Nel's be nodifiod by mcber orrhe wotu crass

(34) Thc* rclrssr Ery hG ranir(15) wherc I lile the.. a !s!_Sg:r nsc.

]e d*ribi's tundior cn rl$ bc pcdomed by wordscrlledlu/i,ilsi Tnsc m uods whlch se derived fm vrbs nd hve rhe thm'\ns at lelc\ rat exmplt, "E!rs k.ha

^rd t!!!:!t!

: a bj!! t.{ u't o @4! antSrh padn ipks can cau$ pIobl.s for lcanca Tc d L lrc' oict bcdrc.r

rhevtsan'lVt/romscanr,rtidrrcktto tim.dii,,cnii .rtrtr!a.cfrdy, rhs dislii.lior brsn u

n[ i3ndNIndtr . ! l ' l l jNi ' r i 'A)

rk 3bHow would you roder lh 0& brs ing.oups lo makelhemsound moe nalural?whar general zallo can you ake abo the

, Croan beaulifu caDel

d, gfeen slranqe la'!e eyesa a lit o charm ng brown o d Pol

1,3 Oesibe6 as rcun gaup hesrll,la r,

'| l i\d!$ h! lnd\ or i. grouq Orelededfu lb{ ' ! lcrr . r , , !1, f r$, , r ( fd(Rn!r rnomJl l }senencNa t t r ' tut th!)nhoFr r$ rnrB nri rli$( R uditu'y qurNn foruxplc:tl ,l tr u 1ff I rn, No' ri | trlilN;,

Irl3.5 ClasslersCl*ili.s arc *ds rh ich subdasi ty rhE 'l]1ing 'Ius, itsn/ /rruris a sub.lssification oll.tuu a aid \trri h lundionine os a Cla$iiiei

3.5.1 Ws l CasleClsifien ny b. realed by adjecrives. nouns, or paniciples, as in rhc

!Iq4!srcry'h (djdryc 6 classjr6)q!l! greq,h (nou s ch$inq)!!!so@nr: (padiipb s cisirir)

Wen prdiciplcs are usd as Clasine6, rhe dfuiclon b.Meen rhev,ts periciple and the V./. padiciple can be Lhe sne .s rhd 0an{!pLr arc u*d as Describeni thar q c dkidio may bc intaded asbeing fisbd vc6us u!finhh.d ($ i d.rlap? mnonu \sus delaF.irs .r,]) or as a dis nim in rhe lariohip of$e Th'ns ro thsprces (s in nonfadur dtus a dfls *hich peoDlc nanur&tuE"v*!s on{.tins pla ! D1, or r@rory, which mnlachres

n sone ca*s, it my nor be inEdiaely obvios hdher a paniculrdjecti or pnicile is tunc.o.ing as a cldsifi or s 3 D*ibq A6etut te$ is b ty ro odiry fte *oJgrrt ct. wherc it k posible ro do rhis, the rord is funcrlonins as aD*ibsi *heE it is not rhe urd is rndionins as cldsilior Thcrson for his k obvios. clasifers id. iry slb.les *hich the Thin!fher is o i not nmber ot lrus,\etu or jBt a eetMr ltrldalc io sen* no* conbrs ro ralk ol'aIaty 6sisbd ot niEht 6ns@ /.!Ei slmil y, , rrl orhql,s or it b no. I qrnor be 3 4J /'V"s orq,is,,

5A Furtional EnSlish qn@l

n lhe tollowio noun groupsundo ined words funclioning1 . a small, lubby, ligtnlss bd

3. ;iFumpins !g kck

6. liomi@ cilios

8.

ReptMng l1tlgs : Atde on tuun gouPs

ecoloo .a nchesBPq rse

Thn Cldsifier + Thig shcre will be or panicular inponnce tollms who re rudyig ochnical or *icrific sjet. i whlchCh$ifrcm orc m@h u*d in cldsification systms o bxononies. Fo

mple. in a physics text, ,e*/6. efe6 ro n ol rhc fbdancnbl!lbE* whi.h ac bcrwc

'he panicls rhd nske up rhe univese. Ine

lrjedive vr runcioiins not sl0ly r desdb e rorce {s cRl ! r \?,1 E.o'odsmbe to clasiry ihe foc urder dieu$i6 vis'vis the oh kin'ls of rorce.

h lr Uo m o' . tudrrg d 'ehrtrdl fdd amdunE.maiifc txr, n diecrive rhy knov in i6 turction !s a Dcsdibtr bui

rch s ruc on,n8 n 'henew

code Clsifer

,62 Meanag elatorehips belwee Classiiet and rhng

, and ihe meinA relrimship be$ em .hr dqLorinroruio ruy be ipl.ir in

(raken lfom E{facls 1 nd 2) are lhs Dsc beB or Class firs?

Slnilrly, nor evey Clasiiier ding in -'g .er' con b. inleeted 6

m iciplc, m r sedion 3 4. I For enmple, ,tl, c..d clerly e.nsich hN ben iebled Jrort g

,l do* not of cour*, m. a ndl *hhh goes shoppinsA rcrdn

"mo-n. of \no*hdC.. otun .ub.'-\pe I I'or''dg_ on

nr o '\e ?r' o' 'eadfl

mr) be resq ro inrflrd gnslifi + thing srudurc, !s in rl'e enmde **/d? cibd in sEtio, Thh can bcome cuile co@lcx *hcrc hm b mdc rhar oe Clsiner

ioun s'oup I' m4 or 4lqrs b iTedLklJ pp,ent "hethe'

lculi .l if a . rla^ii' c "no

\ei.lds.ifitr s !l s.iEinc h.r t lo.c{mfk. oz. i r , x u" ararp , , baler or- le r t rn\,\t-nd" 4, csE6?ak snor bedfl ofde.h.!adrAnsd

ff erprct vidrout $bjsrsrecful*lcrlgc, ir rt autntutlt1

^tE bn !* .td. (cit.d in Trinble 1935:

a), ^csorliis

t' 1ri'rblc. h r ens n aulomded gind of a kid or0t (Lr norzh briot). mlr tindcrof

I llwJs pFdicDbl{. For ewpn, o adtkd b! ts uheres a 6bish heap t\

"T ll

1

52 Funcnanat Enstish s.nl Rep@enlng thnss tl iitate on naun soups I533.5.3 NLn t adjectve as Classilerl-cmc6 sonctins hrvc dtr.uxy ktrowi4 wl'cr b skcr a noun o madjectir as a Clsie. for example, udn sndh z J ci, src\th dreb4'h ' . , r b{e a i id i r - f e i irnq GrrhNs c- fo-anmuch mort comon). Ho*cvcr, .o,,,. sro', Nirh r adJccivc snot. On e olhsr h.nd, ..,"orr ,iit is a.ccpublc. In rhis .osc, lhc noun

ducrio id driburion orwcahh.'Unforunably, it nor possible io come up wnh g$elizrioi tha!

djelivc asCl*id Thc lnloprlr. .obinrl.is r problbly brl.rned rs vmabulary ems wirhin fte conrexb of Ihe rclev.r subj*r

Note rhar count ouns as clsifies rF usu11y sinsuld. F exple,rtu u .^ nat , btrr th hL\ td,E .ttt .oue.t nLemen somdimes inappnpriably use the pluBl foms ol nouns asCl$ific6.Agln.rhcrcareerceptionabour ihG! for exnple, it is eaplainx dpstnt n61 opainl

Fo lho lollowin0 noun groups l.y subslilulinglh nouns in pareneses lor rhe adjecves ilncrioning as C assil erslhe I nancial sedor {riiace)inQ! slc analysis (inqu slics)a alheallcal equat on (mathemali6)a srammalical mislake (qrammar)a scienl ric io u rn al (sciec6)Whr lhe noun cannol b subslitulod lor the adteclive, ar lhereo$er contexts ln which lhe same noun could lunclon as Class lie? Where eilher lhe adtelive or ihe noun cou d be useddoes us ng lhe noun chanqe lh man nq?

s.5.4 Casle and capaund rcunsThe is a vey tuzzy boderline belween clsilic + ThiDsin'dr$ rrrwo (dsochct oto) rouns rru c

lo'npod head ol non lroup. somc lon!-sblhtud compound nounsic wrirtn wi hyphcns. ror cKmplr some Rods rht werc origimlly cpound nous rc nor romLLyrcgdcd os siglc words, for exmp

I Suooeelwys ol conlxruaizins and pracrcing Vtgand vedpar(pesl-rcnormg6Desc'b"r6 h suldbr inoo. l f6Tdr i1qdiffnc6 belweon fiem and gfthelp earne6whosometmes

. Succgsl som acliv l es lo r se earn ers' aware ness ol lhe lypicaorder oi Describe6in a nounOroup.ll you r wrkng with s1dems who are sludying olher subi.lslhrouqhEnglish coleclsomxampssof Classlier+Tngslruc-tures fo the r lelbooks Which ol lhem could b conlusing ioflhe 6lld.6'WFal rinds of cli\ le! ighl help lrer ne'p'el

oir-fl r'sl aL po"hod,') rl r he.J n a rour gou qus I rh' T i g

NXIE vtnh painodif, tha haolctt paaot th hd a an sn@ tundions o mror down lhenrnof ?La-. ' r f 'o- t r 'd..coL iue o.-bcoro-. . rF' c'n e

'

po.r od'fie' Ta tu'.non o.r.{ cl} :dcn ift 3 r'iib|.t. ir is nor u'1'risitrg thd, a Ms sen in section 2.3.3, poshodiqsr l r . nq t i\1{r ' ' roasdpo'1nsci1ts efe 'etre. fo '

I !! -,hL el!!gt!rle!8 !!

lfjnd l"h &cfi(rd bj eMoN$oNPANs (E.'Dd

1 lypos of postadfeB ffc rlruc ,jd kirdr or pornodiryinc

r i in, i ( )d/ { r , ry iqx)

Fu nclo n at EhA t sh S G ml

rh. .h d !!. j:.:!!sj!]9!qg h

Tc d'ild slling h b. coor hs ben \ry nosh+

The rclaiv .l8n* mur, or.ours, be wilhin hs ro sn!t. (ru.ll!drcctly after rhc hcd Lrn.K sodiri.s plkc s'ch cltrs! onrsidc dr!noun Eroup whi.h isinrdcd r.q

- .

t :ARepesentns lhngs tt: Mot an mun grcups E5

R.hive prcous rl*ys comc d rhc bcsiining ol ihe eldivc d!*,pl {hcn nrcccdcd by preportod

Scledion ol an ppropit lrive prcoun depends upoi 1l ) n\ grn-nicLtundioi (e.g.. subjed, objo.', Prclsirionl obicd) infie rcLivedr q ' e 1 nor ' .cr*d- p ' r ' - .h 1 | o, n! 'hur, ' .rd (3) rhc roalhy r

'c laneee.

l]lc lolloins *ampl* illusre rhe m catgoios ofrchtivc Pm-mq accoding ro en s@ricl fudion. nd ro whedr d'e head

Tecbically, $ch posnodifyig .orsnus ar ll .nb.dded odiun6. In orher words, rhcy aE unib which nomally openre d grout rmk rabove bur d buirg Ncd s.orituers sirhin a sup (sstion 1.r.4)

Nob rhar in cru$s such rs rsd ,r a chiq i. co4 th. prcpNltional l)h$k , r , is, par ofthe noun gmup. ll B an,.1dJr.r Gcc.aro.

.. : .o, e "dJ ordef,m ninr\ l I 'h" o4po. ' o 3 p!1 i . . .n

Adjunct o a p.sodifier ro see wherh ir h pd$ibh o nove it Indnscre, t /rg.o,s. bc mov.d (ipo$ibl.d!us).whichconfins thn rhe pftposirion, phrase nol pd o'

Posodiryins clauss ofen cause pDblems Ibr lee6 ad !c onh

3.6.2 Pastnodlytts lnite daus$Posodiryins it dau$s aF nolly lercd ro 6 rerricriye ord.lining llire cl!$s. In his $cion. rhey nlll be rcrered Io simply retv clsa Howevea ir should bc norcd thd rhere ar oer kids oilarivc clanfs (nonrcsrictive or nondcinine re1rivs chuset, whirb a^no1 embedded in (he rour groupi thcs & looked ar in chaprer l2 (Secrior

Rdrives .kus BE li'red b fts head by relrtiv. poroun, lor cxampG.

'r, in nub* I in Secion 3 6 I

thc rclrire cleGe it sub*itores lor rhe iom 8rop r,t.rrTo are enbeddins of rlis kind, rhe ham{ u$ bs $lc to ( r ) ,lcf

e Ehlive dausd .orcdly. (2) $le . appoprire relaivo Drooui, tr(3) m*e ny nsesy rscnc

(0) a.ry e'hor *ho w 6 dstoD.riy. (hriu I'cd)

il) rhe mm Eb {hich kds b tbc phc or$

)

d{d y4 E gonsthas w ukm .

rh. pcnd !9rE!r I lddJsscd ny$lr fis (hunar hd)

l , . r ' . 'F rhh' . '

Not rhd in lc$ lomal EnglBh, pnicularly spoken Etrslish. n G usull$( i'. rrpo.ro .r 1 o srsl m 'm Iolloq.nL hc \erb Eo_qplc.

'

, noflnrorl .D L r .mph r s

Y 't

2.

FL n d i o nat E ngti s h y a nn a I

Turn the c auses wirhln Ih brckets back inlo re aliv ctaures,ch@sinc ppropriate re alive pionouns ifom lh l owing lsl:aho who.6hi ttat. zEBoti

-orpli( lnte o enoeodino). The lircl on has a ready been done.Inachcase,rysubslrluling relvepmnoun6otheranrheon6you inaly se{rd. whal qene zalions can you m.k about

s 5v .ae p'orouns \m||hon, ||hi.h, hat, zEBq?"

. . . l ' oren f i s l reg'een. | |s n-0 1 ownl are (ovecostrr. r're C.6n h' < 5cr

"n9 the ow' a cov.o ir4

or lhe qfeen hills rhal finq lhe lown ..b. Th's odr.fl"'c fr5e rew (ood.cu-rs oo qo

'1.o emounlansl never relud.c rre es,l. s lf.

-enro,t o lalleys rr ne'wo.\ oi ! a)idv- ly+e'eo,r ieea-. and T duoeEore qual r ' owaste lthe r vefs carry th6 slu pen dous qua ry olwasbdown

Hecf edbacsolsand and arqeslonesaddidallhwok Ilhe others @uld nol manaca al the heavyworKlniomalslweconlacld nrorma speEonallylprcved

Rprsseatns thnqs : itar an noun qps 57

llowev.r, so. p.oph do trol

! .3.3 FEAFANGINGTHECLA

As hm been rolcd, rclarive p.onouns .oc at n\e beginnii! fr rclare' drsc, llrhoush rhey my bc Heded by prcositions wher ihe latlve: Fnoun rundions s rhe subcr orr. rclarie clau*, his does mr di{h:. ! 6Dal ord* ol daus onriiuenb. Hdeevcr. wbet rhe Elaiv pmnourf!iios d an obicd or reposioil obFd

'hdc s, sn*. a sap

t i . ' .re \ne e Obd or F ep i iorloDr ' ' voLd nomt\ b '

lmets \md'mrkmp o r r,sp Fore\amplc:

rl.rhvsrh.pd'nr !!4 hclmk sb 11

fd, such foms do somdin* .cu ln infonl spoken Erglish Howi! rhcy re considrod ircord. esp(ially irsrirtEnelish

6,3 Postdlyng nonlinte ctau*s|1ormod'fyire nonii|er useanbc fg,'ted

| fin( rlr!e crur, $i,h,hc rc|3 \epronoui id c\mpte th? tlJ

'A,+: inEnthant3nd

. , LEAF NC AND IEACH NG Pnd(dq. Pd lc 'e l ) r ' crom

. l Chis., rclarive clauks pmodit he head. uslly wirh an sLLu$ m0r or embedd,nu (d. ,n M,rdrrn chierr For e\mpl{

f rrr Frr \ri qc h sc s Y6'rt)llvi wlici rcliivr uL{u\cs pornmdiry thc htd d rclrnve pronous

1i l ( '1,(

xr J '|nr, rl

^tuh r, l, .r' fnlc,

"ll

Is.

whole lo be more re iable.. .

yeah h m, h s lho on [we went 10 cab wilh him].rhe man lshe had ived wlh th man lo the previous nine

I r' rool\ J vere'cavles lsvare/s {tf Fiootsl'. rhbouldcandsand [[sweepsalonclhebouldersandsandwithirl.

A tunhr omplicarion is rhe p6rrr lyl)e ol ladve c1us, ihe r, ono'nf n'onrs. po..e. r

Rer.ftr sirhin a noun 8roup. Wherc the rferenr is human, rhc rh!!c

(4) . sn oDe in whos shlow w. .r ' nr b rod

whsn rhe refcM. is nodnumm, /,ri., oy bc usd, s iD thu lolloq

(a . rh rDu.lh eliigofrturc(ry m tp*d tri,l

r / . . , r .oolr ! " ,cnqrt , on .r , rsd, . . r n, f t ) \ , . . . , , .rak thd uin8,/ n,r wdrd6cdrmsy t,orcrnrpt.

)

li!T

li

'15A Frctianal Englsh gnml

n additond objed pronou r arehlivc .lus hcn rclalivc pronoun is funcrioning s Objed, s in rhe

(5) knb rkrib Lldi qn?luhr

Repte.hhg Lh96 : |arc on ao g@ps 59

a numbr of diltNn@s b@een rhe orhe 6r plre, rhe Ewircn venis arc bolh co$idenblyis minly due b hc fact rhar conient which is .ontrined in

Td mke he m$ning orn\e$ $nenlislh as a $cod larglrg, w. mighr rcw.ir rhem N lbllo$:(,1) s. whetr *e ry b mke sos or {

itb, 4ro pcopc . J.hhr!,

Thk may be one emor for erc6 su.h m nmber 'r9.

Firolry, lemc6 sncimcs contu$ ho fe and rhe ronfinirc relaiv.

152) .nE child vho riiE in 'h.

rnq hs bn Ery nauslry (wib artrcprcnoun bui wrhou' finir)

15r) .rhe child is sninc in'h. nq hrs b*n Ery naushry. (vh Finir but

Leme6 als somelines produce loms li*e:(54) rhc 8nL {ho @Brd by c FLiIn uthcs. i i o strr) fc\bi 'oLowq! i ,hr ' .ero ' rFfrom coiftsion beReen nDite a.d .onnire poshodiryins dauss, orbcwcen dive and pssivc voicc roms

Relive cl.uses Ihl which mny leanrs ry hvenobl.ms rin\ as siih oth.r sh.turcs, ir k compErively crsy ro 6n-*nd mechaDical tansfomation exerckes i\roueh which leneB eiihpndicetoinlns so senrences so rhat one beco'nes Elative clau$ thirrhe orher o exercises in *hich Gamrs pncrice clHging liniieposdodiryins .l,uses into nonnie po$modiiiirs cr!*s Howeve(such *erci*s do not help leaneE o use ihe shcturcs appropnacly in

Qu6slions Jor discussion. SuSSesl ways ol inlroducinS and praclcing relalve c auses lhal

mk us6 ol lh.i idnliting lunct on (Seclion 3.6.1 ) and miohlhelp learreb lo be ab' ro,se rFen Fprop'r.ly i1^on.n

. Desig soe reed ial acriv es lo hep sludenG who nequen ypoduc the k nd ol ror rcpr6s6nled by 6xampl 49

o groups ir L\e orisiial is exprnded inro cLauss ir c rciten

(we fy,o) mte seo$ ofwbt(ho* do *e kow) hov ligs(how d *e kno\v) rha ue ar

icslly doins when we neasure

wher psple sy such h'tgsro udenrand hov thinss dllyrhis 11y b qh3i 3cience hd

3.7 Processes and qualites as Thngs

lndr ' ua rnd'n o,e deph e !rnm. direr l .e De.or rhc No vc6ions, i is ieccsa.y Io so bac* 10 o dhcuslon at ihe l rnrm.f ' h,"F ror 5eo' ! .1 .r lD

'Lfn

' l r r r , o o, 'e.pf l 'en!e 'hdwoc^c.\(6 'hg.o

llr[r consir rlr folowii! cxnphs] rr nu{(ur.(iu, , ,rilmrifis

ThcrollowliS4rwosiercc!&kciftdmrrrkd7(Liu\r 2N(L? r0)(rt rhr p bdr o. 'cqddu ! l ) r r rs l ry l i { ]M n wr ! ! r r iu4 l r r l J

6A Fun.tol Eghsh gra

rn rhcr dnpres lr e oig (&'dr 2, shoo, dirulak), t.lEadrhinking(r*, bdl.ar, and Mv! (ra) tptsntdbyv*bs,shrhirr \er i "e h.ndci ' . hd1 'done.?1.. .

'h1l i g r l r iL

arc repe$ilcd by nou's A tm u$d b rer in genrl!o !ug!n rikeoinE, happrins sc.itr ldis thttlts .s rcll * 'ts and ,vt s, proc!$, A tm usd to reld in gicnl ro ertities invdlvcd in such pro

Much of cvcrydy lngxage is like the above clausc, in th rhe pro_d h. Pdiciprnh are Prc*iEd bY

nous. Horeve4 il po$ibh to reranse thir rhrionship aod reprcsclprces*s by nuN. rs in the follo{is exsnpleso ,he ncsrnnt of oPro! ii n{rcrndoo! ef i iFof ebn b6.r is.09) a ,hcn ssi.i nai iP h, or PoPic ..rLr

" , i #sq!!*h" * . .u"s.(6:) a Anht pgs!!!qora Nwsr .ln Dumbc^ 57a rlTough 2! nor onouns bur . good dea! of e red of thc natml in rhc cluses has beena.[, t e non groups. whar h^ be

'lone he pckii8 $ccomenr ofcluses inlo ioui smups- h knownasnonin'lizrlton ltd'.opposile orhat wN donc i simpliryins rhe 6vo *ntnces rrom Exhcr 7.thd could bc !Lld r,,ri"r:io,

li ihe exnples 57 rhsugh 6l a, rhe hed roun rcprcsenrs the pc$iis relred ro e vcrb vhrh Eprterled rhe prcces i rhe orielral senren.c

mnip ate man'pullion

Ths rhe siples kidolnominalidion. lloxeei aiy me 'i

whrf i Docs is rprepnod by mun can bc rcg,rded rs nominali?ation Foexmple, ir lhc rewineo vdion of nmb* 2, thc noui lmsrs,, s hrlatcd ro .he vdb lar Ho*eve since 62 a rcprcsns s nou d'e proc $\ofhavins, ir can be resdrdd as a nominltrion Also norc hd rltr nrt*n biion or proce$ by ! noun my nsssndc olhe . hns$ rcritrple, om rhe ldve t ,sl:! ii nubd 6l to c ldtivc vDr n 6 | r

Nomimlizdion ca rcf to morc Ilrusc rn at lda ,/ lur [' r

pckrldinloanounsrcusu.l,srrr'x,rrf,lr ll I iirdLs!,tu r' l/rjrr rcrrcsls mt prc$ss hLr,L qu"lkr vh.lr i' l$ o ittrt'rwq)n\cnlcd by n rd'v! l,//). rlris it

'Ls) L I'mlol tro rrnl'ild

fry denominalzino lhe nominalalions in lha lo owing senlences1. This ls lhe ra6on lor his any suc@sses and hlslewlalures2. Industr aldevelopmenl did nol begln unll lhe early 1960s.3. llieconstanlbumpingandrubbngollhes6maliasolherver

1. Accompanyino lh6rapld se in populton islh processol LJR_BANjSATION o c ly grw1h.

I fhepayof lorrhe dgotsandlonqueuGolsci.nlitcresearch isthe@nsequet gain i underctandng ol $e way lhe wo d is

Reptdentq thngs ll Morc an nan qups

llrb in vhich rhrc is e srear dl ol noinalizorion G g , 'n

examplcs 55 56,.r na.eq d lnd m,! be droporc-\o iTl t , io

n sl*d 'o -

msrr g e d'"n h p\br'!r- pr.o 'he

rfomt'orIng inexplicir or porhially anbiguous. we have ldy sen how eon'r'er ' nc\ ' or -etr . lFsi ie ' .nJThir ls. v,4. In.rbcprcblemq-i E'eae loe no'tF,o\ hretheIoslcdef r"drdro

a.r . per i .uk no.n s_o-p. co. . rdmrs rh bhlr nmnt fd I nel

'P". vL) do N f8n. 13_

bn) olEigli use nomimlizdion r ll?Nonin liz*ion sncs sewl ustul lurdions ir rhc Languasc F int, asI bR' r ed.

'o-JveJ rgusg'o{'- rhe oot irl .].nBb.

N, ene. Pcln g rro- r 'o- n o r no n gro f hA- 'e r{ ore

tre dans ha' nrtdhrc: A.lhu' \ Psesor ala B, ear taok I

S..o-o,1 '

m..h c d 'o

DrsrJt 1 ' q \ \e 'osr-p. Pc' . , rm ) ' tu oB^h. " 1r -sh

n( ro b.gi a .lsu* or smhce tilh ! iomlnaliGd p*s (m. or!ucv. .o- puro.e.nbe ro o 'o-

d!d liik bdween pns of r rxt. Therc mexampleofhis it Extad 5t) r'li.ndid c ioq ([ic5)llorc th. iom !rcl'p r. .!o' $ns up all rhe pmc6ps in rh pr'ousftnc. lprovidsrnni.!poi fort|tmesgeinrhccx!enr.e.

^

rlirll ruLrD hs tu do sirh rhe ndure ofsicnrific langage, *hichflldr rLldrdr coicrri virh .s.rtiA. ldins, id dscribing phe_ncn hi odrri do rl' s .lli:divlLy. i!i! dncn trscsr'y ro red pror , ilrlkvvc'!rl,Dsi NortrtrL'LL

"T

62 F.rnd Englsh samal

roride a.honhad label lor rhe.o0r* phe'omen n quer'dn :u'riabch ny bave

'dy pcdr cninss. {hich mv hsve bccn edblkhdlcrlier in . cxr, o whi.h lhc w iera*unes will b! uidd$ood bv arvonechoosin! ro Ead e i'r paricul rLbjcd m Thm lor dmpre

\! , " ! ?1r" i l lbrB\e1r 'c ' r ' sro hc arcas by vhih a 1r* llows ro p*s rhrongh ir onlv light vh:ch svibrtinc in oe Ddichr dircction l wonld bE.ncsone to have to spello cl:sd h; whole FGe$ dery lic rh surhor wishcd b Ef* .o iiFor funh.r discu$ion orrh sec Halliday and Madin (leer)

In some c.ses, ol cou6., omiraliaioi cm bc ! usetul devi'c rorMib6 who lvo nor eDsees fullv rhough houch rhe enins orwhd

Quest ons lor discusslon! lm-gre-r/ouc lacl'gh'ot cchoo elud-c ho a fdil,

cofpre.r 'n

evyoa/ spol- E_llisl bu' "ar'e gfear or o[oubesl" slbieA leoo\swhi(r (onlil agreald6a'olnominal zalion. what k nds ol adivilles gtn help lhsm wllh f6ad

Reprcseinq thin1. : l'iap an nn 'LDs

63

t. Clsific sub.lsify rheThing.Tb.y ue rcled by ldiecrives, pr

or Pd_o'- 'e l : i 'c kue 'o-

ieclauses, and pposnionL phrss. Thcy fuior ro tluliry o Thins.

lu.- Trn o dr ' inP eLdIb.b!rcPo"

'

. r J ".rrop_ rc. 'e'ans 'Fr

I In much ryerydy lmg$se, panicipant aE elized by noui Croups.pe**s arc relized by verb soups, ad quallri* 8rc mlized byldjecrive sups. However, rhe* rclrioiships can be retugcd so rhdpre.$s sd ttuliries E rlmd by noon goups Thn is knoffi A

g then subjecl afealsxlbook.?. Hw mlghl you he p yo sbjecl afea .oleagues

copreh6nsb'lry i letdr@[s and hadots wrth

rncrusives (rrq or, c., ever!, tt, nerher tnd no) r.lq t!o prcerou.o rh1sc \e ' por ' !h TP"i .dvsdenhe 6/hokofL'nd^drt, //"nd tu trc6. al1 rbe idusiv* (erccpr f? id ,,) lso havc wians fotrqrlnh /(e.s., . ,, n\at ay ptr.dc denie RerercnQnufim

'nd(s'lud') be(nlrnd Ine\' q!3rrD

.-aldedoJ rI ?r!t. tot ro4" or" kq aL4tr tline rr7 P a E\ '1.) ha? 44r So-eof h'T sdr{L. " -" ; " ' i

-** i+*."* * .no omNr bo rh"v0 ' ' r '

4s\ lh Peh' . .3 indntd br n!cts

*"1r" .m

*[64 FLnctionl Englsh gan@l Rev$trg th1s :MEn noun thLps a5

The lirdc food rhar is le shorld bE shred ou cqually.LNr year we h.d c 6r stud.nh *e have ever ae.pred!s ye we had nhe lewer dudis'e childftn rc.clvcd rhc lesr rood.

NE har //? berore Qunrifi* 6. .omonly d rhrc iherer.rnce fosd-poiitig b rhc pdhodifier vithin ihe se tout

Nob also tht . te,a ,tu l.s, and r Dop a nomlly only ad inexprcsions wirh a scond conpmte .b the Iewt audu^ thebeter e tes fus th ryi.k it ||l b dore: tte

"ft strttdr th ber

Posssivs cn pre@de c slme Bise oraudirB is i rr:His nry fn.ids weE dl thercYour sveBl lere6 hvc all b.en ceived.His res mds were all rhcrc.ou 1nrte ralnin8 fmd should be shred o1.lr Ms kr year rhar se hd o mos sbdenb.Ivas lr year rhar we bd o( L{c$ $ud.ntIi was hr yed rhar wc rceived o lear mo'ey

Nore rhr some pcoph may nor ecepr po$Nsile b.roe /s s in thc

This is an arca or considenble vabiliry Thc .onsi su s morg spck s Iliuv mNured k follows:

lh. ld vb d a' snhur htale re prfecdy &.cp1abh. akhochsome see diefence in ncoing be

lh. lnar.e p.'ot nn scien j.'tadl @ odd bur pos ibh.L,st:t! attns

^nd hdthm.ti.r 4!,,, aF eir very odd or

l, lte orieals ol the stencs rc:s. .. . rhe grs hiih $hich rins the roM ae c\F wnh .olorrl

nowss (,rr, * subrod)b. The few woodcueK who did go into the nounbis never Frumed

The eul is hc n.sork orvalle)s dEI diveairy e fa.c ofthe eoriand rhe shpedo tuniry olastsa. ('h finr = subjs'r rh. scond = obj4,He cmied basr of sd d llel $olhc oihc6.ould or mnage. (zrno = objcd)lnlomab we conucted peNnally prcved on the *hole to be mo

The usuL ord ofD*ciben is rrue, ase, the, :hapc, lor'this is nalan sbsolule nle therc is a edaii amount ol vriri d llerihiliry.panicdrly h rhe orderi4 ofgs.id r'r However, it can be s]nl ru !ol n1rub for Lsnn. BDi not rhat alL Dsuibn prc.cde Clastfier Gec

rcllablc (z,Ro = obler)f )ehh.r h. . 'heoneve /ea.o ' r oqi l . r,-FO- Prpog l - '4nL.

"ho ,heh.Jlnedfo 'eFF. io l .n-ered . Id6ry hft (rr,r = Freposilional objcd)h. The looLs with hich a rivd excavhs it vlleys lhe bouldcn and

,.4 Prpo-ro-. obie(.o

Thmenairamouorvariabilnyin thc usof rcloliv. prcnouns.h lour,r ' ro e-r ' lyg'eee' i 'e l .

"

\ rhlollow'A suDim'ns up of rhe usep.r |or h!',tr ard Subled

'r, G commorly u*d, t 4/ nay also be

,{1. n, rtr rl) in "pc(h S^" - G-s o ''e

lns' g roid roNc.n rhi\ us orrrin lomaLwrirtn English.

h lir mnhu'nn d subcr brh 'e,r lir htr'nmrdob cd {rd tr/'o

lrFtrrA. *orLlltur rr nrr.' rrl i', DrsNriui rcsircn

66 F,nctol Enql;sh gadd. Fo nonhumn aid Obj ecr, ,ri./l , thot, and ZERO rc $ad.o. Fof humn id Ppos ioel objed only yo, is usd when rhe

prcposiiion ons d c bcginiig f ltt rclarive cl,use. Tljk isnotuuy resricrd ro lomarM en Englkh. whcn rhc pposiriocoms 3i rhe d or rhc hrive daue. who,

-ha, thdt,

"nd zERa

@lllpo$lbLs, 8in with !r, beitrc moe loml dd some ussnot acceprins rr in hos wrirM gis@6.

t For onhumr d Preposnio.al objst oDly rr, uscd whci heprposirio com* atbe begiridg ofe rlative clausc when dfprcpsiiioi corcs d he 4 r.r, that, and zERo aft all *d.

r. Thk h vhy he succ.eded so o. md faired o $ldo.2. Indu$ry did ot bcgi to develop n1il rhe eany l90s.I Thse a@rils coraDily bump add rub on c nver bd nd rcar n

.1. As rhe populaor incess, the ciries snw kry.i5 To search sientific querio