FTCE SAE Biology Preparation Course

FTCE SAE BIOLOGY PREPARATION COURSEInstructorValerie [email protected]

SESSION NORMS No side bars Work on assigned materials only Keep phone on vibrate only If a call must be taken please leave the room

to do so

SESSION AGENDA Session I: Pre-Test, Competencies 1 & 2 Session II: Competencies 3,4 Session III: Competencies 5,6 Session IV: Competencies 7,8 Session V: Competencies 9,10

9. KNOWLEDGE OF ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 12 %1. Distinguish between individuals, populations, communities,

ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere.2. Analyze the relationship between organisms and their

niches.3. Analyze the roles of organisms in the major biogeochemical

cycles and processes.4. Analyze patterns of energy flow in the biosphere.5. Evaluate factors that affect population composition, growth,

size, and geographic distribution.6. Distinguish between examples of competition, predation,

and differing types of symbioses (e.g., parasitism, mutualism, commensalism).

7. Evaluate succession in communities

9. KNOWLEDGE OF ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 12 %8. Identify renewable and nonrenewable resources and

compare management strategies for each, including environmental quality assessment and mitigation.

9. Analyze the effects of resource availability on society.10. Identify the potential local and global economic, aesthetic,

and medical consequences of air, land, and water pollution and evaluate proposed solutions.

11. Identify the potential local and global economic, aesthetic, and medical consequences of global warming and evaluate proposed solutions.

12. Analyze the local and global consequences of loss of biodiversity.

13. Characterize ecosystems unique to Florida (i.e., terrestrial, marine,freshwater) and identify indicator species of each.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS, POPULATIONS, COMMUNITIES, ECOSYSTEMS, BIOMES, AND THE BIOSPHERE.

ANALYZE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THEIR NICHES. Each species occupies a particular position within the

community, both in a spatial sense (where it lives, referred to as its habitat) and a functional sense (how it lives, its niche).

A number of species may occupy a particular habitat but the niches of those species differ to avoid competition.

For example, in the coastal habitat in Florida there are a number of species of wading birds, each with a unique niche.

ANALYZE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THEIR NICHES.

ANALYZE THE ROLES OF ORGANISMS IN THE MAJOR BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES ANDPROCESSES.




ANALYZE PATTERNS OF ENERGY FLOW IN THE BIOSPHERE.




EVALUATE FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION COMPOSITION, GROWTH, SIZE, AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. Birth rate or Natality rate Differences between

Natality rate and Mortality rate

Death or Mortality rate c Age distribution (Age

composition) Immigration Emmigration Carrying capacity

(Resources) Natural calamities Abiotic and biotic factors Population fluctuations and

cycles

EVALUATE FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION COMPOSITION, GROWTH, SIZE, AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. Birth rate or Natality rate Differences between

Natality rate and Mortality rate

Death or Mortality rate c Age distribution (Age

composition) Immigration Emmigration Carrying capacity

(Resources) Natural calamities Abiotic and biotic factors Population fluctuations and

cycles

EVALUATE FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION COMPOSITION, GROWTH, SIZE, AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. Population distribution means the pattern of where

people live. World population distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated contain few people. Places which are densely populated contain many people.

Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number. Population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by area.

Life expectancy is the average age a person can expect to live to in a particular area. Life expectancy can be used as an indicator of the overall 'health' of a country.

The population structure for an area shows the number of males and females within different age groups in the population. This information is displayed as an age-sex or population pyramid.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EXAMPLES OF COMPETITION, PREDATION, AND DIFFERINGTYPES OF SYMBIOSES (E.G., PARASITISM, MUTUALISM, COMMENSALISM).

Two of the main ways that populations interact with one another is by competition and by predation.

Competition occurs when individuals share a resource which is in short supply.

In predation, one population is the resource of the other.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EXAMPLES OF COMPETITION, PREDATION, AND DIFFERINGTYPES OF SYMBIOSES (E.G., PARASITISM, MUTUALISM, COMMENSALISM).

Predators: consumes an individual and removes it from the population

Parasite: host remains alive; increases host mortality or reduces its fecundity

Parasitoid: eventually kills its host Herbivores: eat plants, whole or partially Grazers eat grasses and herbaceous

vegetation Browsers eat woody vegetation Detritivores: consume detritus

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EXAMPLES OF COMPETITION, PREDATION, AND DIFFERINGTYPES OF SYMBIOSES (E.G., PARASITISM, MUTUALISM, COMMENSALISM). Symbiosis: This comes from a Greek word simply

meaning 'living together' and can be used to describe any association between two organisms.

Mutualism: This can be used to describe an association in which both organisms apparently benefit

Commensalism: In this association one organism [the commensal] benefits, and the other [the host] is apparently unaffected.

Parasitism In this association one organism [the parasite] benefits, and the other [the host] is adversely affected [weakened, sickened, damaged etc]. We normally define parasites as orgamisms which cannot survive without their host and have special modifications to their body or their life cycle for this association.

ANALYZE THE EFFECTS OF RESOURCE AVAILABILITY ON SOCIETY.

Resources available for use.

IDENTIFY RENEWABLE AND NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES AND COMPARE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR EACH, INCLUDING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION.

Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of responsibility, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of stewardship, the responsible management of resource use.

Human sustainability interfaces with economics through the voluntary trade consequences of economic activity.

Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails, among other factors, international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism.

Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from controlling living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities), to reappraising work practices (e.g., using permaculture, green building, sustainable agriculture), or developing new technologies that reduce the consumption of resources.

IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL LOCAL AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC, AESTHETIC, AND MEDICAL CONSEQUENCES OF AIR, LAND, AND WATER POLLUTION AND EVALUATE PROPOSED SOLUTIONS. The first fact is that some air pollution is natural. Volcanoes,

dust storms, and forest fires all pollute the air. Methane, a potent greenhouse gas from decaying peat and

other organic matter, entersthe atmosphere all the time

Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually from air pollution in the US could be over 50,000.

Air pollution has been around a long time. The Great Smog of 1952 in London killed at least 8,000 people.

World Health Organization: The European Union could save up to 161 billion euros a year by reducing deaths caused by air pollution.

Over 80% of lung damaging particulate matter in Cities - PPM10 comes from cars,trucks, buses, and other vehicles on the road.

Air pollution around cities is clearly visible from space. Air pollution in large cities is now the worst. It is estimated

that 750,000 people die prematurely in China each year, mainly from air pollution in large cities.

Air in the USA, at least, has improved a lot since the 1970 Clean Air Act went into effect.

IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL LOCAL AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC, AESTHETIC, AND MEDICAL CONSEQUENCES OF AIR, LAND, AND WATER POLLUTION AND EVALUATE PROPOSED SOLUTIONS. Effects of Land Pollution

Effects on ClimateExtinction of SpeciesBiomagnificationEffects on Biodiversity

PreventionDisposal of WastesRecycling and Reuse Biodegradable Products Grow More Trees Efficient Use of Resources

IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL LOCAL AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC, AESTHETIC, AND MEDICAL CONSEQUENCES OF AIR, LAND, AND WATER POLLUTION AND EVALUATE PROPOSED SOLUTIONS. When the human caused effects of development adversely affect land

(especially in turns of quality of land), it can be termed as land pollution.

Degenerative Actions encompass a lot of human actions, including - deforestation, overuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, desertification, mining, inefficient and / or inadequate waste treatment, landfill, litter, etc.

Misuse of Land mainly refers to felling of trees to clear land for agriculture, as well as processes like desertification and land conversion. Desertification is when anthropogenic effects of human development and / or other actions converts a piece of (essentially) fertile land into desert-land or dryland.

Inefficient Use of Land Soil Pollution is when the top-most 'soil' layer of land is destroyed or

polluted. Land Conversion is the process whereby a piece of land is converted

from its indigenous form to a form used for either agriculture or infrastructure.

IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL LOCAL AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC, AESTHETIC, AND MEDICAL CONSEQUENCES OF AIR, LAND, AND WATER POLLUTION AND EVALUATE PROPOSED SOLUTIONS. Water pollution is contamination of water by

water pollutants that are allowed to enter water sources without first being treated to remove compounds that are dangerous to people and animals.

There are effects of water pollution that are devastating. Statistics show that 14,000 people die every day from harmful agents in the water. Contaminated water leads to stomach sickness and many people die from the sickness. Countries that have adequate facilities to filter water still struggle with water pollution

There are two types of water pollution. The first is point source pollution; this is where contaminants enter the water from a single source that can be located. The second of water pollution is from non-pointed sources, these are sources that do not come from one source but rather many sources working together. An example of this is from fertilized land. Water runoff collects come of the fertilizer from several different fields and the fertilizer finds its way into the water supply causing polluted water. Water pollution is a constant battle all around the world. Water treatment facilities work nonstop to provide good clean water for everyone to enjoy.

IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL LOCAL AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC, AESTHETIC, AND MEDICALCONSEQUENCES OF GLOBAL WARMING AND EVALUATE PROPOSED SOLUTIONS Greenhouse gases trap

heat in the atmosphere, which makes the Earth warmer. People are adding several types of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, which makes the Earth warmer. Carbon Dioxide is the main greenhouse gas

ANALYZE THE LOCAL AND GLOBAL CONSEQUENCES OF LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY. Biodiversity reflects the

number, variety and variability of living organisms. It includes diversity within species, between species, and among ecosystems.

Biodiversity loss has negative effects on several aspects of human well-being, such as food security, vulnerability to natural disasters, energy security, and access to clean water and raw materials. It also affects human health, social relations, and freedom of choice

CHARACTERIZE ECOSYSTEMS UNIQUE TO FLORIDA (I.E., TERRESTRIAL, MARINE, FRESHWATER) AND IDENTIFY INDICATOR SPECIES OF EACH. Marine ecosystems are a part of the largest

aquatic system on the planet, covering over 70% of the Earth's surface. The habitats that make up this vast system range from the productive nearshore regions to the barren ocean floor. Some examples of important marine ecosystems are:

Oceans Estuaries and Salt Marshes Coral Reefs and Other Tropical Communities

(Mangrove Forests) Coastal areas like Lagoons, Kelp and Seasgrass

Beds and Intertidal systems (rocky, sandy, and muddy shores)

CHARACTERIZE ECOSYSTEMS UNIQUE TO FLORIDA (I.E., TERRESTRIAL, MARINE, FRESHWATER) AND IDENTIFY INDICATOR SPECIES OF EACH. The Everglades is a major Florida ecosystem

with characteristics of both terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Everglades National Park (ENP) contains dry land areas: hardwood hammock

Here, hardwood (flowering) trees grow in dense profusion, sheltering smaller shrubs and other plants with their shade. Many are xeriphytic. Despite the great amount of water in the Everglades, the soil is porous, and quickly drains moisture.

Examples of plants: Gumbo limbo tree, Eastern Live Oak, Poisonwood, Cocoplum, Pigeon plum, pineland scrub

Here the dominant species is the Dade County Slash Pine (Pinus elliotii), but many other small, xeriphytes (i.e., plants adapted for dry habitats) live.

Examples of plants: Dade County Pine, Saw palmetto, many different xeriphytic shrubs and annuals. marsh - shallow, slow-moving water swamp - shallow, stagnant water that doesn't

move much

EVALUATE SUCCESSION IN COMMUNITIES. Succession is a process of

ecological change in which a series of natural communities are established and then replaced over time.

Primary succession takes place on an area that is originally completely empty of life. As an example, an area that has been covered by a flow of lava has, for a time, no life at all on it.

Secondary succession is far more common. It occurs in an area where life once existed but has then been destroyed.

BREAK TIME!!!

10. KNOWLEDGE OF EVOLUTIONARY MECHANISMS 8 %1. Compare evolution by natural selection with other

theories (e.g., Lamarck, Darwin).2. Analyze the classical species concept and its limitations.3. Compare systems of classification (e.g., classical

taxonomy, phenetics, cladistics).4. Apply a taxonomic key to a set of objects.5. Analyze variation within a species and its relationship to

changes along an environmental cline.6. Identify factors affecting speciation and evolution in

general (e.g., mutation, recombination, isolation, sexual reproduction and selection, genetic drift, plate tectonics and geographic distribution).

7. Evaluate the role of mutation, recombination, isolation, sexual reproduction and selection, genetic drift, and plate tectonics and geographic distribution on evolution.

10. KNOWLEDGE OF EVOLUTIONARY MECHANISMS 8 %8. Compare the concepts of punctuated equilibrium and

gradualism.9. Distinguish between examples of evidences for

evolutionary theory (e.g., biochemical, morphological, embryological, paleontological).

10. Analyze aspects of modern theories on the origin of life on Earth.

11. Recognize general evolutionary trends as they relate to major taxa.

12. Apply the Hardy-Weinberg formula and identify the assumptions upon which it is based.

COMPARE EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION WITH OTHER THEORIES (E.G., LAMARCK, DARWIN). In the hierarchial classificatory system of Linnaeus there is a tacit

acknowledgement of relatedness, for example, species belonging to one genus have more in common with each other than they do with species belonging to another genus. Cuvier, also a creationist, was a comparative morphologist (he described

the similarity/dissimilarity in anatomy of diverse animals). Cuvier founded the science of paleontology and described the differences

between the fossil flora and fauna in different strata of rock: he observed that the more recent strata had fossils that more closely resembled extant organisms.

Cuvier believed that the discontinuities between fossils in different strata were brought about by catastrophes such as floods which caused the extinction of many species living at a particular time. This interpretation of earth's history is termed catastrophism and was also held by many contemporary geologists.

By contrast, Hutton and subsequently Lyell held that geological processes are slow and subtle but that over prolonged periods of time (millions of years) these can lead to major changes; implicit in this viewpoint is an age for the earth radically different from the 6,000 years of the biblical creationists.

COMPARE EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION WITH OTHER THEORIES (E.G., LAMARCK, DARWIN). Other key influences on Darwin were Malthus who had

concluded that war and famine were inevitable as the human population grew more rapidly than available resources, and Lamarck who had proposed a theory of evolution based on a continuous process of gradual modification due to acquired characteristics.

Both Darwin and Wallace brought together a multitude of facts including the geographical distribution of organisms, comparative morphology of living organisms and their fossil precursors. They postulated that long-term environmental changes including movement of land masses and changes in climate could have served in the process of natural selection over many generations with the result that diverse species arose from ancestral types. Darwin termed this "descent with modification" (the term "evolution" was introduced later, as was the tautology "survival of the fittest"). Darwin's ideas can be summarized in his own words from The Origin of Species:

ANALYZE THE CLASSICAL SPECIES CONCEPT AND ITS LIMITATIONS. The biological species

concept defines a species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature, not according to similarity of appearance.

COMPARE SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION (E.G., CLASSICAL TAXONOMY, PHENETICS, CLADISTICS). The biological species

concept defines a species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature, not according to similarity of appearance.

COMPARE SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION (E.G., CLASSICAL TAXONOMY, PHENETICS, CLADISTICS). A phylogenetic tree or

evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities based upon similarities and differences in their physical and/or genetic characteristics. The taxa joined together in the tree are implied to have descended from a common ancestor.

COMPARE SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION (E.G., CLASSICAL TAXONOMY, PHENETICS, CLADISTICS). Cladistics is a method of

classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else). For example, birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and all descendants (living or extinct) of their most recent common ancestor form a clade. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life", a monophyletic group.

APPLY A TAXONOMIC KEY TO A SET OF OBJECTS.

ANALYZE VARIATION WITHIN A SPECIES AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CHANGES ALONGAN ENVIRONMENTAL CLINE

In biology, a cline possess or exhibit gradient, in which a series of biocommunities display a continuous gradient.

More technically, clines consist of ecotypes or forms of species that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. Genetically, clines result from the change of allele frequencies within the gene pool of the group of taxa in question

Thermocline - A cline based on difference in temperature,

Chemocline - A cline based on difference in water chemistry,

Halocline - A cline based on difference in water salinity,

Pycnocline - A cline based on difference in water density.

IDENTIFY FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIATION AND EVOLUTION IN GENERAL (E.G.,MUTATION, RECOMBINATION, ISOLATION, SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND SELECTION, GENETIC DRIFT, PLATE TECTONICS AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION).

There are many barriers to reproduction. Each species may have its own courtship displays, or breeding season, so that members of the two species do not have the opportunity to interbreed. Or, the two species may be unable to interbreed successfully because of failure of the egg to become fertilized or to develop.


Prezygotic isolating mechanisms Ecological isolation: Species occupy different habitats. The lion and tiger overlapped in India

until 150 years ago, but the lion lived in open grassland and the tiger in forest. Consequently, the two species did not hybridize in nature (although they sometimes do in zoos).

Temporal isolation: Species breed at different times. In North America, five frog species of the genus Rana differ in the time of their peak breeding activity.

Behavioral isolation: Species engage in distinct courtship and mating rituals (see Figure 1). Mechanical isolation: Interbreeding is prevented by structural or molecular blockage of the

formation of the zygote. Mechanisms include the inability of the sperm to bind to the egg in animals, or the female reproductive organ of a plant preventing the wrong pollinator from landing.


Postzygotic isolating mechanisms Postzygotic isolating mechanisms Hybrid inviability. Development of the zygote proceeds

abnormally and the hybrid is aborted. (For instance, the hybrid egg formed from the mating of a sheep and a goat will die early in development.)

Hybrid sterility. The hybrid is healthy but sterile. (The mule, the hybrid offspring of a donkey and a mare, is sterile; it is unable to produce viable gametes because the chromosomes inherited from its parents do not pair and cross over correctly during meiosis (cell division in which two sets of chromosomes of the parent cell are reduced to a single set in the products, termed gametes - see Figure).

Hybrid is healthy and fertile, but less fit, or infertility appears in later generations (as witnessed in laboratory crosses of fruit flies, where the offspring of second-generation hybrids are weak and usually cannot produce viable offspring).


A process in nature in which organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to succeeding generations


Genetic drift—along with natural selection, mutation, and migration—is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution.

In each generation, some individuals may, just by chance, leave behind a few more descendents (and genes, of course!) than other individuals. The genes of the next generation will be the genes of the “lucky” individuals, not necessarily the healthier or “better” individuals. That, in a nutshell, is genetic drift. It happens to ALL populations—there’s no avoiding the vagaries of chance.

Bottleneck Founders Effect


COMPARE THE CONCEPTS OF PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM AND GRADUALISM. Gradualism and

punctuated equilibrium are two ways in which the evolution of a species can occur. A species can evolve by only one of these, or by both. Scientists think that species with a shorter evolution evolved mostly by punctuated equilibrium, and those with a longer evolution evolved mostly by gradualism.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EXAMPLES OF EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTIONARY THEORY (E.G., BIOCHEMICAL, MORPHOLOGICAL, EMBRYOLOGICAL, PALEONTOLOGICAL). omparison of the genetic sequence of organisms has

revealed that organisms that are phylogenetically close have a higher degree of sequence similarity than organisms that are phylogenetically distant. Further evidence for common descent comes from genetic detritus such as pseudogenes, regions of DNA that are orthologous to a gene in a related organism, but are no longer active and appear to be undergoing a steady process of degeneration.

Fossils are important for estimating when various lineages developed in geologic time

Further evidence comes from the field of biogeography because evolution with common descent provides the best and most thorough explanation for a variety of facts concerning the geographical distribution of plants and animals across the world. This is especially obvious in the field of island biogeography. Combined with the theory of plate tectonics common descent provides a way to combine facts about the current distribution of species with evidence from the fossil record to provide a logically consistent explanation of how the distribution of living organisms has changed over time.

The development and spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria, like the spread of pesticide resistant forms of plants and insects provides evidence that evolution due to natural selection is an ongoing process in the natural world.

ANALYZE ASPECTS OF MODERN THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH. Miller and Urey experiment was an experiment that simulated

hypothetical conditions thought at the time to be present on the early Earth, and tested for the occurrence of chemical origins of life. Specifically, the experiment tested Alexander Oparin's and J. B. S. Haldane's hypothesis that conditions on the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions that synthesized organic compounds from inorganic precursors.

The endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids (e.g. chloroplasts), and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts. Mitochondria developed from proteobacteria and chloroplasts from cyanobacteria.

Soup" theory: The early Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere. This atmosphere, exposed to energy in various forms, produced simple organic compounds ("monomers"). These compounds accumulated in a "soup", which may have been concentrated at various locations (shorelines, oceanic vents etc.).By further transformation, more complex organic polymers – and ultimately life – developed in the soup.

RECOGNIZE GENERAL EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS AS THEY RELATE TO MAJOR TAXA.

APPLY THE HARDY-WEINBERG FORMULA AND IDENTIFY THE ASSUMPTIONS UPONWHICH IT IS BASED. The Hardy-Weinberg formulas allow scientists to determine

whether evolution has occurred. Any changes in the gene frequencies in the population over time can be detected. The law essentially states that if no evolution is occurring, then an equilibrium of allele frequencies will remain in effect in each succeeding generation of sexually reproducing individuals. In order for equilibrium to remain in effect (i.e. that no evolution is occurring) then the following five conditions must be met:

No mutations must occur so that new alleles do not enter the population.

No gene flow can occur (i.e. no migration of individuals into, or out of, the population).

Random mating must occur (i.e. individuals must pair by chance) The population must be large so that no genetic drift (random

chance) can cause the allele frequencies to change. No selection can occur so that certain alleles are not selected

for, or against.

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FTCE SAE Biology Preparation Course