FRONT COVER - NEC...The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 reveals that Bhutan continues to make significant progress in the field of environmental conservation. The philosophy of Gross

FRONT COVER

BHUTAN ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK

2008

National Environment Commission

Royal Government of Bhutan

Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008

Copyright © 2008 National Environment Commission Secretariat Royal Government of Bhutan Post Box 466 Thimphu www.nec.gov.bt Report design and layout: Norbu Samyul Consulting for Environment and Development & Thinley Namgyel Cover design and photographs: Thinley Namgyel Printed by: Phama Printers Acknowledgments The National Environment Commission Secretariat extends deep appreciation to all the line ministries and their agencies, private sector agencies, non-governmental organizations, and individuals within those organizations for contributing information and data for the preparation of this document. Special thanks go to all the individuals who have reviewed and commented on the drafts of this document. We are also immensely grateful to the United Nations Environment Programme and the Danida not only for their support to the preparation of this particular document but also for their continuous support to the environment programme in Bhutan in general. Finally, our sincere thanks go to all the people and institutions who have lent their photographs for use

On behalf of the National Environment Commission, I have the honour to dedicate the Bhutan Environ-ment Outlook to our great Monarchs on the occasion of celebration of hundred years of Monarchy in Bhutan, the enthronement of His Majesty the 5th Druk Gyalpo and the introduction of a Constitutional Democratic Monarchy in Bhutan. Our dedication emanates from the deep sense of respect for the role Their Majesties have played in shaping and guiding the development of the nation. This respect is shared by every Bhutanese, with pro-found sense of gratitude, as Their Majesties have always been a constant source of wisdom and inspira-tion for the Bhutanese people. Their Majesties have provided us with the philosophies and concepts that ensured the process of transformation of the country remained anchored in the values and beliefs that we as Bhutanese have held for centuries and which continue to give meaning and direction to our lives. Their Majesties have always been the source of vision for the Bhutanese people, emphasizing long-term interests of the country and people over short-term benefits. Among many other profound visions, Their Majesties have emphasized the importance of preserving our environment for the present and future generations of Bhutan. This consistent commitment to the preservation of the environment have culmi-nated in the decision of making it mandatory to maintain at least 60 percent of the country under forest cover for all times to come in the Constitution of Bhutan. Such decision will ensure that the Bhutanese people continue to live in the clean environment for perpetuity that several countries long for. The Bhutanese development philosophy of “Gross National Happiness” first propounded by His Maj-esty Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the 4th Druk Gyalpo, underscores that development cannot be pursued on the premise of only economic growth, but has to take place in conjunction with the emotional and spiritual well-being of the people. Environmental sustainability is an integral part of this distinctive de-velopment philosophy. We are also strongly committed to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations, one of which specifically pertains to ensuring environmental sustainability While the country has so far done extremely well in maintaining a fairly positive state of environment, environment conservation is becoming increasingly challenging as we open up to meet new develop-ment needs of a growing and modernizing population. The Bhutan Environment Outlook takes stock of the achievements made in the field of environment, the apparent gaps and constraints encountered, and recommends actions in our way forward in maintaining a pristine environment in the country. It will be a living document that will serve as a milestone for planning and guiding, and thereby ensure integration of environmental management needs in the development planning process. As the Chairman of the National Environment Commission and the Prime Minister of Bhutan, I take this opportunity to call upon the people of Bhutan, all officials of the Royal Government and development partners to work together in ensuring that development pursuits are within the limits of environmental sustainability. I would also like to commend the National Environment Commission Secretariat for its efforts in bringing out the Bhutan Environment Outlook at this most appropriate occasion in our history.

Kinzang Dorji (Chairman, National Environment Commission)

Prime Minister of Bhutan

Dedication

During the last decade, State of the Environment Reports (SOE) have been published in many countries to encourage the use of science in policy and decision making and to report to the citizens on the condi-tion of their environment. A major aim of SOE reports is to provide scientifically credible information and assessments that will guide the future environmental agenda of the country. Each SOE report pro-vides an easily understood overview of an important environmental issue for the non-scientist, examines the key trends of the issue, discusses links with other issues, and describes the efforts of government,

industry, and others to address the issue.

Bhutan published its first SOE report in 2001 with technical and financial assistance from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Brief SOE reports were presented to the National Assembly during its 82nd and 83rd sessions in 2004 and 2005 respectively. The National Assembly responded very positively to these reports and recommended the preparation and presentation of such reports annually. However, in keeping with global trends, it was resolved that SOE reports be prepared and tabled in par-liament every five years. The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 (BEO 2008) is the second comprehen-sive SOE for Bhutan aimed at contributing to greater public understanding of the state of Bhutan’s envi-

ronment and the steps needed to address urgent environmental issues and threats.

The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 reveals that Bhutan continues to make significant progress in the field of environmental conservation. The philosophy of Gross National Happiness (GNH) promul-gated by His Majesty King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth king of Bhutan, continues to guide all policy and decision making in the country. Under the reign of His Majesty King Jigme Gesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the fifth king of Bhutan, a GNH Commission has been established as the apex body for planning in Bhutan to ensure that GNH remains the cornerstone of Bhutan’s development philosophy. Since the first SOE in 2001, Bhutan has acceded to several multilateral environmental agreements/conventions; strengthened environmental legislation and framework; developed environmental codes of practices, standards and norms; promoted environmental awareness at all levels of Bhutanese society; and devolved environmental governance to the Dzongkhags and geogs through the formation of Dzongkhag Environment Committees. A significant milestone reflecting Bhutan’s commitment to environmental conservation and sustainable development is the inclusion of a separate Article on the environment in the Constitution of Bhutan. One of the provisions under Article V states “the Government shall ensure that, in order to conserve the country's natural resources and to prevent degradation of the fragile mountain ecosystem, a minimum of

sixty percent of Bhutan's total land shall be maintained under forest cover for all time”.

Although opportunities for poverty alleviation and environmental mainstreaming have been initiated through the formation of a GNH Commission, numerous challenges remain for the 10th Five Year Plan: policy implementation has to be able to keep pace with policy formation; enforcement of environmental standards and norms has to be strengthened; inter-agency coordination has to be improved; important policy and legislation, especially on pollution and solid waste management, needs to be drafted; finan-cial and human capacity in various agencies (especially the brown sector), the Dzongkhags and the geogs needs to be strengthened to make devolution of environmental governance more effective and meaningful; and critical gaps in information and data need to be filled to make assessments of environ-mental conditions more scientific and credible in future. Finally, a sustainable financing mechanism for the environmental sector needs to be put in place. The launch of the Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 is a dedication to 100 Years of Monarchy in Bhu-tan. The pristine state of Bhutan’s environment today is a result of their visionary leadership and com-mitment to the wellbeing of their people. We take this opportunity to reaffirm our commitment and dedication to the aspirations of our monarchs and the ideals enshrined in the constitution of Bhutan.

Foreword

I would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude and appreciation to all the ministries, agen-cies and individuals for their support and cooperation in helping us with this publication. I would like to commend the Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 team for their hard work and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and DANIDA for their continuous support for the Bhu-tan Environment Outlook 2008 project. Lastly, I hope that the information and assessments in the document will inform and stimulate debate to

advance Bhutan’s progress towards environmental sustainability.

Nado Rinchhen Deputy Minister of Environment

Among the ways that the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) fulfils its mandate to keep the state of the global environment under review is through the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) process. With global, regional, sub-regional, national and even city-level assessments, the GEO process provides scientifically credible and timely information for environmental policy development and man-agement. The GEO process is participatory and consultative, and features capacity building at its core, in line with the Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and Capacity Building, an agreed intergovernmental framework to strengthen capacity in developing countries and countries with economies in transition on a wide range of environmental issues. This report is one such output of UNEP’s capacity building pro-gramme with national institutions. The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 finds that Bhutan has 72 per cent forest coverage, and that 30 per cent of its land is designated as protected areas. Both statistics are significantly higher than the global average, and should benefit the country as it develops policies for sustainable development and adapting to climate change. The report confirms the impact of global warming, with hundreds of gla-ciers retreating at a rate of up 20 to 30 metres each year. This has potentially profound implications for water security and hydropower production, which represents the country’s largest source of revenue. The report also identifies an emerging need for effective policies and legislation on waste management and pollution control due to fast-growing urbanization, which will account for an estimated 31 per cent of Bhutan’s total population in 2005, up from 15 per cent a decade ago. The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 is being released on the occasion of the celebration of one hun-dred years of monarchy in Bhutan, the enthronement of His Majesty the 5th Druk Gyalpo, and the intro-duction of Constitutional Democratic Monarchy. I hope the report will provide a sound basis for policy making as Bhutan responds to the environmental and sustainable development challenges of the 21st century.

Message from the Executive Director

United Nations Environment Programme

Achim Steiner, United Nations Under Secretary General and Executive Director

United Nations Environment Programme

Table of Contents

Table of Contents i

List of Figures iii

List of Tables iv

Acronyms v

Glossary of Bhutanese Terms vii

Executive Summary 1

Chapter 1: Rationale, Background and Framework 7

Rationale 7

Background and Purpose 8

Relationship with Other Areas of Bhutan’s Environment Policy 9

Methodological Framework 10

Chapter 2: General Development Overview 11

Introduction 11

General Development Conditions and Trends 11

Chapter 3: Land Environment 20

Pressure 20

State 28

Response 30

Chapter 4: Water Environment 35

Pressure 35

State 37

Response 42

Chapter 5: Air Environment 46

Pressure 46

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Chapter 6: Biodiversity 56

Pressure 56

State 58

Response 61

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Gaps 64

General Conclusions 64

Major Developments since SoE 2001 64

Existing Gaps 69

Chapter 8: Recommendations

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Related to Land Environment

Related to Water Environment

Related to Air Environment

Related to Biodiversity

General Recommendations

Bibliography 79

Appendices

Appendix 1: BEO 2006 Indicators Framework 82

Appendix 2: BEO 2006 Preparation Team 84

Appendix 3: List of Participants at the BEO National Inception Workshop 85

Appendix 4: List of People Contacted for Information and Data 86

Appendix 5: Distribution List of the Draft BEO 2006 Report 88

Maps

Map 1: Population Overview by Dzongkhags 90

Map 2: Major Urban Centers 91

Map 3: Major Rivers of Bhutan 92

Map 4: Land Cover of Bhutan 93

Map 5: Forest Management Units 94

Map 6: Protected Areas and Biological Corridors of Bhutan 95

Response 51

State 49

ii

iii

List of Figures

Figure 1 Pressure-State-Response Linkage 10

Figure 2 Population Doubling Timeline at Different Growth Rates 11

Figure 3 Population Age Structure 12

Figure 4 GDP Share by Sector 15

Figure 5 GDP Growth in RNR Sector, 1995-2004 15

Figure 6 Sales from Major Hydropower Projects 16

Figure 7 Tourist Arrivals and Gross Earnings, 1995-2006 17

Figure 8 Number of Operational Industrial Licenses, 2006 19

Figure 9 Percentage of Agricultural Land on 50-100% and Higher Slope 20

Figure 10 Cattle and Yak Population, 1990-2005 21

Figure 11 Annual Wood Supply 22

Figure 12 Forest Fire Occurrence, 1999/00-2004/05 23

Figure 13 Regional Distribution of Forest Fire Affected Area, 1999/00-2004/05 23

Figure 14 Area of Agricultural Land Converted to Other Land Use, 1998-2007 24

Figure 15 Types of Forest Land Conversion by Percentage, 2001-05 25

Figure 16 Area of Forest Land Converted to Other Land Use, 2001-05 25

Figure 17 Production of Major Minerals, 2000-05 25

Figure 18 Length of Roads, 2001-07 26

Figure 19 Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Thimphu, 1994-2005 26

Figure 20 Reforestation in Bhutan 30

Figure 21 Community Forest in Bhutan 31

Figure 22 Consumptive Water Demand, 2002 and Projections 35

Figure 23 Pesticide Use, 1998/99-2004/05 36

Figure 24 Glacial Retreat in the Himalayas 36

Figure 25 Thimphu River Water Quality at Selected Locations, May 2007 39

Figure 26 Thimphu River Water Quality, 2006 39

Figure 27 River Sediment Content, 2000-05 40

Figure 28 Occurrence of Water-borne Diseases, 2003-06 40

Figure 29 Timeline of Past and Probable Glacial Lake Outburst Floods 42

Figure 30 Proportion of Households with Access to Improved Water Source and Sanitation 42

Figure 31 Growth in Vehicular Population, 2000-06 46

Figure 32 Future Vehicular Population Growth Scenarios at Different Rates 47

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Figure 33 PM10 Concentration in the Air of Thimphu, June 2004-May 2007 49

Figure 34 Occurrence of Respiratory Diseases, 2003-06 50

Figure 35 Occurrence of Respiratory Diseases Related Deaths, 2003-06 50

Figure 36 Electricity Consumption Trend, 1997/98-2004/05 51

Figure 37 Results of Vehicular Emission Test, 2006 (as of June) 52

Figure 38 Forest and Wildlife Offences, 1999-2003 56

Figure 39 Countries with Highest Protected Areas Coverage 63

List of Tables

Table 1 Population and Population Densities of Most and Least Populated Dzongkhags 12

Table 2 Major Urban Centers of Bhutan 13

Table 3 Prevalence and Incidence of Poverty in Bhutan 14

Table 4 Land Use and Cover by Percentage 28

Table 5 Land Management Campaign Interventions 32

Table 6 River Systems of Bhutan 37

Table 7 Industrial Discharge Standards 43

Table 8 Mining Discharge Standards 43

Table 9 Number of Vehicles by Type, 2005 46

Table 10 Energy Use by Household Percentage 51

Table 11 Vehicular Emission Standards 2004 53

Table 12 Vehicle Emission Standards 2007 53

Table 13 Industrial Emission Standards 53

Table 14 Major Forest Types of Bhutan 58

Table 15 Globally Threatened Species of Mammals and Birds Found in Bhutan 58

Table 16 Crop Diversity 60

Table 17 Livestock Diversity 60

Table 18 Totally Protected Species of Bhutan and their Globally Threatened Status 61

Table 19 Protected Areas of Bhutan 62

Table 20 Accessions and Cultivars of Various Crops in the National Gene Bank 63

Acronyms

AAC Annual Allowable Cut

BEO Bhutan Environment Outlook

BhWP Bhutan Water Partnership

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CER Certified Emission Reduction

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CTEM Clean Technology and Environmental Management

Danida Danish International Development Agency

DGM Department of Geology and Mines

DoE Department of Energy

DoF Department of Forestry

DoR Department of Roads

EA Environment Assessment

EFRC Environment Friendly Road Construction

EIMS Environmental Information Management System

EUSPS Environment and Urban Sector Programme Support

EU European Union

FMU Forest Management Unit

FRDD Forest Resources Development Division

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEF Global Environment Facility

GHG Greenhouse Gas

GIS Geographic Information System

GLOF Glacial Lake Outburst Flood

GNH Gross National Happiness

ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development

IPM Integrated Pest Management

IUCN World Conservation Union

KWh Kilo Watt hour

LDC Least Developed Country

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LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MT Metric ton

MoEA Ministry of Economic Affairs

MoWHS Ministry of Works and Human Settlements

MW Megawatt

NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action

NBC National Biodiversity Centre

NEC National Environment Commission

NECS National Environment Commission Secretariat

NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development

NSDS National Sustainable Development Strategy

Nu. Ngultrum

OECD Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

PET Polyethylene terephthalate

PHCB Population and Housing Census of Bhutan

PM10 Particulate matter of 10 µm or less

PSR Pressure-State-Response

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

RNR Renewable Natural Resources

RSPN Royal Society for the Protection of Nature

RSTA Road Safety and Transport Authority

SEA Strategic Environment Assessment

SLMP Sustainable Land Management Project

SoE State of Environment

THP Tala Hydropower Project

UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

US-EPA United States—Environment Protection Agency

WHO World Health Organization

vi

Glossary of Bhutanese Terms

Chhuzhing Wetland cultivation

Dungkhag Sub-district

Dzongdag District Administrator

Dzongkhag District

Geog Administrative block made up of a few to several villages

Kamzhing Dryland cultivation

Lhengyel Zhungtshog Cabinet

Sokshing Woodlot for production of leaf litter

Tsamdo Grazing land

Tseri Slash and burn cultivation

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For the last two decades, Gross National Happiness—underscoring that development can-not be pursued on the premise of economic growth alone but has to take place in conjunction with the emotional and spiritual well-being of the people—has remained Bhutan’s overarching de-velopment philosophy. Needless to say, environ-mental sustainability is a cornerstone of this dis-tinctive development philosophy, which was first propounded by His Majesty King Jigme Singye Wangchuck. Furthermore, environmental sustain-ability is one of the Millennium Development Goals to which Bhutan is strongly committed as these goals reverberate the Bhutanese philosophy of Gross National Happiness. With a nature-dependent economy, a tradition and way of life that has been nurtured by nature, and a fragile mountain ecosystem which needs environmental stability, the importance of environmental conser-vation cannot be over-emphasized in the context of Bhutan. The country has done extremely well to enter the 21st century with a fairly positive state of the environment. This has been possible largely due to strong political commitment and far-sighted leadership, traditional values and a way of life that reveres nature, belated modern develop-ment, and the relatively small population size. However, environmental conservation is becom-ing increasingly challenging as we open up to meet new development needs of a growing and modernizing population. Up-to-date and quantita-tive assessment of our environmental conditions and trends is pivotal for monitoring our environ-mental performance and for informed and timely responses to the environment challenges. So, pri-marily, it is with this rationale that the Bhutan Environment Outlook (BEO) has been conceived. At the same time, the BEO helps us to contribute to our commitment to Agenda 21—a global framework for sustainable development adopted at the historic United Nations Conference on En-

vironment and Development in 1992 – which among other things advocates reporting of the state of the environment and related issues at the global, regional, sub-regional and national levels. Environment Outlook is the new term that the environmental community is using in place of what was previously called State of the Environment. The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 is therefore the second State of the Environ-ment report of the country; the first having been produced in 2001. It builds on the first State of the Environment report, using information from that report as a baseline but also adds new informa-tion, insights and aspects of environmental report-ing. It is essentially a product of review of exist-ing documents and consultations with various stakeholders and is based on the internationally accepted “pressure-state-response” model first developed for State of the Environment reporting by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development.

General Development Overview Before discussing the State of the Envi-ronment, this report provides an overview of gen-eral development conditions and trends that have an impact on the environment. These pertain to population, urbanization, poverty, and key eco-nomic development activities namely renewable natural resources management, hydropower pro-duction, tourism, and industrial development. The country has a population of 634,982 with a growth rate of 1.3% per annum and a popu-lation density of 16 people per km2 according to the Population and Housing Census of Bhutan 2005. Though the country’s population in general does not pose a serious problem at present, local-ized population pressure exists due to skewed geographic distribution. Another concern pertains to the age-wise distribution of our population.

Executive Summary

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Nearly 45 % of the population is under 20 years of age implying that the population growth rate is likely to increase in the near future as a result of the young age structure.

Urbanization is a serious concern as it is occurring at a very rapid pace. Urban population was estimated to be 31% of the country’s total population in 2005, compared to 15% about ten years ago. Net life-time rural-urban migration has been estimated at 91,778 according to the Popula-tion and Housing Census of Bhutan 2005. This implies that around 47 % of the urban population are people who have migrated from rural areas. This is indeed an extremely high rate and more so in a country such as Bhutan where the geologi-cally fragile mountainous ecosystem, rugged ter-rain and agrarian culture do not tone well with urbanization. What is even more alarming is that more than half of the urban population is concen-trated in just two towns – Thimphu and Phuent-sholing. Thimphu alone has more than 40% of the total urban population. While the country’s economic growth has been impressive, with Gross Domestic Prod-uct growth averaging 7% since 1980, there is still relatively high level of poverty. According to the Poverty Analysis Report 2004, an estimated 31.7% of the country’s population lived below the overall poverty line (established at Nu. 740.36 per month)1. Poverty is predominantly a rural phe-nomenon with more than 97% of the country’s poor living in the rural areas. Poverty is more prevalent in remote in-accessible areas. Rural enterprises and income-generating activities based on the sustainable use of environmental resources can help poor communities to break away from the poverty cycle. On the other hand, impover-ished communities, if not provided with liveli-hood and income-generating opportunities, will be prone to engage in harmful activities such as wildlife poaching, that have adverse impacts on the environment. The country’s economy is basically driven by renewable natural resources sector, hy-dropower production, tourism, and industrial de-velopment.

The renewable natural resources sector, comprising of agriculture, livestock rearing and forestry, accounted for almost a quarter of the total Gross Domestic Product in 2005—making it the single largest sector contributing to the GDP. The 69% of the population living in the rural ar-eas primarily depend on this sector for subsistence and economic growth. However, unsustainable agricultural production practices such as tseri (slash-and-burn cultivation) with short fallow cycle and paddy cultivation on hill slopes with poor irrigation management have devastating im-pacts on land. Similarly, maintenance of livestock beyond the carrying capacity of available grazing land and excessive collection of forest products contribute to land degradation and depletion of biodiversity. This is due to the limited land hold-ing size of rural households and people are com-pelled to graze their cattle in the forest areas. Hydropower production is the biggest source of revenue for the country. In addition, hydropower is viewed as an essentially clean source of energy and a means of reducing the country’s dependence on traditional solid fuels, e.g. fuelwood and fossil fuel, which are much more environmentally damaging and expensive. The socio-economic and environmental benefits notwithstanding, hydropower development can impose some environmental and social costs. Construction of dams, power transmission and distribution lines, and associated infrastructure such as access roads have a bearing on land stabil-ity and biodiversity. Influx of non-native con-struction workers in massive numbers exposes the local population to acculturation and exerts addi-tional population pressure on the surrounding natural resources. Tourism is another important revenue-generating source. Bhutan has adopted a “high value” approach to tourism by means of high tar-iff structure and operational regulations. While we have been able to successfully avoid the hazards of tourism so far, the future path of tourism devel-opment will be environmentally challenging as the number of tourists continue to grow. Unregu-lated tourism can pose significant threat to Bhutan because of its highly fragile mountain ecosystem and inadequacy in tourism-related environmental management capacity in terms of trained guides and operators, and infrastructure such as proper

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1. At the time of sending this document to press, the 2007 Poverty Analysis Report was released and it showed that poverty incidence was down to 23.2% of the population.


camping sites and sanitation facilities. In addition, tourism may display opulence and materialism negatively influencing local culture and values. However, there are also ample opportunities for eco-tourism, adventure and nature tourism, if these are implemented in a proper manner. The concept of large-scale industrial development is in direct conflict with the coun-try’s policy of environmentally sustainable devel-opment, especially in view of the country’s fragile mountain ecosystem and limited usable land. Howsoever, demographic and biophysical factors inhibit the prospect of large-scale industrial devel-opment in Bhutan. Only a small fraction of the total industrial operations is large- or medium-scale and their number has grown only marginally in the recent years. The industries that have the most direct impact on environment pertain to ce-ment production, chemical processing, mining, wood processing and manufacturing, food proc-essing, steel rolling mills, ferro alloys, silicon and manganese production and automobile repair and maintenance.

State of the Environment This Report discusses the State of the Environment in terms of four key components: land, water, air and biodiversity. It describes the various pressures impacting the resources, the conditions of these resources and the responses taken by the government and the people to mini-mize harm to environment and human health.

Land Environment

Forests, occupying 72.5% (i.e. including scrub forest) of the total land, is the dominant land cover. Agriculture is the primary land use in the rural areas although only about 8% of the total land is under arable agriculture. Pastures account for nearly 4% of the total land. Usable land is severely limited due to rugged and mountainous terrain and vast areas of snow and rocks. The na-tional policy to maintain at least 60% forest cover for all times to come has also been highlighted as a constitutional requirement. Overgrazing, forest harvesting, forest fire, conversion of agriculture and forest lands for infrastructure development and urbanization, and

unsustainable agricultural production practices have led to land degradation in a number of places, especially in eastern and southern Bhutan. Furthermore, land degradation problems are com-pounded by the country’s inherently fragile geol-ogy and extreme climatic conditions characterized by heavy monsoon rains. In and around popula-tion centers, in particular Thimphu and Phuent-sholing, land resources are also being degenerated by accumulation and disposal of solid waste. To combat land degradation, the RGoB has been implementing reforestation and commu-nity forestry programmes regularly and has re-cently launched two major initiatives with exclu-sive focus on sustainable land management. One is the Land Management Campaign initiated in 2005 as a continuous programme of the Ministry of Agriculture to instill in people the awareness and understanding of various land management techniques for site-specific land degradation prob-lems using field demonstrations and broad-based participatory approach. The other is the Sustain-able Land Management Project initiated in 2006 with funding from the Global Environment Facil-ity with the objective to strengthen institutional and community capacity in terms of human re-source, policies, incentives, technologies and knowledge for anticipating and managing land degradation in the country. In addition, sustain-able forest harvesting is being pursued by creation of Forest Management Units which operate within the limits of annual allowable cut and without weakening the ecological value of the forest area. Mining is also being pursued in strict conformity with scientific mining practices. Solid waste man-agement exists in the form of collection of solid waste from residential and commercial areas by garbage trucks and disposal in landfills but the system at the present seriously lacks proper waste segregation and landfill management practices. The Department of Roads is promoting applica-tion of environment friendly road construction techniques and has produced detailed environ-mental codes of practice for road construction. Water Environment The country is blessed with enormous water resources as a result of the many glaciers and glacial lakes, vast forest cover and high pre-cipitation. Mean annual flow availability by far

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exceeds estimated consumptive demands. Despite a hugely positive water availability scenario at the macro level, localized water shortages occur in many places due to population growth, rugged terrain that make water tapping difficult, and poor maintenance of water tanks and distribution lines. In terms of quality, the natural water can be char-acterized as highly oxygenated, slightly alkaline with low conductivity and no recorded salinities. River sediment content in general is low. How-ever, there is water pollution problem in some areas due to frequent unsanitary conditions along banks of streams and rivers. This problem is exac-erbated in the urban centers, especially Thimphu and Phuentsholing, where surface drainage, grey water sullage from domestic households and un-controlled seepage or overflow from septic tanks and pipes enter into the water courses. Garbage disposal and defecation along water courses are also serious environmental concerns in and around population centers. Access to safe drinking water and im-proved sanitation has greatly improved over the years. 84% of the population had access to safe water supply in 2003 compared to 45% in 1990. Similarly, the proportion of population with ac-cess to improved sanitation had grown from 67% in 1990 to 92.6% in 2003. Sewerage system exists in Thimphu and Phuentsholing. Standards have been set to regulate industrial discharges into wa-ter courses and bodies and the Ministry of Eco-nomic Affairs and NECS is monitoring compli-ance with these standards. As in the case of indus-trial emission standards, new industrial project proposals require to include measures to adhere to the industrial discharge standards for securing environmental clearance. Air Environment

Emissions from vehicles, industries and domestic activities are the main causes of air pol-lution. Nonetheless, the quality of air in the coun-try is to a large extent still pristine. Analysis of recorded data of respirable particulate matter (PM10) in Thimphu over the last two years show a concentration of 20 µg/m3, which is significantly lower than standards set by the United States En-vironmental Protection Agency’s guideline (50 µg/m3) and the European Union’s guideline (40 µg/m3). PM10 concentration will be lower than

that of Thimphu in most other places because of smaller population, fewer vehicles, and less indus-trial activities. Exceptions can be industrial towns such as Pasakha and Gomtu and the commercial hub of Phuentsholing. In terms of responses to improve air quality, there is now a significant proportion of population using cleaner sources of energy such as electricity, liquefied petroleum gas and solar power as against the use of solid fuels, particu-larly fuelwood. The Population and Housing Cen-sus of Bhutan 2005 recorded that more than 56% of the households used electricity, liquefied petro-leum gas and solar power for cooking while nearly 60% used electricity and solar power for lighting. In comparison, about 37% of the house-holds used fuelwood for cooking and less than 3% for lighting. Vehicular emission standards have been introduced and vehicle emission testing is mandatory in principle, although full enforcement is yet to take place. Industrial emission standards have also been introduced and a mobile environ-mental monitoring unit is in place within the Min-istry of Economic Affairs for on-site inspection of emission levels. Furthermore, the Ministry has established Clean Technology and Environmental Management Fund (CTEM) to especially support industries that existed before the enactment of the Environmental Assessment Act 2000 to upgrade their equipment and switch over to cleaner tech-nology that meets the industrial emission stan-dards. So far, the CTEM Fund has aided five in-dustries on 50% cost-sharing basis. In the case of new industries, environmental clearance is man-datory and inclusion of measures to adhere to the requisite industrial emission standards in the pro-ject proposal is a key criterion for such clearance. Mass public transport system is limited to passen-ger bus services because of the small commuting population and mountainous terrain. As of 2007, there were a total of 7 groups of passenger trans-port service operators with a total fleet of 148 passenger buses according to figures maintained by the Road Safety and Transport Authority. Thimphu is the only urban center to have a city bus service. However, the benefits of the mass public transport system at present are more from the social standpoint than from environmental standpoint.

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Biological Diversity

The country’s wild biodiversity is out-standing with more than 5,600 species of vascu-lar plants, 600 species of birds and 190 species of mammals. 26 species of mammals and 14 species of birds found in Bhutan feature in the World Conservation Union’s Red List of Threatened Species. As a matter of fact, the country can be dubbed as a conservation jewel of the Eastern Himalayas, a region known to be one of the global biodiversity hotspots. Diversity of herpe-tofauna and invertebrates has not been researched adequately so far although preliminary surveys in some protected areas show signs of potentially very good diversity. The country’s crop and live-stock diversity is also quite impressive. Some 20 crop species and 10 livestock species are known to occur in the country. To illustrate the genetic diversity of some of the food crops: there are some 350 landraces of rice, 47 of maize, 24 of wheat, and 30 of barley. In livestock, there are four native breeds and 16 native sub-breeds of cattle, 12 native sub-breeds of yak, and 4 native breeds of horse. Wildlife poaching occurs covertly and is especially prevalent in the border areas and a few interior areas. The main species targeted for poaching are musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, Chinese caterpillar fungus Cordecyps sinensis,

Himalayan Black Bear Selenarctos thibetanus and the Royal Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris ben-

galensis. Poaching of other species is rare. Illicit cases of timber extraction and fuel wood collec-tion are common but most are of minor nature. A major issue concerning biodiversity is crop and livestock depredation by wildlife. Crop depreda-tion by wildlife is particularly rampant and wide-spread. Although stringent conservation law and religious sentiments prevent human-wildlife con-flict from going out of hand, retribution killing in the form of hunting, trapping and poisoning of predator species does occur now and then. Other pressures that impact biodiversity include expan-sion of urban areas into forested areas and con-struction of roads and power transmission grids especially when they cut through natural habitats and create wide corridors of barren space. In keeping with its rich biodiversity in the wild, Bhutan has set aside a sizeable portion

of the country as protected areas. The national protected area system covers altogether an area of 10,879 km2, which is 29.96% of the country’s total area. All the protected areas are linked by a comprehensive network of biological corridors to facilitate movement of wildlife and contiguity of habitats between various protected areas. These corridors make up 9.53% of the country’s area. Seven of the nine protected areas are operational at present. The remaining two protected areas—Torsa Strict Nature Reserve and Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary—are expected to become operational in the oncoming Tenth Five Year Plan. The For-est and Nature Conservation Act 1995 accords total protection to 30 species of wild animals and plants. The totally protected species list, how-ever, currently features only 2 bird species and 12 mammal species of the total 14 globally threatened bird species and 26 globally threat-ened mammal species that occur in the country. As regards conservation of crop and livestock biodiversity, the National Biodiversity Center has in place an Agro Biodiversity Conservation Pro-gramme for ex-situ and in-situ conservation of crop and livestock diversity in coordination with the Regional Renewable Natural Resources Re-search Centers and various national and regional livestock breeding farms. A National Gene Bank was established in 2005 and, as of May 2006, the Bank has been able to store a total of 408 acces-sions of 215 various cultivars belonging to 17 different crops.

Conclusions and Recommendations Currently, most of the environmental problems in the country are localized and gener-ally associated with high population density, ur-banization and industrialization. There are a few environmental problems which are more exten-sive in terms of geographic spread, e.g. forest fire, over-grazing, and crop and livestock depre-dation by wildlife. And then there are some envi-ronmental problems which may not necessarily emanate from within the country, for example air pollution and global warming. Such problems have to be essentially addressed through trans-boundary cooperation. Bhutan has continued to make headways in the field of environmental conservation. Since

5


the SoE 2001, the country has taken several sig-nificant steps. These include the incorporation of environmental conservation as a key article in the draft Constitution of the Kingdom, accession to several multi-lateral environmental agreements, strengthening of legislation and regulatory frame-work, development of environmental codes of practices, standards and norms, and devolution of environmental governance. But, at the same time, significant gaps still remain. Policy implementa-tion has not been able to keep pace with policy formulation. Enforcement of environmental stan-dards and norms is weak due to financial and hu-man resource constraints and weak inter-agency coordination. Some important policies and legisla-tions, for instance, pertaining to pollution and solid waste, are lacking. Dearth of information and data persists, making assessments of environ-mental conditions and trends difficult. To combat land degradation recommen-dations have been made for: formulation of inte-grated land use policy and legislation; develop-ment of land capability classification and land use and management guidelines; enactment of Graz-ing Act; development and implementation of sus-tainable land management techniques; develop-ment and implementation of community-based forest fire management approaches; strengthening the implementation of environmental codes of practice for various infrastructure development activities; improvement of solid waste manage-ment system; promotion of the concept and prac-tices of reduction, reuse and recycling; and forest resources assessment to determine the nature and extent of deforestation, and forest cover by den-sity class. With regards to water environment, ma-jor recommendations include: establishment of water quality standards for domestic use; formula-tion of an integrated water resources management plan using a holistic perspective that takes into account the multiple uses and functions of water resources; strengthening of water quality monitor-ing and analysis capacity; introduction of waste

water treatment and sewerage management facili-ties in additional urban centers; and formulation and enactment of legislation and regulations per-taining to water pollution. Key recommendations with regards to air environment pertain to: improvement of mass public transport system, including possible intro-duction of electrical buses and cabs; full enforce-ment of vehicular emission standards; introduc-tion of fiscal instruments to deter vehicle acquisi-tion; establishment of regular ambient air quality monitoring and analysis system, including a “Pollution Watch” public reporting system; indus-trial environmental performance reporting; and enactment of a Clean Air Act. For biodiversity conservation, main rec-ommendations are: revision of the totally pro-tected species list, based on a set of national, re-gional and international criteria; development and implementation of human-wildlife conflict man-agement strategies using an integrated approach; operationalization of Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve; strengthening of the Agro Biodiversity Conservation Programme; and formulation of legislation for biosafety. General recommendations have been made for: introduction of integrated rural-urban planning to address the issues of rural-urban mi-gration and regionally imbalanced urban develop-ment; controlling further expansion of Thimphu and Phuentsholing urban centers and instead fo-cusing on developing other urban centers; devel-opment of human resources for environmental assessment and monitoring at dzongkhag level; and establishment of institutional mechanisms for implementation of strategic environmental assess-ment; establishment of sustainable financing mechanism for brown-sector related environ-mental mitigation activities; establishment of an environment information management system; creation of synergies between the three Rio Con-ventions and promoting and enforcing the polluter pays principle.

6


Rationale Bhutan is among the few countries in the world that has entered the 21st century with rela-tively little damage done to its environment. Con-servation ethics, underpinned by the traditional values and way of life that revere nature, have influenced the country’s approach to environment long before environmental conservation became a global concern. With a nature-dependent econ-omy, a tradition and way of life that has been nur-tured by nature, and a fragile mountain ecosystem which needs environmental stability, the impor-tance of environmental conservation cannot be over-emphasized in the context of our country. The overarching Bhutanese development philosophy of “Gross National Happi-ness” (GNH), first propounded by His Majesty King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, underscores that development cannot be pursued on the premise of economic growth alone but has to take place in conjunction with the emotional and spiritual well-

being of the people. Environmental sustainability is very much an integral part of this distinctive development philosophy (see box). Furthermore, at the outset of the new millennium, Bhutan, like all other member states of the United Nations, adopted the UN Millennium Declaration which embodies eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Bhutan is strongly committed to the MDGs, one of which specifically pertains to en-suring environmental sustainability, as these goals reverberate the Bhutanese philosophy of GNH. The achievement of the MDGs will strengthen our foothold on the path of GNH. The country’s environment bears im-mense regional and global significance. Well-preserved watersheds in the country benefit not only the Bhutanese but also the many downstream communities in neighboring India and Bangla-desh. In addition, the country is a conservation centerpiece of the Eastern Himalayas, a region recognized as one of the global biodiversity hot-spots. The country’s vast and contiguous tracts of

Chapter 1 Rationale, Background and Framework

Gross National Happiness—A Distinctive Development Philosophy Gross National Happiness (GNH) is an attempt to define quality of life in more holistic and psychological terms than Gross Na-tional Product. The term coined by His Majesty King Jigme Singye Wangchuck serves as a unifying philosophy for development planning and management. While conventional development models stress economic growth as the ultimate objective, the concept of GNH is based on the premise that true development of human society takes place when material, spiritual and emotional well-being occur side by side to complement and reinforce each other. In the sphere of public policy, the GNH phi-losophy is to operate on the following four main pillars:

Equitable socio-economic development, ensuring equity between individuals and communities as well as regions to promote social harmony, stability and unity and to contribute to development of a just and compassionate society.

Conservation of the environment, ensuring development pursuits are within the limits of environmental sustainability

and are carried out without impairing the biological productivity and diversity of the natural environment.

Preservation and promotion of culture, instilling appreciation of the cultural heritage and preserving spiritual and emotional values that contribute to happiness and cushion the people from the negative impacts of modernization.

Promotion of good governance, developing the country’s institutions, human resources and systems of governance and

enlarging opportunities for people at all levels to fully participate and effectively make development choices that are true to the circumstances and needs of their families, communities and the nation as a whole.

To take forward the philosophy of GNH, Bhutan has designed its vision document Bhutan 2020, providing development goals, objectives and priorities with a twenty-year perspective and outlining key principles to guide the development process.

7


sub-tropical and temperate forests, the alpine scrub, meadows and scree in the northern moun-tains, and the many rivers, lakes and marshlands harbor several species of wild fauna and flora which are known to be globally threatened. While the country has so far done ex-tremely well in maintaining a fairly positive state of environment in general, environmental conser-vation is becoming increasingly challenging as we open up to meet new development needs of a growing and modernizing population. Pollution of air and water, land degradation due to unsustain-able agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing, infra-structure development and mining, solid waste generation and disposal, and biodiversity loss due to conversion of forest habitats are the key chal-lenges that Bhutanese face today. Population growth and rapid urbanization have exacerbating effects on the existing challenges. From time to time, we need to assess various environmental conditions and trends of the country in relation to the past as well as with a future perspective. Up-to-date and quantitative assessment of the environmental conditions and trends is pivotal for monitoring our environmental performance and for informed and timely re-sponses to the environmental challenges within the broader context of sustainable development. So, primarily, it is with this rationale that the Bhu-tan Environment Outlook (BEO) has been con-ceived. At the same time, the BEO helps us to contribute to our commitment to Agenda 21 – a global framework for sustainable development adopted at the historic United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 – which among other things advocates reporting of the state of the environment and related issues. The environment outlook reports produced at the country level feed into the preparation of environ-ment outlook reports at the sub-regional, regional and global levels, thus linking environmental is-sues and responses across various geographic scales.

Background and Purpose Environment Outlook is the new term that the environmental community is using in place of what was previously called State of the Environment (SoE). SoE reporting has become an

important feature of environmental policy in most countries over the last 15 years or so. Bhutan first produced a SoE report in 2001 as a part of the United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) effort on Strengthening National Capa-bilities on Environment Assessment and Monitor-ing towards the Preparation of the Global State of the Environment Report in collaboration with the Norwegian Agency for Development (NORAD). The Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 is the second SoE of the country and has been prepared with national capacity unlike the SoE 2001 which was prepared with external consulting assistance. Financial support has come from UNEP and the Danida-supported Environment and Urban Sector Programme Support (EUSPS). It builds on the first SoE, using information from that report as a baseline but also adds new infor-mation, insights and aspects of environmental reporting. While the intent has been to provide a quantitative assessment, due to lack of data, at-tempts have been made to describe critical issues qualitatively. The assessment is based on the in-ternationally accepted “pressure-state-response” (PSR) model first developed for SoE reporting by the Organization of Economic Coop-eration and Development (OECD). The BEO 2008 is a product of consulta-tion with various stakeholders and analysis of existing data and information. Under the coordi-nation of the National Environment Commission Secretariat (NECS), a series of one-to-one consul-tations as well as stakeholder workshops were conducted. The drafts of the BEO 2008 document were circulated to individuals in various organiza-tions for review and comments in 2006 and 2007 before it was finalized and published. The key purposes of the BEO 2008 are to:

describe, analyze and present quantitative information to the extent possible on envi-ronmental conditions and trends, to aid decision-making by government agencies, private sector, non-governmental organiza-tions and other stakeholder agencies;

create better awareness and understanding

among the Bhutanese society in general of

8


the environmental challenges and response needs;

provide recommendations to address key

environmental challenges;

provide a baseline of indices that enables to monitor environment conditions and assess the performance of responses to improve environmental conditions over time;

conform to the requirement of Agenda 21

to create better information on environ-ment in the context of broader sustainable development agenda through environ-mental reporting.

In addition, it is hoped that the report will provide existing and potential international partners in the environment and related fields a better understanding of Bhutan’s environmental circumstances, efforts and performance, and fu-ture needs so that international cooperation can be enhanced.

The BEO will essentially be a living product, produced every five years preceding the formulation of the Five Year Development Plans. This will enable integration of environmental management needs in mainstream development planning process in an informed and proactive manner.

Relationship with Other Areas of Bhu-

tan’s Environment Policy

The BEO is only one part of the Royal Government of Bhutan’s (RGoB) approach to creating a conducive policy for environmental management. The BEO is particularly expected to link with the following environmental policy work:

The National Environment Strategy, which was first produced in 1998, is ex-pected to be updated and revised to reflect changing social, political and economic circumstances and concomitant environ-mental management needs. A strong possi-bility is to update and expand the National

Environment Strategy into a National Sus-

tainable Development Strategy (NSDS). The information generated by BEO 2008 would greatly aid formulation of the envi-ronment part of the NSDS;

The National Environment Commission is

in the process of developing and operation-alizing an Environmental Information

Management System (EIMS). The BEO 2008 will provide the baseline for setting up the EIMS using a set of indices that will enable monitoring of environmental condi-tions and trends. In return, subsequent edi-tions of the BEO will benefit from the EIMS in terms of ready information and data;

Bhutan 2020, the country’s vision docu-

ment, enshrines environmental sustainabil-ity as one of the pillars of “Gross National Happiness”. It sets environmental objec-tives and targets. The BEO will help gauge the country’s performance vis-à-vis these objectives and targets.

Apart from Bhutan 2020, environmental

objectives and targets have been also set through the Millennium Development

Goals (MDG) framework. National report-ing of progress against MDG targets for environment and related areas can rely on facts and figures presented through the BEO.

Bhutan’s international environmental pol-icy work has grown substantially over the last 10 years or so. It is a party to all the three Rio Conventions – the Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification – and some nine

other international environmental

agreements. These Conventions require the country to report on its environmental obligations from time to time. The BEO can provide information that aid national reporting to the various Conventions and agreements.

Five Year Plans are the main vehicle of

9


implementation of national development policies and objectives. The BEO will aid formulation of the environment sector pro-grammes and activities in the Five Year Plans, and also provide the basis for main-streaming relevant environmental manage-ment needs in the plans of various other sectors such as agriculture, forestry, trade and industry, energy, public works, and urban development.

Methodological Framework The most commonly applied framework for environmental reporting is the OECD’s “pressure-state-response” (PSR) model. The BEO 2008 has adopted this model with the intent to provide a coherent description of environmental conditions and trends. This simple model works on the premise that human activities exert ‘pressure’ on the envi-ronment. This causes the ‘state’ (or condition) of the environment to change. Society will then ‘respond’ to this change with policies that influ-ence human activities and which then directly affect the state of the environment, thus triggering a cyclic process . The model is explained graphi-cally in Figure 1. With the PSR model as the conceptual framework for the BEO 2008, a set of indicators to measure environmental pressures, the current state of environment, and responses to improve the environment was developed iteratively by the NECS through consultations with stakeholders over a period spanning more than a year. For the final time, the indicators were reviewed at the BEO 2008 national inception workshop on 27 and 28 April, 2006. The indicators were further re-fined as data collection and analysis work pro-

gressed. A national consultant was hired to col-lect, analyze and consolidate data as per the agreed indicators and, consequently, prepare the BEO 2008 document. Annex 1 provides the list of indicators used in this report. The draft of the BEO 2008 was circu-lated to all the participants of the national incep-tion workshop for comments. Based on these comments, a second draft of the report was pro-duced for presentation at a National Consultative Workshop held in December 2007. The BEO 2008 follows an “issue-based” approach as opposed to a “comprehensive” ap-proach as the latter attempts to address everything and, hence, demands collection and analysis of vast amounts of data. For a country such as Bhu-tan, where availability of data is a major con-straint and resources are limited to engage in a massive information gathering and analysis exer-cise, an issue-based reporting was deemed more suitable and realistic.

10

Pressure(Population growth,

pollution, resource

use, etc)

State(Land degradation,

air and water

quality, health and

sanitation, etc)

Response(Reforestation,

emission controls,

protected area

establishment, etc)

Influences environmental

conditions

Influ

ence

s ac

tions

to

chan

ge e

nviro

nmen

tal

cond

ition

s

Reduces/ increases

pressure

Figure 1: Pressure-State-Response Linkage


Introduction Bhutan made a late entry into moderniza-tion. The advent of the Five-Year Plan develop-ment concept and the construction of the first road in the 1960s marked the country’s entry into mod-ern development. While rapid socio-economic development has occurred since then, safeguards to the environment have been ensured through sound policies and stringent laws, and through the religious sentiments of the people. Small popula-tion size, subsistence based agrarian way of life and the rugged topography have also helped the country maintain a relatively intact state of envi-ronment. Things have, however, started to change of late. We today face a number of environmental challenges such as pollution, land degradation, conversion of forest and agricultural lands for infrastructure development and urbanization, solid waste generation and so on as a consequence of a growing and modernizing population with chang-ing lifestyle and development needs. This chapter outlines, and succinctly discusses, what are generally believed to be the key development conditions and trends that poten-tially impact the environment in general. These issues have emanated from the review of existing documents including the previous SoE Report, and from the discussions held at the BEO 2008 national inception workshop in April 2006.

It needs to be stressed that this is purely an introduction to development conditions and trends based on existing information and knowl-edge. It says little that is new. Nonetheless, it seeks to establish and update facts and figures to illustrate development conditions and trends that potentially impact our environment so that they can be objectively assessed from time to time using this report as a key reference. In the subse-quent chapters, there is a more elaborate discus-sion of the state of the environment in terms of four key components, i.e. land, water, air, and biodiversity.

General Development Conditions

and Trends

Population

The Population and Housing Census of Bhutan (PHCB) 2005 has estimated the country’s population at 634,982 with a growth rate of 1.3%

Figure 2: Population Doubling Timeline at Different Growth Rates

Current rate

3%

20752059204020292005

2% 1.3% 1%

Chapter 2 General Development Overview

11

Key Indicators

Population size:

634,982 (2005)

Population density:

16 people per km2 (2005)

Population growth rate:

1.3 percent per annum (2005)

Proportion of population below 20 years:

45 percent


per annum and a density of 16 people per km2. However, we have to remember that habitable area in our country is severely limited by the rug-ged and lofty terrain, snow, rocky areas and for-ests. When taking arable land and land with hu-man settlements as the denominator, our popula-tion density soars to nearly 200 people per km2! At the current rate of growth, our popula-tion would double by the year 2059. Figure 2 (previous page) illustrates population doubling time at different growth rates. Though the coun-try’s population in general does not pose a serious problem at the present, localized population pres-sure exists due to skewed population distribution. For instance, on one hand Gasa dzongkhag has a population of only 3,116 people at a density of less than one people per km2, on the other Thim-phu dzongkhag has a population of 98,676 people at a density of 51 people per km2 (Table 1).

Another concern pertains to the age-wise distribution of our population. As shown in Figure 3, the population-age structure of the country has a broad base with nearly 45% of the population being under 20 years of age. This implies that the population growth rate is likely to increase in the near future as a result of the young age structure. Bhutan 2020, the country’s vision document, has set targets for incremental reduction of popula-tion growth rate. These are reduction of the popu-lation growth rate to 2.08% per annum by 2002, 1.63% per annum by 2007, and 1.31% per annum by 2012. While our population growth rate is al-

Crowd at Thimphu Tshechu. The Bhutanese population is currently growing at a moderate rate of 1.3 percent per annum. (Photo © Ugen P. Norbu)

Dzongkhag Population % of the total popula-tion

Population density (people/km2)

Most populated dzongkhags

Thimphu 98,676 15.5 51

Chhukha 74,387 11.7 41

Samtse 60,100 9.5 38

Gasa 3,116 0.5 0.7

Lhuentse 15,395 2.4 5

Bumthang 16,116 2.5 6

Least populated dzongkhags

Table 1: Population and Population Densities of Most and Least Populated Dzongkhags

Figure 3: Population Age Structure

Source: PHCB 2005

0 5 10 15

0-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70-74

75+

Age g

roup

Percentage of population

Male

Female

Source: PHCB 2005

12


-ready what we had targeted to achieve by 2012, increase in the population growth rate in the near future due to the young age structure and skewed population distribution pose major challenges to sustainable development.

Urbanization

There are 61 towns with a total popula-tion of 196,111, accounting for 31% of the coun-try’s total population, according to PHCB 2005. During the Eighth Five-Year Plan (July 1997-June 2002), the urban population was estimated to be only 15% of the country’s total and at the onset of the Ninth Five Year Plan (July 2002-June 2007) it was estimated at 21%. From these figures, it is very much evident that urbanization has taken place at an alarmingly rapid pace over the last ten years or so. The drudgery of rural life, inadequate development infrastructure and facilities in the

rural areas, and the perception of better economic prospects in the urban areas have led many people to the towns. Net life-time rural-urban migration has been estimated at 91,778 according to PHCB 2005. This implies that nearly 47% of the urban population are people who have migrated from rural areas. This is indeed an extremely high rate and more so in a country such as Bhutan where the geologically fragile mountainous ecosystem, rugged terrain and agrarian culture do not tone well with urbanization. What is even more disconcerting is that more than half of the urban population is concen-trated in just two towns – Thimphu and Phuent-sholing. Thimphu alone has more than 40% of the

Urban Center Population % of the Total Urban Population

% of the Coun-try’s Total Population

Thimphu 79,185 40.4 12.5

Phuentsholing 20,537 10.5 3.2

Gelephug 9,199 4.7 1.4

Wangdue 6,714 3.4 1.1

Samdrup Jongkhar

5,952 3.0 0.9

Table 2: Major Urban Centers of Bhutan

Source: PHCB 2005

>>The main street of Thimphu. Thimphu is today the country’s largest urban center with more than 40 percent of the country’s urban population living in it. (Photo © Thinley Namgyel)

13

Key Indicators

Total urban population:

196,111 (2005)

Proportion of the total population living in urban areas:

31 percent (2005)

Net life-time rural-urban migrants:

91,778, i.e. about 47 percent of the existing urban population (2005)


total urban population while Phuentsholing has more than 10% (Table 2). Burgeoning urban population has created several environmental problems such as air and water pollution, water shortage, municipal waste generation, congestion of traffic and buildings, and land degradation. In order to accommodate surplus population and develop concomitant infrastructure, urban centers have consumed prime agricultural lands in the valleys and encroached on hill slopes which were once forested. In the smaller urban centers, the lack of proper infrastructure and facilities for drainage, sanitation and waste disposal will have cumulative adverse impacts on the environment. Furthermore, there is increased extraction of sand and stones from the river banks and roadsides, and harvesting of timber from adjacent forests to cater to the growing construction demands in the urban centers. Finally, rural-urban migration and the influx of expatriate workforce for construction work in the urban centers have spawned squatting populations in and around the urban centers, exac-erbating pollution and land degradation.

Poverty

Despite an impressive economic growth with Gross Domestic Product growth averaging 7% since 1980, there is relatively high level of poverty although abject poverty and destitution are virtually absent. The existing state of poverty can be mainly attributed to the country’s rugged and harsh terrain limiting infrastructure develop-ment and availability of land for economic activi-ties, shortage of labor and markets due to a small and scattered population, largely subsistence-based way of life in the rural areas, and nascency of the private sector. The Poverty Analysis Report 2004 pre-pared by the National Statistical Bureau on the basis of the Bhutan Living Standards Survey 2003

established the overall poverty line at Nu. 740.36 per month. As reflected in Table 3, the Report highlighted that:

An estimated 31.7% of the country’s popu-lation lived below the overall poverty line;

Poverty in the country is relatively a rural

phenomenon, with 38.3% of the rural population living below the national pov-erty line compared to 4.2% of the urban population;

Poverty incidence is the highest in the east-

ern region, followed by central region, while it is comparatively lower in the west-ern region.

Area of Occurence Headcount Ratio

Share of the Poor (%)

Bhutan 31.7

Urban 4.2 2.6

Rural 38.3 97.4

Region 3.4 1.1

Western Region 18.7 23.6

Central Region 29.5 24.2

Eastern Region 48.8 52.3

Table 3: Prevalence and Incidence of Poverty in Bhutan

Source: Poverty Analysis Report, National Statistical Bureau, 2004

>>Poor rural farmers selling their produce by the roadside, Lhuentse-Mongar junction. Poverty is predominantly a rural phenomenon with more than 97 percent of the country’s poor living in the rural areas. (Photo © Ugen P. Norbu)

14

Key Indicators

Overall national poverty line:

Nu. 740.36 per month (2003)

Proportion of the total population living below overall

poverty line:

31.7 percent (2003)


Figure 4: GDP Share by Sector, 2005

Source: Statistical Year Book of Bhutan, 2006

Figure 5: GDP Growth in RNR Sector, 1995-2005

Source: Statistical Year Book of Bhutan, 2006

>>Agricultural landscape, Tsirang. Rural communities primarily subsist on the renewable natural resources sector, which is made of crop agricul-ture, livestock rearing and forest use. (Photo © Ugen P. Norbu)

There is a strong connection between poverty and environment. Rural enterprises and income-generating activities based on the sustain-able use of environmental resources can help poor communities to break away from the poverty cy-cle. On the other hand, impoverished communities if not provided with livelihood and income-generating opportunities will be prone to engage in activities, e.g. wildlife poaching, that adversely impact the environment. Furthermore, environ-mental degradation generally translates into less food, income and time for people to engage in pro-ductive activities, consequently impoverishing local communities.

Economic Development

In terms of economy, Bhutan is consid-ered a least developed country. Its economy is one of the smallest in the world and hinges basically on four sectors, namely renewable natural resources, hydropower, tourism, and industry.

Renewable Natural Resources Sector

Bhutan is a predominantly agrarian soci-ety with 69% of the population living in rural ar-eas and subsisting on an integrated livelihood system of crop agriculture, livestock rearing and use of a wide range of forest products. Sustainable management of agricultural crops, livestock and forest resources, collectively known as renew-able natural resources (RNR), is therefore critical for rural economic development. The Gross Do-mestic Product (GDP) share of the RNR sector was 21% of the total GDP in 2004, making it the single largest sector contributing to the GDP (Figure 4). While the GDP share of the RNR sec-tor has diminished over the years, the GDP amount of the RNR sector has grown from Nu 3,161 mil-lion in 1995 to Nu. 8,256 million in 2005 (Figure 5).

15

Key Indicators

Proportion of the total population directly dependent on the

renewable natural resources sector:

69% (2005)

Gross Domestic Product share of the renewable natural

resources sector:

21% (2005)

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000 Forestry

Livestock production

Agriculture

Pr ivat e social an d

r ecr eat ion al ser vices

1%

Plus in dir ect t axes less

subsidies

5 %

Commun it y an d social

ser vices

13 %

Fin an cin g, r eal st at e an d

busin ess ser vices

8 %

Tr an spor t , st or age an d

commun icat ion s

9 %

Wholesale an d r et ail t r ade,

r est aur an t s an d hot els

8 %

Con st r uct ion

15 %

Elect r icit y

11%

Man uf act ur in g

7 %

Min in g an d Quar r yin g

2 %

Ren ewable Nat ur al

Resour ces

2 1%


Unsustainable agricultural production practices such as tseri (slash-and-burn cultivation) with short fallow cycle and paddy cultivation on slopes with poor irrigation management have dev-astating impacts on land. Similarly, maintenance of livestock beyond the carrying capacity of avail-able pasture land and excessive collection of for-est products contribute to land degradation and biodiversity loss. In addition, the high demand for timber and fuel wood, one of the highest in the world, poses serious threats to the country’s forest resources.

Hydropower Development

High precipitation, extensive forest cover and well-preserved watersheds have endowed the country with abundant hydropower resources. The Department of Energy has estimated the country’s hydropower potential at about 30,000 megawatts (MW). With the commissioning of Tala Hydroe-lectric Project (THP) installed hydropower capac-ity reached 1,488 MW. In the next 20 years, the country plans to develop additional hydropower projects with a target to enhance installed capacity to 10,000 MW. Several projects are expected to be implemented during the oncoming Tenth Five Year Plan (July 2008-June 2013). The Memoran-dum of Understanding for the 1,095 MW Punatsangchhu-I has already been signed between the Royal Government of Bhutan and the Govern-ment of India and pre-construction activities are already underway. Other projects expected to take off soon are the 670 MW Mangdechhu and the 992 MW Punatsangchhu-II. The 114 MW Da-gachu Hydropower project is also being promoted as a potential CDM project with Certified Emis-sions Reductions (CERs) benefits to be shared between India and Bhutan. Even before the commissioning of the mammoth THP, hydropower has been the biggest

source of revenue for the country. During the pe-riod from 2000 to 2005, hydropower sales from major hydropower projects, namely Chhukha, Kurichhu and Basochhu, totaled about Nu. 16,872 million. More than 90% of the earnings had come from export of hydropower to India (Figure 6). Apart from being the main driver of socio-economic development in the country, hy-dropower is viewed as an essentially clean source of energy and a means of reducing the country’s

>>Kurichhu Hydropower dam. Apart from being the main driver of socio-economic development in Bhutan, hydropower is viewed as an essentially clean source of energy. (Photo © Thinley Namgyel)

16

Figure 6: Sales from Major Hydropower Projects, 2000-2004

Source: Annual Report, Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan, 2005/06

Key Indicators

Estimated total hydropower potential:

30,000 MW

Installed hydropower capacity:

1488 MW (as of December 2007)

Total hydropower sale from major hydropower projects:

Nu. 16,872 million (2000-2005)

0.0

500.0

1,000.0

1,500.0

2,000.0

2,500.0

3,000.0

3,500.0

4,000.0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Export

Domestic sales


dependence on traditional solid fuels, e.g. fuel-wood and coal, which are much more environ-mentally damaging and expensive. Furthermore, as a major source of revenue hydropower devel-opment provides a strong economic rationale for environmental conservation as its sustenance de-pends on the sustainable management of the wa-tersheds. The socio-economic and environmental benefits notwithstanding, hydropower develop-ment also imposes environmental and social costs if proper care is not taken during implementation. Construction of dams, development of associated infrastructure such as access roads, and construc-tion of power transmission and distribution lines have a bearing on land stability and biodiversity. Influx of expatriate construction workers in mas-sive numbers makes the local population vulner-able to acculturation and exerts additional popula-tion pressure to the surrounding natural resources. Though it is impossible to totally avoid these costs, prudence and employment of necessary safeguards and mitigation measures can greatly reduce the adverse social and environmental im-pacts from hydropower development.

Tourism

Bhutan first opened the country to inter-national tourists in 1974. Apart from growing into a major revenue-generating industry, tourism has provided an impetus to the development of the service sector and the promotion of Bhutanese culture. The RGoB has adopted a “high value” approach to tourism development in the country through high tariff structure and strict operational regulations. So far, this approach to tourism has served well in terms of limiting negative environ-mental and social impacts. However,

with the gradual liberalization of tourism industry, better marketing and gradually improving infra-structure for accommodation and communica-tions, the number of tourist arrivals has been in-creasing each year. In 2006, there were 17,344 tourist arrivals and gross earning of US$ 23.9 million compared to 7,559 tourist arrivals and gross earning of US$ 10.5 million in 2000 and 4,765 tourist arrivals and gross earning of US$ 5.8 million in 1995 (Figure 7). Also of note is that the tourism sector has made a pronounced comeback following a dip after 11th September 2001. While we have been able to successfully avoid the hazards of tourism so far, the future path

>>Punakha Dzong. Tourism in Bhutan thrives on the exclusivity factor that comes from well-preserved cultural and natural heritage. (Photo © Karma L Rapten)

17

Figure 7: Tourist Arrivals and Gross Earnings, 1995-2006

Source: International Tourism Monitor Annual Report 2006, Bhutan, Department

of Tourism

Key Indicators

Average annual tourist arrival:

7,888 tourists (1995-2006)

Average annual earning from tourism:

US$ 9.8 million (1995-2006)

Peak annual tourist arrival:

17,344 tourists in 2006

Peak annual earning from tourism:

US$ 23.9 million in 2006

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

199519

9619

9719

9819

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0020

0120

0220

0320

0420

0520

06

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

Tourist Arrivals

Gross Earnings


of tourism development will be environmentally challenging as the number of tourists continue to grow. Unregulated tourism can pose significant threat to Bhutan because of its highly fragile mountain ecosystem and inadequacy in tourism-related environmental management capacity in terms of trained guides and operators as well as infrastructure such as proper camping sites, waste management system and sanitation facilities. In addition, tourism may display opulence and mate-rialism negatively influencing local culture and values. Other key concerns include the seasonality and skewed geographic spread of tourism. The International Monitor Tourism Annual Report 2006 for Bhutan show that the months of March, April, May, September, October, and November accounted for more than 80% of the total bed nights in 2006, with the peak months of April and October taking in 19.6% and 25% of the total bed nights respectively. As for geographic spread, bulk of the tourism occurs in the western dzongkhags of Paro, Thimphu, Punakha and

Wangduephodrang. In 2006, these dzongkhags collectively captured more than 81.8% of the total bed nights. Aside from the above dzongkhags, Bumthang and Trongsa in central Bhutan benefits from tourism with a share of 9.2% and 12% of the total bed nights in 2006. On the other hand, many dzongkhags in the southern and eastern regions virtually have no tourism. Given that Bhutan draws much of its “exclusivity” factor for tourism from the coun-try’s well-preserved culture and relatively un-spoilt natural landscapes, it is extremely essential that we take good care of these assets to accrue the benefits of tourism on a sustainable basis. Tourism and environmental conservation cannot be mutually exclusive; so, we have the challenge to harmonize tourism development and environ-mental conservation. Industrial Development

Industrial development is critical for employment generation and economic develop-ment. However, demographic and biophysical factors inhibit the prospect of further large-scale industrial development in Bhutan. Also, the con-cept of large-scale industrial development is in direct conflict with the country’s policy of envi-ronmentally sustainable development especially when bearing in mind the country’s fragile moun-tain ecosystem and limited usable land. The key environmental problems arising from industries are air pollution, water pollution, hazardous waste generation, and land degradation. The potential for future industrial devel-opment in the country lies in the development of a network of small-scale and cottage industries based on sustainable management of cultural and natural endowments, especially focusing on niche products such as hand-woven textiles using natu-ral dye and organically produced food and me-dicinal products.

18

>>Penden Cement Factory, Gomtu. Large-scale industrial development is limited in Bhutan due to demographic and biophysical constraints (Photo © Karma C Nyedrup)

Key Indicators

Number of operational industrial licenses: 9,743 (2006)

Proportion of operational industrial licenses belonging to

large-scale units: 1.5% (2006)

Proportion of operational industrial licenses belonging to

production and manufacturing sector: 8.5% (2006)


As of 2006, the Department of Industry had issued 14,730 industrial licenses – about 63% more than in 2000 when licenses issued numbered 9,016. However, a large percentage of the indus-trial licenses that have been issued do not actually materialize into industrial operations. In 2006, out of the total 14,730 licenses issued, 9,743 (i.e. about 66%) were operational. 97% of these opera-tional licenses belonged to cottage-scale enter-prises. In terms of type, more than 60% pertained to the service sector and about 29% were con-struction contracts. Only 8.5 percent were produc-tion and manufacturing industries (Figure 8).

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

Large scale Medium scale Small scale Cottage scale

Agro-based

Forest-based

Mineral-based

Other P&M industries

Automobile workshops

Other service industries

Construction contracts

Figure 8: Number of Operational Industrial Licenses

Source: Deptt. of Industry, Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2006

19


Chapter 3 Land Environment

Pressure

Unsustainable Agriculture

Agriculture is the primary occupation of the majority of the rural populace in the country. However, there are various instances of unsustain-able agricultural practices that are leading to land degradation. For instance, in Radhi geog, Trashi-gang, overgrazing by cattle, irrigation of increased

areas of agricultural land and inadequate manage-ment of irrigation water have increased the perco-lation of water into the subsoils and beneath. This has caused the weight of the soils and underlying rock, which is mainly phyllite, to increase and become slippery, and consequently reducing their strength to withstand sliding. Another example pertains to tseri, which is a dominant agricultural practice in several dzongkhags in the east and east-central parts of the country. Shortening of fallow cycles of tseri has triggered land degrada-tion in numerous places and when such practices occur on steep slopes the results are all the more devastating. Much of Bhutan’s terrain is steep and rugged with areas of gentle gradient limited to certain areas in the central valleys and southern foothills. As a consequence, farmers in many places have resorted to cultivating steep lands. Ongoing analysis of slope data derived from Geo-

0.00

0.50

1.00

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2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

Thim

phu

Paro

Ha

Chh

ukha

Samts

e

Punak

ha

Gas

a

Wan

gdue

Tsira

ng

Dag

ana

Bumth

ang

Trong

sa

Zhem

gang

Sarpa

ng

Lhue

ntse

Mon

gar

Trash

igan

g

T/yan

gtse

P/Gat

shel

S/Jon

gkha

r

Pe

rce

nt

of a

gri

cu

ltu

ral la

nd

50-100% slope

More than 100% slope

Figure 9: Percentage of Agricultural Land on 50-100% and Higher Slope

Source: Policy and Planning Division, MoA, 2006

20

Key Indicators

Proportion of agricultural land on slopes between 50-100%

(27.5-45O): 29.4%

Proportion of agricultural land on slopes greater than 100%

(>45O): 1.6%

Proportion of land under tseri (slash-and-burn cultivation):

2.2% (1997)


graphic Information System (GIS)-based digital elevation model by the Policy and Planning Divi-sion of the Ministry of Agriculture showed that 29.4% of agricultural cultivation occurred on lands between 50-100% (27-45o) slope and 1.6% on lands with more than 100% (45o) slope. From Figure 9 it can be deduced that dzongkhags with relatively more rugged terrain and higher rural population, for instance the eastern dzongkhags of Trashigang, Samdrup Jongkhar and Pema Gatshel have higher proportion of agricultural lands on steep slopes whereas the dzongkhags with rela-tively wider valleys and lower rural population, for instance the western dzongkhags of Thimphu, Paro, Punakha and Wangduephodrang, have rela-tively lower proportion of agricultural land on steep slopes. Furthermore, in dzongkhags such as Zhemgang and Pema Gatshel where tseri is a prominent practice, the proportion of agricultural land on steep slope is high. Agriculture on steep slope is inherently risky, and where such cultiva-tion is practiced without proper water and soil management measures, exacerbated land degrada-tion is the norm.

Livestock Rearing and Grazing

Livestock rearing is an important eco-nomic activity among the rural communities. Cat-tle are owned by almost all of the rural house-holds in the temperate and subtropical regions of the country. They are reared mainly for dairy products, meat, draught power and production of dung for use in farmyard manure. In the alpine and sub-alpine regions, the rural communities subsist largely on yak-herding. Yaks are reared for dairy products, meat and transportation of goods. According to the RNR Statistics 2005, compiled by the Ministry of Agriculture, there were 338,847 cattle and 45,538 yaks in 2005. The cattle and yak population has not changed much over the years (Figure 10). Cattle and yak population density based on total land area is 10 animals per km2. How-ever, effective density of cattle and yak popula-tion based on total area of pasture land is much higher. The Facts and Figures of RNR Sector 2005 show that there is 1,737 km2 of pasture land in the country. This translates to 221 animals (cattle and yak) per km2 of pasture land. Where livestock density is high, over-grazing is usually the phenomenon. Over-grazing of pastures and forests may lead to decline in land

>>Tseri at Nyimzhong, Zhemgang. Tseri with shortened fallow cycle and on steep slope is a major cause of land degradation. (Photo © DB Gurung)

21

Key Indicators

Cattle and yak population:

338,847 cattle and 45,538 yaks (2006)

Cattle and yak population density:

10 animals per km2

Figure 10: Cattle and Yak Population, 1990-2005

Source: RNR Statistics, MoA, 2006

Cat t le

Yak

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

1990 1995 2000 2003 2005


productivity and exacerbation of soil erosion. Grazing is usually on forest land because of the limited land holding size of rural households and unavailability of pasture land. While in general the impacts of grazing are said to be negative, it must be recognized that livestock rearing is inte-gral to rural livelihood and has evolved as a part of the rural culture in the country. Given the criti-cal role of livestock rearing in the rural economy and culture, it is important to recognize that graz-ing at low or moderate level and when managed well can have some environmental benefits such as dispersal of seeds aiding natural regeneration. It only becomes an environmental problem when it is excessive and lacks proper management.

Forest Harvesting

In order to cater to the demands for tim-ber and fuelwood of the Bhutanese population, logging operations have to be carried out. At the

present, the Department of Forestry and the Natu-ral Resources Development Corporation Limited are supplying 284,000 m3 of wood annually (Figure 11). Estimates from forest resource pro-duction assessment carried out by the Forest Re-sources Development Division in 2004 suggest that wood demand far exceeds the current supply situation. The estimated wood demand is about 769,000 m3 per year, by far exceeding the volume of current wood supply. This suggests that there is immense pressure on the forests to cater to surplus wood demand. Therefore, there is a concern of the potential of extraction of wood by ad hoc means

50,850

94,362

9,745

127,741

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

Commercial

timber

Rural

construction

timber

Poles and

posts

Fuelwood

Cu

bic

me

ter

Figure 11: Annual Wood Supply

Source: Forest Resources Development Division, Department of Forestry, 2004

>>Logs at Susuna, Chunzom-Haa road. Harvesting of timber from forests which are not under sustainable forest management system can result in forest degradation. (Photo © Ugen P Norbu)

22

>>A herd of yaks at Jangothang, Lingshi. Livestock rearing is an inte-gral part of the rural economy and culture but high livestock density has led to overgrazing in several parts of the country. (Photo © DB Gurung)

Key Indicators

Average annual wood supply from managed forests:

284,000 m3

Estimated annual wood demand:

769,000 m3


from forests which are not under sustainable man-agement system in order to meet the high demand. Extraction of wood from forests not under sus-tainable management system could lead to exces-sive extraction of timber causing forest degrada-tion and making the land vulnerable to soil and water erosion.

Forest Fire

Despite stringent legislation and public awareness programmes, forest fire has persisted as a major environmental problem. The Depart-ment of Forestry has recorded 476 incidents of forest fire, affecting more than 65,000 hectares of forest, between 1999/2000 and 2006/07. Figure 12 illustrates a down-ward trend in both the number of forest fire incidents and area burnt from 1999-2000 until 2003/04 before rising again in 2004/05, 2005/06 and 2006/07. Depending on the local site conditions, the negative impact of forest fires may be imme-diate or on a longer term. In steep areas the nega-tive impact may be immediate, especially if heavy rains follow forest fire. The rainwater washes away topsoil and ash, depriving the exposed area of nutrient to support natural regeneration. When

such a process recurs several times, a succession process is triggered whereby the site completely degenerates into a barren area. Some species such as Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) can withstand few forest fires. However, there is gradual degenera-tion of the site and obliteration of associate spe-cies rendering the site vulnerable to land degrada-tion and ecosystem change. Forest fire is most widespread and recurrent in the eastern region, which accounted for nearly half of the forest area burnt between 1999/00–2006/07 (Figure 13). This can be largely attributed to the prevalence of dry weather conditions, forests with high fuel load, and fire-dependent economic activities such as grazing and lemon-grass oil production in the eastern region1.

Figure 12: Forest Fire Occurrence, 1999/00-2006/07

Source: Social Forestry Division, Department of Forestry, 2007

Figure 13: Regional Distribution of Forest Fire Affected Area, 1999/00-2006/07


>>A Chirpine forest razed by forest fire, Eastern Bhutan. Nearly 400 incidents of forest fire have occurred, affecting more than 35,000 hectares of forest, between 1999/2000 and 2004/05. (Photo © Karma C Nyedrup)

23

Key Indicators

Average number of forest fire incidents in a year:

60 incidents (1999/2000-2006/07)

Average forest area affected by forest fires in a year:

8,186.85 hectares (1999/2000-2006/07)

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

0

20

40

60

80

100

120Area burnt

Incidents

E ast er n

49. 8%

E ast

Cent r a l

6. 3%

West

Cent r al

37. 1%West er n

6. 7%


Conversion of Agricultural and Forest

Lands

The Bhutanese population must make its living within fragile and inherently unstable eco-systems. Bhutan’s usable land resource is limited due to difficult and high mountain terrain, vast areas of snows and barren rocks, and large forest coverage which is mandated to be maintained at least at 60% in perpetuity. While 69% of the population depend primarily on agriculture, arable agriculture land is less than 8% mostly located in the mid-altitude valleys and adjacent hills, and in the southern foothills. This limited area has also to support other development activities of a popu-lation, which is currently growing at 1.3% each year. While conservation of the natural environ-ment is an overriding national priority, economic activities and support systems can only intensify or expand on steeper and less suitable terrain, where the inherently unstable geological condi-tions and climatic factors increase the land’s sus-ceptibility to degradation. Conversion of agricul-tural and forest lands are occurring each year to accommodate various development activities. These conversions often take place with very little

or no consideration of the land capability. Be-tween 1998 and 2007, about 161 hectares of prime agricultural land have been converted to other forms of land use (Figures 14). Conversion of forest land has been even more significant. Data compiled by the Depart-ment of Forestry show that more than 3,600 hec-tares of forest land have been cleared between 2003-2006 for various infrastructure development activities, with roads and power transmission lines alone accounting for more than 80% of the total area cleared (Figures 15 and 16).

Mining

As of October 2007, there were 60 mines and quarries operating on a total land area of 885.42 ha. The mines are located in just a few dzongkhags such as Samtse, which alone had 36% of the mines. Major minerals mined are dolomite, limestone, gypsum, coal, quartzite and talc and their production run into over a million thousand tons every year (Figure 17).

24

Key Indicators

Average area of agricultural land converted for

development purpose in a year:

16.123 hectares (1998-2007)

Average area of forest land converted for infrastructure

development in a year:

904.68 hectares (2003-06)

Key Indicators

Total number of mines:

60 (2007)

Total land area under mining operations:

885.42 hectares (2007)

Figure 14: Conversion of Agriculture Wetland, 1998-2007

Source: Policy and Planning Division, MoA, 2007

3.60 4.45 4.61 4.47

11.55

19.42

6.82

10.89

75.08

20.34

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Year

Source: RNR Sector Ninth Five Year Plan, MoA, 2002

>>Paro township. Much of the agricultural land conversion has occurred due to urban housing and townships. (Photo © Tshering Tashi)


Mining operations have direct physical impact on the landscape. Cutting of slopes and excavation works cause changes in slope that may lead to soil erosion, increased run-off, and expo-sure to potentially reactive natural materials. Dumping or piling of overburden materials can create artificial slopes of potentially hazardous materials. Abandoned mines, if not rehabilitated adequately, leave the landscape degraded and pose immense environmental risks. Mining in Bhutan is carried out mainly to meet the demands of domestic industries. Mining is done in a scien-tific manner and it is a requirement for all mines to prepare a mine feasibility report along with an environmental management plan before its opera-tion is approved.

Infrastructure Development

With modernization, the need for infra-structure development has also grown. Construc-tion of roads and electrification among other things have become necessary to realize socio-economic development objectives. The road net-work has increased from 3,215 km in 2001 to 4,349 km in 2007 (Figure 18). According to the Ninth Five Year Plan (2002-07), the Ministry of Works and Human Settlement (MoWHS) had

25

Key Indicators

Total length of roads: 4,349 km (2007)

Total length of hydropower transmission grids:

803 km (2007)

Total length of hydropower distribution lines:

6,254 km (2007)

Construction of government buildings, 19.7

%

Construction of power

transmission lines, 50.8%

Road construction, 2

9.5%

Figure 15: Types of Forest Land Conversion by Percentage, 2003-06

Source: Department of Forestry, MoA, 2007

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

Cons truction of government

buildings

Construction of power

transmission lines

Road construction

Ha

Figure 16: Area of Forest Land Converted to Other Land Use, 2003-06

Source: Department of Forestry, MoA, 2007

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

ThousandTons

Dolomites Limestone Gypsum Coal Quartzite Talc

Source: National Statistical Bureau, 2006

Figure 17: Production of Major Minerals, 2000-05


envisaged construction of 77 km of national high-way, 123 km of feeder roads and 32 km of bypass roads, widening of the 179 km Thimphu-Phuntsholing highway, 57 km Chunzom-Paro highway and realignment of 25 km of existing road. In addition, the MoA has planned to con-struct more than 1500 km of farm roads across the country to connect agricultural production areas to markets during the ongoing Plan period. In the Ninth Five Year Plan, power trans-mission grids have been planned for Tingtingbi-Trongsa/Bumthang line and Basochhu-Tsirang/Dagana-Gelephu line, and grid power supply ex-

tensions for Gasa dzongkhag headquarters, and for Bhangtar and Lamoizingkha dungkhag head-quarters. Furthermore, the rural electrification programme which has been targeted to cover 15,000 additional households across the 20 dzongkhags by the end of the Ninth Five Year Plan will entail construction of an extensive net-work of power distribution lines. Our rugged ter-rain and fragile geologic conditions make devel-opment of these infrastructure extremely environ-mentally challenging. Where adequate environ-mental safeguards and mitigation measures are not employed, development of these infrastructure almost inevitably cause problems such as slope instability, landslips, loss of vegetative cover, and sedimentation of water bodies.

Solid Waste Generation and Disposal

Solid waste generation and disposal have emerged as a major environmental problem par-ticularly in the urban areas in the recent times. Rapid urbanization, growing affluence, changing consumption patterns, low level of awareness and poor civic sense among the Bhutanese public are the key factors causing increased waste genera-tion. The solid waste problem is growing expo-nentially in Thimphu and Phuentsholing, the two

26

>>A feeder road in Narphung area, Samdrup Jongkhar. Where ade-quate environmental safeguards are not employed, construction of infra-structure such as roads inevitably cause problems such as slope instability and landslips. (Photo © Jigme)

8.0

22.0

36.7

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1994 2003 2005

metr

ic t

on

Figure 19: Daily Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Thimphu, 1994, 2003, 2005

Source: Royal Society for the Protection of Nature, 2005

Key Indicators

Daily solid waste generation (at landfill sites):

36.7 tonnes (Thimphu) and 24.7 tonnes (Phuentsholing) in 2005

Per capita solid waste generation (at landfill sites):

0.46 kg per day (Thimphu) and 1.2 kg per day (Phuentsholing)

Figure 18: Length of Roads, 2001-07

Source: Department of Roads, 2007

Nat i onal

hi ghway

Di s t r i ct

r oad

Feeder

r oad

Ur ban r oad

For est r oad

Far m r oad

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

2001 2003 2005 2007


largest urban centers in the country. According to a survey conducted by the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (RSPN) in August 2005, Thimphu and Phuentsholing accumulated 36.7 and 24.7 tons of municipal solid waste in a day respectively at the landfill sites. Consequently, current per capita solid waste accumulated at the landfill is estimated to be 0.46 kg per day or 168 kg per annum for Thimphu city and 1.2 kg per day or 438 kg per annum for Phuentsholing city. These estimations are based on the PHCB 2005 figures of 79,185 people in Thimphu urban area and 20,537 people in Phuentsholing urban area. The above mentioned municipal solid waste gen-eration figures are mind-boggling especially when considering that they do not take into account the volume of municipal solid waste that are not brought to the landfill sites. In Thimphu, solid waste generation has seen an increase of nearly 67% since 2003, when daily solid waste generation in the city was esti-mated to be 22 tonnes, and an increase of an as-tonishing 360% since 1994, when daily solid waste generation in the city was estimated to be 8 tons. This means daily solid waste generation had increased at the rate of about 8% each year be-tween 1994 and 2003 and then at an accelerated rate of over 33% between 2003 and 2005 (Figure 19). The generation of municipal solid waste has been so enormous that it has exceeded the capac-ity of the existing landfill at Memelakha well be-fore its expected life span. This is indeed a very alarming trend.

Apart from municipal solid waste, there is also the concern of health care waste and indus-trial solid waste. Data on industrial solid waste is currently not available. As for health care waste, the Health Care Waste Management Plan pro-duced by the Ministry of Health in 2004 provides an estimated figure of 73.2 tons of infectious waste per year. Electronic waste, in this day and age of television, computers, cell phones and vari-ous other electronic gadgets is also a major emerging concern.

Other Pressures Other pressures that contribute to land degradation include:

Population growth imposes fragmentation of agricultural land into smaller parcels, where investing in sustainable land man-agement is generally not economically viable. It also intensifies human use of limited land resources and exacerbates generation of solid waste. (Figures, trends and indicators related to population have been described on pages 11-13);

Urbanization has led to conversion of

agricultural and forest lands in order to accommodate growing urban population and accompanying infrastructure develop-ment needs. There is also increase in ex-traction of sand and stones from the river

27

>>Callously discarded soft drink bottles and tetra packs in Thimphu. Solid waste has become a key environmental problem in the urban areas. (Photo © David Lee)

>>A filled-up waste container in Thimphu. Insanitary storage and dis-posal of waste have serious consequences for human health. (Photo © David Lee)


banks and riversides, and harvesting of timber from adjacent forests to cater to the growing construction demands in the urban centers. (Figures, trends and indicators pertaining to urbanization have been de-scribed on pages 13-14).

State

Land Use and Cover

Forest is by far the most dominant land cover, with 72.5% (including 8.1% scrub forest) of the country under forest cover – one of the highest in the world. Almost all of the forests are natural, with plantation forest being just about 0.2%. The country’s forests are presently man-aged as government reserved forests and protected by the Forest and Nature Conservation Act 1995. The Bhutanese society, especially those living in the rural areas, is heavily forest-dependent. Many areas of forests extensively function as tsamdo (grazing land). People also maintain certain tracts of forest as sokshing, i.e. woodlot for production of leaf litter used in farmyard manure. These woodlots are usually made up of oak or pine trees. In addition, rural communities extract timber, fuelwood, roofing shingles, wooden poles and posts, and non-wood forest products from the forests. Broadleaf forests and mixed conifers are the main forest types. Other forest types include

fir, broadleaf with conifers, blue pine and chir pine forests. Agricultural land makes up only 7.7%, mostly located in the mid-altitude valleys and adjacent hills, and in the southern foothills. The main land uses for agriculture are kamzhing (dryland cultivation), chhuzhing (wetland cultiva-tion), and mixed cultivation. Kamzhing is either terraced or unterraced rainfed agricultural land. It is found throughout the country, mainly on moun-tain slopes. It is the most dominant agricultural land use type. Maize and potato are the main crops grown on kamzhing. Besides these crops, other annual crops such as mustard, buckwheat, turnips and vegetables are grown in the temperate areas. In the subtropical areas, millet is grown as a secondary crop. Tseri is a traditional slash-and-burn system of agriculture practiced on kamzhing. Tseri areas are cultivated on a rotational basis usually with an average fallow period of five to six years, with periods being shorter in the sub-tropical areas and longer in the temperate areas. The land is left fallow to allow regeneration of vegetative cover and soil nutrients. Common crops are maize, millet, wheat, barley, and buck-wheat. Other crops such as chilli, beans and leafy vegetables are grown as inter-crops. Since tseris

Land Use/ Cover % of the Total

Area

Forests 72.5

Pasture 3.9

Agriculture 7.7

Horticulture 0.1

Settlement 0.1

Others (snow/ glaciers, rock out-crops, water spreads, etc)

15.7

Table 4: Land Use and Cover by Percentage

Source: Atlas of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture, 1997

28

Key Indicators

Proportion of land under forest cover: 72.5%, including scrub forest (1997)

Proportion of land under agriculture: 7.7% (1997)

>>Fir forest in Thrumshingla National Park. Forest is by far the most dominant land cover, with 72.5 percent (including 8.1 percent scrub forest) of the country under forest cover. (Photo © Karma C Nyedrup)


are generally located inside or adjacent to forests, crop depredation by wildlife is high. Besides agri-cultural production, tseri areas function as grazing land during fallow period and as a major source of fuelwood during clearing of vegetation. Chhuz-

hing is irrigated, bench terraced paddy cultivation. While rice is the primary crop, other crops such as wheat, potatoes and vegetables are also grown as secondary crops in some places. In the subtropical areas, paddy can also be grown twice in a year. Chhuzhing is mainly found in the fertile valleys of Paro, Wangdue and Punakha. In other parts of the country such as Trashigang, Mongar, Lhuentse and Trongsa, chhuzhing is found scattered on steep slopes. In the southern foothills, it can be found in long and extensive stretches. Much of the northern part of the country is snow and glaciers, which account for 7.5% of the country’s land cover. Barren rocks cover 5% and pastures 3.9% of the country. Urban land use, according to 1997 land use and cover statistics, is negligible. It has, however, expanded rapidly in the recent years especially in Thimphu and Phuentsholing.

Degraded Land

The Forest Resources Development Di-vision (FRDD) has defined degraded forest as all forest area with less than 10% crown density in a contiguous area not less than a half hectare. This includes scrub forest and open scrubs whether natural or man-made. Using this definition, the FRDD has estimated total degraded forest area in the country at 32,356 ha, which is just a little over 1% of the total forest area. However, figures of degraded forest vary from source to source: the 1991 land use and cover figures for the Master Plan for Forestry Development give a figure of 231,600 ha of scrub forest; the 1997 land cover and area statistics in the Atlas of Bhutan give a figure of 325,800 ha of scrub forest; and the 2004 plantation master plan prepared by the Social Forestry Division reflects a

total of 95,430 ha of degraded forest. More re-cently in 2005, the Social Forestry Division using elevation criterion has determined total degraded forest at 77,211 ha. At the present, there are no data pertain-ing to degraded agricultural land and pasture land. Some data dating back to the early 1990s exist for area affected by land slides/soil erosion. These data give a total figure of 95,430 ha affected by land slides/ soil erosion.

Solid Waste

Over the last decade, solid waste genera-tion and disposal has grown into a major environ-mental problem especially in urban centers across the country. The enormity of the problem is most explicit in Thimphu and Phuentsholing. Existing solid waste management is basically limited to waste collection and disposal in landfills. Exacer-bated generation of solid waste fueled by urban

29

Key Indicators

Daily solid waste generation (at landfill sites):

36.7 MT (Thimphu) and 24.7 MT (Phuentsholing) in 2005

Per capita solid waste generation (at landfill sites):

0.46 kg per day (Thimphu) and 1.2 kg per day (Phuentsholing)

Key Indicator

Area of degraded forests: 32,356 hectares (2004)

>>Solid waste landfill at Memelakha, Thimphu. Exacerbated municipal solid waste generation and lack of proper waste management practices have resulted in the overfilling of the existing landfill well before its ex-pected life span. (Photo © David Lee)


population growth and wasteful consumption pat-tern, absence of waste segregation system, and lack of application of proper landfill management practices have resulted in the overfilling of the existing landfills. Improper on-land storage of solid waste renders the land unusable for other purposes, devalues adjacent lands and mars the visual of the landscape.

Response

Reforestation

Reforestation of degraded and barren forest land has been a longstanding programme of the Department of Forestry. In fact, the first forest plantation was created way back in 1947 before the Department of Forestry was even created. Since then, reforestation has been carried out on more than 20,000 ha. Reforestation has been a regular feature in all the Five Year Plans and has been carried out at the rate of about 2,500 ha per Five Year Plan (Figure 20).

Community Forestry

Community forestry programme was introduced in the country in the 1980s. The pri-mary objective was to promote establishment and management of forests through community par-ticipation in a way that that there is improvement in local forest conditions and at the same time greater socio-economic benefits to the local com-munities in terms of increased availability of tim-ber, fuelwood, fodder and non-wood forest prod-

ucts. However, it took several years to operation-alize the community forestry programme on the ground due to absence of appropriate legal frame-work and lack of capacity in terms of trained per-sonnel and extension guidelines. The first com-munity forest was established with the community of Dozam village in Drametsi geog, Mongar, in 1997. Since then, 30 more community forests collectively covering nearly 2,750 ha of forest land have been established across the country (Figure 21). In the tenth five year plan, the De-partment of Forests has plans to establish at least 300 community forestry sites in the country.

Sustainable Forest Management

In order to cater to the demand for wood without degrading forest resources and diminish-ing future forest productivity, the Department of Forestry has been planning and implementing forest harvesting operations based on the princi-ples of sustainability. All forest areas identified for harvesting have to first be inventoried to deter-mine growing stock, assess demand-supply situa-tion and identify ecological protection needs.

30

822 932

1,278

3,525

1,743

2,199

4,498

2,525

1,916

2,322

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

Bef

ore

FYP

1st F

YP

2nd

FYP

3rd

FYP

4th

FYP

5th

FYP

6th

FYP

7th

FYP

8th

FYP

9th

FYP (upt

o 20

05)

he

cta

res

Figure 20: Reforestation in Bhutan


Key Indicators

Total area reforested:

21,759 hectares (up to 2005)

Rate of reforestation:

2,500 hectares every Five-Year Plan period

Key Indicator

Total area under community forestry:

2,749 hectares (as of June 2006)

Total number of community forest units:

31 (as of June 2006)

Key Indicators

Number of operational forest management units:

16 (2007)

Forest area covered by operational forest management

units:

118,173 hectares (2007)

Number of forest managements under plan preparation

process:

2 (2007)


Based on the inventory, management plans are prepared for harvesting of these areas. Forest ar-eas with management plans are called “Forest Management Units” (FMUs). Each FMU is in principle required to operate within the limits of annual allowable cut (AAC) and without weaken-ing the ecological functions of the forest area. At the present, there are a total of 16 FMUs in operation. These FMUs cover altogether 118,173 ha of forest area. Another 2 FMUs, with a total forest area of 15,094 ha, are at various stages of inventory and management plan prepara-tion. The operational and planned FMUs collec-tively cover a total forest area of 133,267.77 ha. This figure is 4.6% of the total forest area and roughly 30% of the total forest area available for timber production. The Forest Resources Devel-opment Division prepare the management plans for FMUs, the Natural Resources Development Corporation Limited carry out the logging opera-tions in the FMUs, and the territorial forestry divi-sions oversee and monitor the activities in the FMUs to ensure compliance with the management plan. The practice of tseri has been phased out through a resolution by the National Assembly. However, there are a few places where the prac-tice still prevails. As per the Land Act of 2007, tseri is not considered as a land category and therefore, the practice will henceforth be discour-aged. In addition, under the provisions of the Land Act of 2007, grazing land is also national-ized and such land will be leased out by the gov-ernment to communities and individuals for use as grazing land.

Sustainable Land Management

Interventions

The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) launched the Land Management Campaign in July 2005 in response to the need to proactively ad-dress land degradation problems which had be-come increasingly visible and profound in terms of impacts on the local people and their liveli-hoods, especially in many parts of eastern Bhutan. The Campaign has been embarked upon as a con-tinuous programme to instill in people the aware-ness and understanding of various land manage-ment techniques based on site-specific land degra-dation problems. It focuses on on-the-ground demonstrations using a broad-based participatory approach bringing together local communities, dzongkhag staff as well as professionals from various disciplines. On-the-ground demonstration activities are supplemented by mass communica-tion programmes through television, press media and publication of brochures and booklets on sus-tainable land management. The Campaign – in its first year – estab-lished about 46.5 hectares of sustainable land management demonstration sites. Table 5 pro-vides an overview of the land degradation prob-lems at each location, key interventions that were implemented, and the size of the demonstration areas.

31

>>Gypsum mining in Khothakpa, Pema Gatshel. Mining in Bhutan is done as per strict scientific mining practices. (Photo © Karma C Nyedrup)

Key Indicator

Area of demonstration sites established by the Land Man-

agement Campaign: 46.5 hectares (2005)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

1997 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

(upto

June)

Are

a (

ha

)

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2

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6

7

8

9

10

No

. o

f co

mm

un

ity f

ore

st

un

its

Area (ha)

No. of community forest units


Figure 21: Community Forest in Bhutan


Another major initiative that the MoA has embarked on to combat land degradation is the Sustainable Land Management Project, which commenced in 2006 with funding from the Global Environment Facility under their Operational Pro-gramme 15. The project has been conceived with the development objective to strengthen institu-tional and community capacity in terms of human resource, policies, incentives, technologies and knowledge for anticipating and managing land degradation in the country. It aims to establish sustainable land management models in three pilot geogs, collectively encompassing a range of land degradation scenarios, and then validate and extend the approach and lessons to another six geogs. Concurrently, it seeks to enlist the lessons from the field to inform national legislation and policy pertaining to watershed management, up-land agriculture and livestock production, for-estry, urban planning and infrastructure develop-ment. In the mining sector, there is continuous efforts to enforce the provisions of the EA Act 2000 and the Mines and Minerals Management Act 1995, which require mining companies to prepare, among others, an environmental manage-

ment plan and a rehabilitation programme. All mines in the country follow strict scientific min-ing practices and those that do not follow the practice are penalized heavily. Ongoing efforts not only include monitoring and inspection by the Department of Geology and Mines and the Na-tional Environment Commission, but there has been several inspections by a joint team appointed by the Government of India and the Royal Gov-ernment of Bhutan.

Solid Waste Management

At the present, there is some form of solid waste management in 12 urban centers.

32

Locations Key Land Degradation Problems

Key Interventions Imple-mented

Size of Demon-stration Area (hectare)

Number of Test Farmers

Woongchilu, Nanong geog

Surface erosion (sheet and rills)

Hedgerows along contour lines 2.3 3

Cheya, Udzorong geog

Surface erosion (sheet and rills), land slides

Establishment of hedgerows, planting of soil-binding tree species in land slide threatened areas

4.5 7

Moshi, Lumang geog Surface erosion (sheet and rills), gully formation, land slides

Contour hedgerows, brush layering, edge trimming and vegetative propagation

4.5 1

Gongthung, Yangneer geog


Contour hedgerows, live stump planting along field edges, planting of soil-binding tree species

1.9 5

Tsangpo and Manung, Thrimshing geog

Gully formation and land slides

Construction of stone and log check dams

8.9 2

Tokshingmang, Phongme geog


Contour hedgerows, planting of soil-binding forest species

2.3 9

Munangkhola, Khaling geog

Surface erosion (sheet and rills), gully formation, land slides

Contour hedgerows, gully edge trimming, construction of stone and log check dams, headwater catch drains, physical terracing

20.2 23

Danglingjab, Bidung geog


Contour hedgerows, headwater catch drains, physical terrac-ing, planting of soil-binding forest species

1.9 7

Table 5: Land Management Campaign Interventions, 2005

Source: Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan, 2002

Key Indicator

Number of urban centers having some form of solid waste

management:: 12 (2005)

Proportion of households connected to sewerage system:

Thimphu—60% considering old urban boundary, 20-30%

considering new boundary. Phuentsholing—80% after

construction. 60% now.

Solid waste recycling (tons/year): Data not available


However, existing solid waste management prac-tices are generally rudimentary due to lack of fi-nancial resources, personnel and equipment. In Thimphu and Phuentsholing, the City Corpora-tions operate a fleet of trucks for collection of garbage from various locations at a frequency of two-three times a week from residential areas and on a daily basis (excepting Sunday) from com-mercial areas. There is currently no practice of segregating the waste at the collection point. This is the most glaring shortcoming in the existing solid waste management system. As a result, all sorts of waste land up in the landfill. Another ma-jor shortcoming is that the existing landfills are barely managed according to internationally ac-cepted landfill management principles and prac-tices. The landfills in the current state tend to function more like garbage dumps with basically no regular measures to control pollutant emission, leaching and scavenging. As the existing landfill in Thimphu has exceeded its capacity, a new land-fill site has been identified and the construction is impending after necessary feasibility studies, in-cluding environmental assessment, have been conducted. In terms of sewerage management, Thimphu city has a coverage of only 20-30% of the households. When the project was con-structed, the coverage was 60%, but with the ex-pansion of the urban boundary, the coverage has shrunk. Phuentsholing has a coverage of about 60% as of today, however, when the project was constructed, the coverage was 80% of the house-holds. In Thimphu, a composting plant has been built at Serbithang. The plant is scheduled to be-come operational shortly after ongoing electrifica-tion and water supply works have been com-pleted. Most of the green waste for composting is expected to come from the main vegetable mar-ket. The compost plant is expected to greatly re-duce the volume of waste going to the landfill. The erstwhile Bhutan Beverages Com-pany Limited and Bhutan Agro Industries in col-laboration with the Thimphu City Corporation and NEC have started a PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottle recycling unit at Thimphu. The existing capacity is, however, very small. The unit currently handles only about 800 kg of PET bottles on average each month. Key suppliers are

private scrap dealers, schools, hotels and interna-tional organizations. The MoWHS has drafted a national waste management strategy and action plan to combat waste management on a nation wide ba-sis. As a step towards curbing problems related to littering in Thimphu, the Thimphu Solid Waste Management Rules and Regulations 2007 has been adopted to promote sound environmental management in the capital city. In addition, the NECS is in the process of drafting the Solid Waste Management Act, as per resolution of the 87th Session of the National Assembly in 2007.

Environment Friendly Road

Construction

Considering the geologically fragile and rugged mountain terrain of the country, the De-partment of Roads (DoR) has adopted Environ-ment Friendly Road Construction (EFRC) as a key programme strategy for sustainable develop-ment of roads. To enable the implementation of EFRC, the DoR has prepared a comprehensive environmental codes of practice for road con-struction. Since the commencement of the ongo-ing Ninth Five Year Plan all road construction activities in principle are required to adopt envi-ronmentally sound techniques and conform to the

33

Key Indicator

Length of roads covered by Environment-friendly Road

Construction (EFRC) - Km: No data available on length of

roads covered by environment friendly construction tech-

niques

>>A road under construction in Zhemgang. Environmental Codes of Practice are required for road constructions in Bhutan.

(Photo © Thinley Namgyel)


environmental codes of practice. The EA Act 2000 and its regulations also required all kinds of roads to adopt environmentally friendly road construction techniques. However, implementa-tion of the same has not been satisfactory. Based on analysis of accumulated costs and benefits over a 30-year life span of a road, the DoR has deduced that although EFRC costs more than conventional road construction in the initial years it is far more economical in the long term especially due to low maintenance cost.

The implementation of EFRC has been, however, inhibited by budgetary constraints, lack of technical capacity among the contractors and the motive among some to maximize profits. The capacity of the DoR for technical backstopping and compliance monitoring of EFRC standards and norms is also deficient at the present.

________________________________________

1 Regionalization is based on the RNR research programme which divides the country into four regions: (a) Western region covering Chhukha, Haa, Paro, Samtse, and Thimphu dzongkhags; (b) West Central region covering Dagana, Gasa, Punakha, Tsirang, and Wangduephodrang dzongkhags; (c) East Central region covering Bumthang, Sarpang, Trongsa and Zhemgang dzongkhags; and (d) Eastern region covering Lhuentse, Mongar, Pema Gatshel, Samdrup Jongkhar, Trashi-gang, and Trashi Yangtse dzongkhags.

34


Chapter 4 Water Environment

Pressure

Water Consumption

Water users in Bhutan draw water from three distinctly different source groups: namely, the main stem rivers; tributary streams and rivers; and sub-surface water. At the present, the demand of water is for hydropower generation, municipal use, rural domestic use, irrigation, industrial use, and livestock rearing and production. The average water flow draining the country is estimated at 73,000 million m3 per annum and the per capita water availability is estimated at 100,000 m3

which is one of the highest in the world. A detailed water demand forecast exer-cise carried out by the Department of Energy with expertise from Norconsult for the preparation of Bhutan’s Water Resources Management Plan had estimated 422 million m3 of gross consumptive demand in 2002 and forecasted this demand to grow to 516 million m3 by 2012 and to 541 mil-lion m3 by 2022 (Figure 22). Based on 2002 estimates, our per capita consumptive water demand works out to about 665 m3 per year. In terms of consumptive de-mand, irrigation demand alone makes up for about 93% of the total demand. However, irrigation demand is expected to slow down and stagnate after 2012. On the other hand, municipal demand, which is 2.3% of the total demand as per 2002 estimate, is expected to grow to about 3.7% of the total by 2012 and nearly 7% by 2022.

Non-consumptive water demand exists in the form of hydropower demand. The hydropower demand has been estimated at 6,700 million m3 for 2002, and is forecasted to grow exponentially to 26,900 million m3 by 2022, keeping in view the upcoming and potential hydropower projects in the future. Water demand for other sectoral uses are also bound to increase due to the rapid pace of development and the changing lifestyles.

Water Pollution

Domestic sewage is the main source of water pollution. In addition, in places like Thim-phu and Phuentsholing where there are large num-bers of motor vehicles, improper disposal of waste oil and other vehicle effluents by automobile

Mu

nic

ipa

l D

em

an

d

Ru

ral D

em

an

d

Irri

gatio

n D

em

an

d

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ustr

ial D

em

an

d

Liv

esto

ck D

em

an

d

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

2002 2012 2022

mill

ion

m3

Figure 22: Consumptive Water Demand, 2002 and Projections

Source: Water Resources Management Plan, Department of Energy, 2003

35

Key Indicators

Gross consumptive water demand:

422 million m3 (2002 estimate)

Per capita consumptive water demand:

665 m3 (2002 estimate)

Key Indicators

Volume of domestic sewage discharge into water courses:

Data not available

Volume of industrial effluent discharge into water courses:

Data not available Pesticide use 1,451,800 kg or equivalent liters (2004/05)


workshops remains a major environmental con-cern considering that most of the workshops are located by the riverside. In 2005, there were alto-gether 133 automobile workshops in the country, of which 67 were located in Thimphu region and ten in Phuentsholing region as per figures avail-able from the MoEA. There is, however, a dearth of data on domestic sewage and industrial efflu-ents at the present. Pesticides and herbicides are also poten-tial source of water pollution. Pesticide ingredi-ents can enter into the water courses through sur-face run-off as well as percolation into ground water table. Although the use of pesticides in the

country is moderate and regulated, overall pesti-

cide and herbicide use has in fact increased over the years. From 1998/99 to 2004/05, pesticide and

herbicide use has grown by more than double from 125,311 to 280,995 kg or equivalent liters. However, around 94% of the total volume of pes-ticides and herbicides used in the country have no acute hazard as per the toxicity classification of the World Health Organization (WHO). The use of extremely hazardous (Class Ia) and highly haz-ardous (Class Ib) pesticides is negligible, just about one-fiftieth of the total volume of pesticides distributed between 1998/99-2004/05. Figure 23 shows the trend of pesticide use in the country.

Global Warming and Glacial Retreat

It is widely believed that the concentra-tion of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is causing global warming and climate change worldwide. One of the most direct impacts of global warming has been on glaciers and glacial lakes, which constitute a major source of water in Bhutan. The Bhutan Himalayas is known to have some 677 glaciers and 2,674 glacial lakes accord-ing to the Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Bhutan pre-pared by a team of Bhutanese and foreign experts in 2001. These glaciers are reportedly retreating at an alarming rate due to global warming. Some glaciers in Bhutan were retreating by about 20-30 meters each year according to the inventory. This

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05

kg

or

eq

uiv

ale

nt

l

Not WHO classified

Non-toxic

No acute hazard

Class III - slightly hazardous

Class II - moderately hazardous

Class Ib - highly hazardous

Class Ia - extremely hazardous

Figure 23: Pesticide & herbicide use, 98/99-2004/05

Source: National Plant Protection Center and Druk Seed Corporation, MoA, 2005

Bhutan

Himalayas

Mt

Everest

Region

Gangotri

Glacier,

Western

Himalayas

20-30 m/yr

10-20 m/yr

30-35 m/yr

Figure 24: Glacial Retreat in the Himalayas

Source: Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in

Bhutan, ICIMOD, 2001, and www.wikipedia.org

36

>>Washing of a car engine at an automobile workshop, Thimphu. Improper

disposal of waste oil and other vehicular effluents affect local water sources

(Photo@ G.Karma Chhopel) Key Indicator

Rate of glacial retreat:

20 – 30 meters per year (2001 estimate)


rate is comparable with the rate of retreat of gla-ciers in other parts of the Himalayas: for example, glaciers in the Mount Everest region were report-edly receding at the rate of about 10-20 meters per year, and the Gangotri Glacier in the Western Himalayas has been retreating at a rate of 30-35 meters per year since 1970 (Figure 24). Glacier melt in the immediate-term could contribute to increased water availability in rivers, but in the longer-term it could mean reduced flow in our rivers thereby posing serious implications on hy-dropower generation. (Also see box on page 38).

Other Pressures Other pressures that impact the state of water include:

Population growth exacerbates water

consumption and pollution. (Figures, trends and indicators related to population have been described on pages 11-13);

Urbanization is a trend which is closely

associated with pollution. Water courses that run through urban settlements are highly vulnerable to pollution due to higher density of people and wasteful con-sumption pattern. (Figures, trends and indi-cators pertaining to urbanization have been described on pages 13-14);

Solid waste generation and disposal con-

tribute to water pollution as a result of leaching of waste ingredients in to ground water table and by surface carriage into water courses. (Figures, trends and indica-tors pertaining to solid waste have been described on pages 26-27).

State

Water Availability

Bhutan is endowed with tremendous water resources. The climate of the country is dominated by the monsoon, which sweeps in from the Bay of Bengal during June, becomes intense during July and August, and finally peters out during September. The average annual rainfall ranges from nearly 4,000 mm at altitudes below 500 masl to less than 500 mm at altitudes above 4,000 masl. 85 to 90% of the rainfall takes place

River System Basin Area (km2)

Mean Annual Flow (m3/sec)

Amo Chhu Sub-basin 2,400 161 (at Dorokha bridge)

Wang Chhu Sub-basin 4,689 102 (at Chimakothi dam) 71 (at Tamchhu)

Samtse Area Multi-river

962 -

Punatsang Chhu Sub-basin

10,355 291 (at Wangdue Rapids) 411 (at Dubani) 538 (at Kerabani)

Gelegphu Area Multi-river

1,956 -

Mangde Chhu Sub-basin

4,095 68.4 (at Bjizam, Trongsa) 113 (at Refe) 148 (at Tingtibi)

Chamkhar Chhu Sub-basin

3,297 54.1 (at Kurje)

Kuri Chhu Sub-basin 4,000 297 (at Kurizampa)

Dangme Chhu Sub-basin

5,207 870 (at Panbang)

Samdrup Jongkhar Area Multi-river

2,279 -

Shinkhar-Lauri Multi-river

779 -

Table 6: River Systems of Bhutan

Source: Water Resources Management Plan, Department of Energy, 2003

>>Punatsang Chhu, the country’s largest river. High rainfall, well-preserved forests and the many glaciers and glacier lakes have given rise to numerous rivers throughout the country. (Photo © Ugen P. Norbu)

37

Key Indicators

Long-term mean annual flow of the entire country: 73,000 million m3 (2002 estimate)

Per capita mean annual flow availability: 109,000 m3 (2002 estimate)


in the summer half of the year, i.e. from April to September. High rainfall, well-preserved forests and the many glaciers and glacial lakes have given rise to many river systems. The river sys-tems, their basin area and mean annual flow are shown in Table 6. The per capita water availability of the country is among the highest in the world. Studies done by the Department of Energy with assistance from NorConsult for preparation of the Water Resources Management Plan highlight water availability in the following terms:

Long-term mean annual flow of the entire country is estimated to be 73,000 million m3;

Per capita mean annual flow availability is

estimated at 100,000 m3;

Per capita minimum flow availability is estimated at 20,000 m3.

While at the macro level water availabil-ity is hugely positive, localized water shortages occur in several places due to growing human population, difficult terrain constraining tapping of water sources, and poor maintenance of water storage and distribution facilities. Water supply adequacy analysis carried out in 28 urban centers in 2002 as a part of the preparation of the Water Resources Management Plan revealed water con-straint in 11 towns and predicted water constraint in another seven towns by 2013.

Water Quality

The NECS has conducted baseline water quality survey and monitoring along major rivers and tributaries since 1997. Based on this survey and monitoring, NECS has concluded that Bhu-tan’s water resources at the macro level is in a very good state. The data collected through the

Climate Change and Water in Bhutan

Climate change will be one of the major driv-ers of change on the state of the natural envi-ronment in Bhutan. The IPCC, in its Fourth Assessment Report warns that glaciers in the Himalayas are retreating “faster than in any part of the world” and “may even disappear by the year 2035”. Such dire trends are alarming. Due to rapid glacial melt, some of the glacial lakes are growing rapidly in size and increasing the risk of ‘glacial lake out-burst floods’. So far 25 such dangerous gla-cial lakes have been identified in Bhutan. Studies also predict an increase in summer flows in the rivers over the short run but a decrease in the long run. Such a scenario will be disastrous for the hydro-centric economy of Bhutan (presently 40% of national reve-nue). Under a warmer and more variable cli-mate, the onset of monsoons will be more erratic causing disruptions in natural and agri-cultural cycles, and Bhutan is already experi-encing increasing episodes of intense mon-soon rains resulting in flash floods and land-slides with loss of lives and damage to infra-structure. Water quality and diversity will also be af-fected with increased water temperatures where algal blooms can create problems for wastewater treatment. More intense rainfalls can also increase outbreaks of micro-organisms, sedimentation and pollution loads, and stress sewer systems. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2005 also predicts that species extinction due to climate change will be highest in aquatic ecosystems due to warmer waters and changes in seasonal flows and flooding. While Bhutan has one of the lowest emis-sions of greenhouse gases in the world, it will have to face such vulnerabilities and impacts of climate change. Adapting to these changes will be necessary but expensive, and Bhutan as a LDC is one of the least able to adapt to these changes.

38

Key Indicators

Available water quality data not quantifiable at a macro-

scale.

Water quality (dissolved oxygen –high; conductivity-low; turbidity-low; pH-moderate, river sediment load—low and biological indicator—good)


survey indicate that the main rivers and their ma-jor tributaries, with a few exceptions, are of pris-tine quality. The natural water quality can be characterized as highly oxygenated, slightly alka-line with low conductivity and no recorded salini-ties. However, there are localized water pollution problem due to frequent unsanitary conditions along banks of streams and rivers. This problem is exacerbated in the urban centers, especially Thim-phu and Phuentsholing, where surface drainage, grey water sullage from domestic households and

Figure 25: Thimphu River Water Quality at Selected Sites, May 2007

Source: NECS, 2007

>>Siltation along Drangme Chhu, which joins Kuri Chhu to the south. Intensive agriculture, forest degradation and construction of feeder roads in the upstream areas have led to increased river sedimentation. (Photo © National Soil Services Center)

39

Turbidity

pH

Conductivity

Coliform

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Dod

ena

Che

richh

u

Pangr

izam

pa

Lung

tenp

hu

Laka

zam

4 km

pow

erho

use

Chh

ukha

Va

lue

Figure 26: Thimphu River Water Quality, 2006

Source: NECS, 2007

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Dru

gyel, P

aro

Sat

sam

, Par

o

River

Dam

ming, P

aro

Isun

a, P

aro

Bon

dey, P

aro

Sha

ri, P

aro

Gye

nsa,

Haa

Dam

than

g, H

aa

Dum

cho,

Haa

Che

ri

Dec

henp

hu

Dec

henc

holin

g

Taba

Lanjop

hakh

a

Bab

esa

Chu

bach

hu

Thim

phu Tow

n

Cha

ngan

gkha

Swim

mingP

ool a

rea

Sem

tokh

a

Valu

es

pH DO Air Temp Water Temp


uncontrolled seepage or overflow from septic tanks and pipes enter into the water courses. Fig-ures 25 and 26 illustrate the water quality of Thimphu river. Both conductivity and turbidity are found to decrease downstream from Dodena. At locations downstream of Thimphu vegetable market, the coliform count is found to be higher by several times than upstream of the market. The coliform count, however, decreases as down-stream distances from Thimphu vegetable market increases. Use of aquatic insects as bio-indicators for assessing the ecological status of rivers and streams is widely accepted and and gaining in-creasing importance in the HKH region. The bio-assessment of rivers in Bhutan is being done for the first time with assistance from the EU under a project called the ASSESS-HKH (Assessment of Ecological Status of streams/rivers in Hindu Kush Himalayan region). A part of the project deals with the increase of knowledge on the biodiver-sity of benthic macro-invertebrates as this group serve as bio-indicators of the ecological quality. A list of taxa of macro-invertebrates is already being compiled at the NEC, the information of which correlates to the river water quality. One of the highlights during the course of the water monitoring exercise was the discov-ery of a relict species of dragon fly larvae, Epio-

phlebia laidlawi. The presence of this species indicates that the quality of water is pristine with no anthropogenic impact. This species was found in the headwaters of DreyChhu stream above

Dechencholing, Thimphu and in LamchelaChhu

stream in Chendebji, Trongsa. Various species of stoneflies which are also indicator of good quality of water were de-tected in several streams in Bhutan. At the end of the ASSESS-HKH Project, a preliminary list of mayflies, stoneflies and caddis flies will be com-piled. The Hydrology Section, Department of Energy, has been recording river sediment data at six locations along three major rivers, namely Punatsang Chhu, Kuri Chhu and Mangde Chhu. Analysis of the available data showed that river sediment load was generally low with the excep-tion of Kuri Chhu where data recorded at Kuri-zampa location showed relatively high sediment load (Figure 27). This can perhaps be attributed to intensive agricultural practices, forest degradation

40

Figure 27: River Sediment Load, 2000-2005

Source: Hydrology Unit, Department of Energy, 2006

Note: (1) Complete data for 2000 not available for Kurizampa

(2) Daga Chhu location not included in the graph since it had become operational

only in 2005 >> Epiophlebia laidlawi—a living fossil and indicator of pristine water quality -

found in Bhutan. ([email protected] Chhopel)

Figure 28: Occurrence of Water-borne Diseases, 2003-06

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Bjizam, Mangde

Chhu

Kurizampa, Kuri

Chhu

Sunkosh

Dubani,

Punatsang

Chhu

Wangdue

Rapid,

Punatsang

Chhu

Yebesa, Mo

Chhu

Ob

se

rve

d s

usp

en

de

d s

ed

ime

nt

loa

d (

ton

s p

er

km

2)

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Yearly Average

Source: Annual Health Bulletins, Ministry of Health, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

2003 2004 2005 2006

Chol er a T yphoi d Di ar r hea

Dysenter y Vi r al Hepatat i s Intest i nal Wor ms


as a result of over-grazing and excessive fuel-wood collection, and construction of feeder roads in the upstream areas of Kuri Chhu*.

Impact on Health

Consumption of contaminated water is a key cause of several diseases. Water-borne dis-eases such as diarrhea and dysentery are common in the country. During the period 2003-2006, there were more than 505,000 water-borne disease related referral cases and 71 deaths in accordance to the morbidity reports compiled by the Ministry of Health. Water-borne diseases accounted for about 15% of the total health referral cases and for 3% of the deaths caused by all diseases. As shown in Figure 28, the occurrence of water-borne diseases in general has declined excepting typhoid cases which have almost doubled from 1,491 cases in 2003 to 2,871 in 2006. The decline could be attributed to the efforts of the Rural Wa-ter Supply and Sanitation Programme whose ob-jective is to provide clean drinking water to rural households.

Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes

and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

Of the 2,794 lakes known to occur in Bhutan, 25 have been identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes. Nine of these are located in the Pho Chhu Sub-basin, seven in Mangde Chhu Sub-basin, five in Mo Chhu Sub-basin, three in Chamkhar Chhu Sub-basin, and one in

Kuri Chhu Sub-basin. Rapid accumulation of wa-ter in glacial lakes, particularly in those that are adjacent to receding glaciers, can lead to an abrupt rupture of the unstable moraine dam be-hind which they have formed. The resultant dis-charges of huge amounts of water and debris are known as Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF). In recent memory, GLOFs have taken place in Bhutan in 1957 and 1960 and most re-cently in 1994 (Figure 29). A common feature of these GLOFs is that they have all taken place in the Pho Chhu Sub Basin. There is virtually no written record of the 1957 and 1960 GLOFs. The 1994 GLOF, which occurred as a result of partial outburst of Lugge Tsho in eastern Lunana, caused extensive damages to public infrastructure and private properties such as farmlands and homes. Several human lives and livestock were also lost. The scale of the destruction caused by this GLOF raised public consciousness of the dan-gers of GLOF, catalyzing monitoring of glacial lakes and GLOF impact mitigation measures. Field assessments in the headwaters of the Pho Chhu Sub Basin by a team of experts from Bhu-tan’s Department of Geology and Mines and the Institute of Geology of the University of Vienna have predicted the probability of GLOF from

41

>>Melting ice gushing into a glacial lake, Lunana area. Rapid accumu-lation of water in glacial lakes increases the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Flood. (Photo © National Environment Commission)

Key Indicators

Number of potentially dangerous glacial lakes:

25 (2007)

Number of glacial lake outburst floods in recent history:

3 (1957, 1960 and 1994)

Key Indicators

Average annual number of water-borne disease related

hospital referral cases: 505,500 (2003-2006)

Average annual number of water-borne disease related

deaths: 71 (2003-2005)

* It should be noted that the Kuri Chhu is one of the few rivers that originates outside of Bhutan.


Thorthormi and Raphstreng Tsho in the headwa-ters of Pho Chhu Sub Basin in the next ten years or so. A worst case scenario is that of a combined GLOF from these two lakes, possibly resulting in a flow of over 53 million m3 of water – more than twice the volume discharged by the 1994 Lugge Tsho GLOF. The social, economic and environ-mental costs of GLOF of such magnitude will be colossal and can cause a huge setback to the coun-try’s development.

Response

Access to Improved Water Source and

Sanitation

Bhutan has made considerable headway in terms of improving access to safe drinking wa-ter and improved sanitation. According to the RGoB report on Millennium Development Goals in 2005, 84% of the population had access to im-proved water source in 2003 compared to 45% in 1990. Similarly, the proportion of population with access to improved sanitation had grown from 67% in 1990 to 92.6% in 2003 (Figure 30). How-

ever, efforts to further improve access and up-grade the quality of drinking water and sanitation facilities need to be sustained and expanded to cover more households and people. Spatial dis-parities still exist but attention is being given to close the disparities quickly.

Regulation of Chemical Pesticides and

Disposal of Obsolete Pesticides

Legislation to regulate the procurement and use of chemical pesticides is in place since 2000. The law called “The Pesticides Act of Bhu-tan 2000” has been enacted with the objective to:

42

1990

2000

2003

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Access to improved water source Access to improved sanitation

Perc

enta

ge o

f popula

tion

Figure 30: Proportion of Households with Access to Improved Water Source and Sanitation

Source: Millennium Development Goals Report, Department of Planning, 2005

Key Indicator

Volume of Obsolete Pesticides Disposed: 32.19 MT (disposed to Switzerland for safe disposal in 2004)

GLOF emanated from the headwaters of Pho Chhu Sub Basin in these two years. No written records.

This GLOF occurred due to partial outburst of Lugge Tsho in the headwaters of Pho Chhu Sub Basin. It brought the dangers of GLOF into public consciousness because of the extensive damages to public infrastructure and private properties such as farmlands and homes, and loss of several human lives and livestock.

Field assessments by the

DGM and the Institute of Geology, University of

Vienna, have predicted

probability of outburst of

Thorthormi and Raphstreng Tsho, yet again in the

headwaters of Pho Chhu Sub

Basin, in the next ten years or so.

19601957 1994 2015

?

Figure 29: Timeline of Past and Probable Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

Source: Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Bhutan, ICIMOD, 2001

Key Indicators

Proportion of population with access to improved water

source:

84 % (2004)

Proportion of population with access to improved sanita-

tion:

92.6 % (2004)


ensure that integrated pest management (IPM) is pursued, limiting the use of pesticides as the last resort; ensure that only appropriate types and quality of pesticides are introduced in the country; ensure that pesticides are effective when used as recommended; minimize deleterious effects on human health and the environment consequent to the application of pesticides; and enable privatiza-tion of sale of pesticides as and when required. The procurement and distribution of pes-ticides in Bhutan is well controlled through a cen-tralized system. Application of hazardous chemi-cals is not encouraged and prescribed only as a last resort when pest attacks reach economic threshold. IPM strategy is being pursued by agri-cultural extension agents and to facilitate the im-plementation of this strategy the National Plant Protection Center has produced a series of IPM extension guidelines covering some 40 pest prob-lems in agricultural crops. From the 1970s to the early 1990s, Bhu-tan had accumulated 32.19 MT of obsolete pesti-cides for use in the agriculture and health sectors. In 2004, through international cooperation under the Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Bhutan successfully disposed all the obsolete pesticides to Switzerland for safe disposal. Apart from the Government of Switzer-land, who aided the disposal process, Bhutan re-ceived cooperation from the Governments of In-dia, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands for the safe transit of the pesticides in the spirit of cooperation under the Basel Convention.

Implementation of Industrial Dis-

charge Standards

The NECS has set standards to regulate industrial discharges into water courses and bod-

43

Parameters Maximum

value Unit

pH 6 – 9

Temperature Increase < 3 degree celsius

Total suspended solids 50.0 mg/l

Oil and grease 10.0 mg/l

BOD5 50.0 mg/l

COD 250.0 mg/l

Coliforms 400 Mpn/100ml

Ammonia (as N) 50.0 mg/l

Arsenic 0.25 mg/l

Benzine 0.1 mg/l

Cadmium 0.1 mg/l

Chromium (total) 0.5 mg/l

Copper 3.0 mg/l

Cyanide 0.2 mg/l

Iron 3.5 mg/l

Lead 0.8 mg/l

Mercury 0.005 mg/l

Nickel 3.0 mg/l

Phenol 2.0 mg/l

Sulphide 10.0 mg/l

Zinc 5.0 mg/l

Total metals 10.0 mg/l

Parameters Maximum value Unit

pH 6 – 9

Total suspended solids 50.0 mg/l

Oil and grease 10.0 mg/l

Cyanide (total) 0.2 mg/l

Arsenic 0.1 mg/l

Cadmium 0.1 mg/l

Chromium (VI) 0.1 mg/l

Iron 3.5 mg/l

Copper 0.5 mg/l

Lead 0.1 mg/l

Mercury 0.001 mg/l

Nickel 0.5 mg/l

Nitrate (explosive residual)

2.0 mg/l

Total metals 10.0 mg/l

Zinc 2.0 mg/l

Table 7: Industrial Discharge Standards

Source: Environmental Discharge Standards, NECS, 2004

Table 8: Mining Discharge Standards


Key Indicators

Existence of industrial discharge standards:

Industrial discharge standards established since 2004

Proportion of industries meeting industrial discharge

standards:

Data not available


ies (Tables 7 and 8). The MoEA’s Environment Unit is now using these standards to monitor and regulate industrial discharges into water courses. At the same time, as mentioned earlier, the MoEA has established the CTEM Fund to especially sup-port industries that existed before the enactment of the Environmental Assessment Act to upgrade their equipment and switch over to cleaner tech-nology that meets the industrial discharge stan-dards. The CTEM Fund is implemented on a cost-sharing basis with the recipient industry putting in 50% of the costs. In the first phase, CTEM Fund helped five large-scale industries. Furthermore, environmental clearance is mandatory for new industrial projects and inclusion of measures to adhere to the industrial discharge standards in the project proposal is a key criterion for such clear-ance.

Sewage Management

At the present, only Thimphu and Phuentsholing cities have sewerage systems. These systems were introduced in 1996. In Thim-phu, 520 buildings are connected to the sewerage system. For buildings which are not connected to the sewerage system, construction of septic tank is mandatory. There are two vacuum tankers, a large one with 6,000-liter capacity and a small one with 3,000-liter capacity, for cleaning the septic tanks. On average, these vacuum tankers clean out three-four septic tanks every day. The sewerage/waste water treatment plant in Thimphu has a designed capacity of 1,750 m3 per day. The actual volume of sewerage/ waste water treatment at the present ranges between 1,300-1,500 m3 per day. In Phuentsholing, 500 buildings are con-nected to the sewerage system. There are two vac-uum tankers of 6,000-liter capacity and a cesspool cleaner also of 6,000-liter capacity. The sewerage/ waste water treatment plant in Phuentsholing has a designed capacity of 2,500 m3 per day. The ac-

tual volume of sewerage/waste water treatment at the present ranges between 1,800-2,500 m3 per day.

Glacial Lake Monitoring and GLOF

Impact Mitigation

Following the Lugge Tsho GLOF in 1994, the Department of Geology and Mines (DGM) has initiated time series monitoring of glaciers and assessment of risk of GLOF. Field expeditions have been undertaken in collaboration with international institutions specializing in gla-ciology and risk mitigation activities are under-way in some potentially dangerous glacial lakes such as Thorthormi and Raphstreng. GLOF Early Warning System has been developed and set up in the Pho Chhu Sub-basin and GLOF hazard zona-tion has been completed for Punatsang Chhu (upstream of Khuruthang) and Chamkhar Chhu (upstream of Chamkhar town). As part of Bhutan’s National Adaptation Programme of Action submitted to the UNFCCC, a project called -”Reducing Climate Change-Induced Risks and Vulnerabilities from Glacial Lake Outbrusts in the Punakha-Wangdi and Chamkhar Valleys.” has been prepared. The total amount of the project is US$ 6.9 million, with US$ 3.5 million provided from the LDC Fund.

Key Indicator

No quantifiable indicator available for this response

44

Key Indicators

Number of urban centers with sewage treatment facility:

2 (Thimphu and Phuentsholing)

Volume of sewage treatment:

1,300-1,500 m3 per day (Thimphu) 1,800-2,500 m3 per day (Phuentsholing)

>>Sewerage lagoon at Babesa, Thimphu. The sewerage treatment plant in Thimphu treats about 1,300-1,400 m

3 of sewerage/ waste water every

day. (Photo © David Lee)


Activities under the project include, Installation of early warning system in Pho Chhu basin; arti-ficial lowering of Thorthomi tsho; and disaster management, hazard zonation and capacity build-ing of local communities. There are however still 24 other dangerous glacial lakes that also need adaptation measures.

Institutional Arrangement for Coordi-

nation of Water Resources Manage-

ment

In 2001, Bhutan Water Partnership (BhWP) was established as an inter-agency body to coordinate programmes and policy develop-ment related to water resources management and also as the national focal agency to regional and international bodies concerned with water re-sources management, including the Global Water Partnership and Global Water Forum.

Recently, the executive members of the Bhutan Water Partnership was re-constituted and the Secretariat of the partnership was handed over to the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (an environmental NGO). The BhWP developed the draft Bhutan Water Policy, draft Bhutan Water Vision and the draft Water Act of the Kingdom of Bhutan. In December 2002, the mandates of water resources coordination and regulation was delegated to the NEC Secretariat. Since then, the Bhutan Water Policy and Bhutan Water Vision have been re-viewed in consultation with stakeholders and presented to the government. The Bhutan Water Policy and Bhutan Water Vision have been sub-sequently approved by the Coordination Commit-tee of the Council of Ministers and the Lhengyel

Zhungtshog (Cabinet). The Policy mandates the NEC as the central coordinating agency for mat-ters related to water resources management at the national level.

45

Key Indicator

No quantifiable indicator available for this response


Pressure

Vehicular Pollution

According to the First Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report produced by the National Envi-ronment Commission Secretariat (NECS) in 2000, the total greenhouse emission of Bhutan was 252.81 Gg of CO2 equivalent (greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen diox-ide, nitrous oxides and carbon monoxide), which is very insignificant by global standards. The baseline data used for the inventory was of 1994 level and at that time the total per capita emission of the country was (-)5.89 tons of CO2 equivalent. Vehicular emission is one of the major causes of air pollution. According to the First Greenhouse Gas Inventory, the road transport

source contributed 42.99 million kg of carbon dioxide (CO2), accounting for about 19% of the total CO2 emission. CO2 emission from road trans-port more recently is likely to be much higher considering the surge in the number of vehicles. Over the past fifteen years, vehicle number has grown by more than two-and-a-half times. The SoE 2001 reported an increase in the number of registered vehicles from 11,916 in 1990 to 18,288 in 1999 at the rate of about 4.9%annually. Since then the increase in number of vehicles has been even more dramatic. From 2000 to 2006, vehicle number has grown from 19,463 to 33,241 at the rate of about 9% per annum

Vehicle Type Total Type % of the Total

Heavy 4,547 13.68

Light 19,768 59.47

Two-wheeler 7,931 23.86

Others 995 2.99

Total 33,241 100.0

Table 9: Number of Vehicles by Type, 2006

Source: Road Safety and Transport Authority, 2007

Chapter 5 Air Environment

>>Traffic in Thimphu. Vehicle number has increased dramatically at about 9 percent per annum since 2000, aggravating air pollution and traffic congestion in urban areas (Photo © Ugen P. Norbu)

Source: Road Safety and Transport Authority, 2007

Figure 31: Growth in Vehicle Population, 2000-2006

46

Key Indicators

Vehicular population: 34,183 (as of June 2007) Vehicular population growth rate: 9% per annum (2000-2006) CO2 emission from road transport source: 42.99 million kg (based on 1994 data sources used in First Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2000)

33241

29914

25003

22494

1946318288

26740

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006

Nu

mb

er

of

Veh

icle

s


(Figure 31). The number has continued to grow with the Road Safety and Transport Authority (RSTA) registering a total of 34,183 vehicles as of June 2007. The NECS has very recently com-menced the preparation of the Second Greenhouse Gas Inventory. This Inventory when complete will reveal the more recent GHG emission sce-nario in the country. Light vehicles, e.g. cars, pick-ups and small vans, made up 59.47% of the total number in 2006, two-wheelers nearly 24%, heavy vehicles such as goods trucks, buses and large vans about 13.68%, and other miscellaneous vehicles such as earth moving equipment, road rollers, tractors and power tillers 2.99% (Table 9). Easy motor vehicle loans, access to af-fordable vehicle markets, growing affluence, in-adequate public transport system, and the RGoB’s restrictive policy on government pool vehicles have collectively led to the escalation in the num-ber of vehicles in the recent years. If the current rate of growth persists, we will have about 109,000 vehicles by 2020 – nearly 265% more than the number in 2005. However, it is highly improbable that the current growth rate of 9% per annum would persist through 2020 given that af-ter a certain number of years the rate would stag-nate and eventually decline due to demographic, physical and economic factors. Figure 32 illus-trates future scenarios of vehicular population growth at three different rates: 9% (i.e. the current growth rate); 5%; and 2.5%.

Industrial Pollution

The industry sector is the largest source of emission of CO2 in the country. According to the First Greenhouse Gas Inventory produced by the NECS in 2000, the industry sector contributed 133.69 million kg of CO2 emission, making up more than 58% of the total CO2 emission (see box on page 48). The industries that contribute the most to air pollution pertain to cement production, chemical processing, and mining. According to an assessment of environmental management in a selected number of industries by NECS in 2001, high levels of ambient dust were still found in most industries and lack of effective pollution emission control system in many industries was a key concern. Figures and trends related to indus-trial growth have been described on pages 18-19.

Figure 32: Future Vehicular Population Growth Sce-narios at Different Rates

2.5%

5%

9% (current rate)

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

2005 2010 2015 2020

Nu

mb

er

of

ve

hic

les

>>Emission from an industrial estate, southern Bhutan. Industries have been identified as the largest source of CO

2 emission in the First

Greenhouse Gas Inventory (Photo © Tshering Tashi)

47

Key Indicators

Number of operational industrial licenses:

9,743 (2006)

CO2 emission from industry sector:

133.69 million kg (based on 1994 data sources used in First Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2000)


Domestic Emissions

The First Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2000 attributed 27.18 million kg of CO2 emission, i.e. nearly 12% of the country’s total, to domestic energy use. Domestic emission in Bhutan basi-cally arises from use of fuelwood for cooking, lighting and space heating. A wood sectoral analysis by the Food and Agriculture Organiza-tion of the United Nations in 1991 had estimated that each Bhutanese, on average, consumed 1.27 tons of fuelwood a year – one of the highest in the world2. However, it has to be noted that in terms of total CO2 generated by domestic emissions, it has zero effect, as CO2 emitted by fuel wood use is negated by the high carbon absorptive capacity of our forests (see box on GHG emissions). Fuel-wood use has, however, declined over the years with the increased availability of modern fuels and electrical cooking/ heating appliances, and the expansion of electricity distribution across the country.

Other Pressures

Other key pressures on the state of air environment include:

Population growth, which is taking place at a rate of 1.3% per annum, contributes to the scaling up of air pollution. (Figures, trends and indicators related to population have been provided on pages 11-13);

Urbanization is occurring at a very rapid

pace and concomitantly influencing the growth in vehicle numbers and industrial activities. Construction activities, which are largely concentrated in and around urban centers, also release huge amounts of fugitive dust. (Figures, trends and indi-cators pertaining to urbanization have been described on pages 13-14);

Forest fire is a widespread and recurrent phenomenon in the country. The pine for-

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and

Climate Change in Bhutan

Bhutan’s First Greenhouse Gas (GHG) inventory was pro-duced in 2000, using data from 1994 sources. According to this inventory, total GHG emissions were estimated to be 255.16 million kilograms (kg). Per capita GHG emissions in 1994 based on an estimated population figure of 564,000 is 452.41 kg per annum, which is among the lowest emis-sions in the world. The most dominant GHG emission is that of carbon dioxide accounting for nearly 90 per cent of the total GHG emissions, as shown below:

The industry sector is the largest source of CO2 emission at 133.69 million kg, followed by the energy sector at 94.77 million kg. These two sectors respectively account for 58.5 per cent and 41.5 per cent of the total CO2 emis-sions. A notable fact is that Bhutan is one of the very few coun-tries with net sequestration of greenhouse gases. 3,321 million kg was sequestered in 1994. This is largely due to vast forest cover, limited industrialization, and use of clean energy. Accounting for this sequestration, the per capita emission of each Bhutanese further decreases to negative 5.89 tons of CO2. While Bhutan contributes the least to global warming it will be one of the most adversely affected. Due to its location in a fragile mountain ecosystem and its status as a Least Developed Country, Bhutan is among the most vulnerable countries to climate change. Unusual weather conditions at frequent intervals in the recent years bear evidence of this vulnerability. For instance, the winter of 1998/99 was characterized by a prolonged spell of dry (snow-less) weather in most places. This exacerbated incidents of forest fires that winter, with forest fires occurring even in places where they were not known earlier. Subsequently, heavy monsoon rains in the sum-mers of 2000 and 2004 triggered unprecedented floods and landslides in the southwestern and eastern parts of the country respectively, causing loss of dozens of human lives and livestock, and damage to farmlands, homes, roads and other private and public properties. Climate change is also rapidly melting the glaciers in Bhutan and increasing the risk of dangerous glacial lake outburst floods. In fact, in 1994, there was a major glacial lake outburst flood emanating from Lugge Tsho in Lunana (glacial retreat and glacial lake outburst floods have been discussed in other chapters).

Greenhouse Gas Million kg

% of Total

Kg per capita

Carbon dioxide 228.46 89.54 405.07

Methane 19.22 7.53 34.08

Nitrous oxide 2.13 0.83 3.77

Nitrogen oxide 0.71 0.28 1.26

Carbon monoxide 2.29 0.90 4.06

Non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds

2.30 0.90 4.08

Sulphur dioxide 0.05 0.02 0.09

Total (all GHGs) 255.16 100.00 452.41

48

Key Indicators

Per capita fuelwood consumption: 1.27 tons per annum

CO2 emission from domestic source:27.18 million kg (based on 1994 data used in First Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2000)


ests are especially susceptible to fire in the winter season. Burning of forests emits significantly high contents of pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter. (Figures, trends and indicators pertaining to forest fire occur-rence have been described on page 23);

Solid waste generation and disposal con-

tribute to air pollution. Breakdown of solid waste leads to unpleasant odours and emits methane and CO2 especially when not treated and disposed properly. (Figures, trends and indicators pertaining to solid waste have been described on page 26-27).

State

Ambient Air Quality

Data on ambient air quality is very lim-ited at the present. Ambient air quality monitoring on a regular basis has been done only in Thimphu. Between June 2004 and May 2007, NECS had recorded ambient air quality data for 180 sample days in the premises of Tashichhoe Dzong. The

analysis of the recorded data showed an average respirable particulate matter (PM10) concentration of 20 µg/m3, which is considerably lower than internationally set PM10 concentration levels (Figure 33). The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (US-EPA) guideline has set the PM10 concentration level at 50 µg/m3 while the European Union’s (EU) guideline has set it at 40 µg/m3 for 24 hours concentration. Particulate matter concentrations have been found to be higher during winter. This can be attributed to emission from point sources, the constant winter high pressure system that sits over the South Asian region and temperature inversions during dry winter seasons. Recorded ambient air quality data for Thimphu show that the concentration of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are presently be-low detectable level.

49

>>A clear skyline above Ura, central Bhutan. With the exception of a few industrial and urban centers, the ambient air quality of Bhutan is still relatively pristine. (Photo © Ugen P. Norbu)

Figure 33: PM10 Concentration in the Air of Thimphu, June 2004 – May 2007

Source: National Environment Commission Secretariat, 2007

Key Indicators

Average PM10 concentration (Thimphu):

20 µg/ m3 (June 2004-May 2007)

Concentration of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen (Thimphu):

Below detectable level (June 2004-May 2007)


On the basis of analysis of ambient air quality data for Thimphu, it can be said that ambi-ent air quality in most other places will be even more pristine because of smaller population, fewer vehicles, and less industrial activities. Ex-ceptions can be industrial towns such as Pasakha and Gomtu and the commercial hub of Phuent-sholing, which in addition to its own population, vehicles and industrial activities would be af-fected by its contiguity to the neighboring Indian town of Jaigaon, which is far more populous and perpetually bustling with commercial activities.

Impact on Human Health

Air pollution has direct impact on peo-ple’s health. Particulates in the air range in size

from less than 0.2 µm to 50 µm. Particulates lar-

ger than 50 µm tend to settle out of the air and

particulates larger than 10 µm are usually fugitive dust blown by wind from roadways, fields and

construction sites. Particulate matter of 10 µm diameter or less, termed as PM10, is considered inhalable and of concern for human health. The extent of the effects depends on the concentration,

size and chemical composition of the particulate matter as well as concentration and composition of any pollutant gases occurring in combination with the particulate matter. Occurrence of respiratory diseases is very high3. During the period 2003-2006, there were more than a million respiratory disease re-lated referral cases and 436 deaths due to respira-tory problems in accordance to the morbidity re-ports compiled by the Ministry of Health. Respi-ratory problem accounted for 44% of the total health referral cases and for about 20% of the deaths caused by all diseases. Figures 34 and 35 show the occurrence of respiratory diseases and related deaths in the recent years. While respira-tory disease related deaths have decreased from 153 cases to 112, respiratory disease related refer-ral cases continue to grow. There were a total of 416,239 referral cases in 2006 compared to 344,290 in 2003. Having presented the state of occurrence of respiratory diseases and related deaths, it must be noted that at the present there is no national study or any other study of that kind assessing the correlation between air pollution and occurrence of respiratory diseases and related deaths. Erratic climatic conditions, health care and nutritional negligence, infection, smoking, in-door air pollu-tion and other factors can also be contributing to the high level of occurrence of respiratory dis-eases and related deaths. In addition, the records of hospital referrals also include repeated visits by patients.

50

Figure 35: Occurrence of Respiratory Disease Related Deaths, 2003-06

Source: Annual Health Bulletins, Ministry of Health, 2004, 2005, 2006,2007

Figure 34: Occurrence of Respiratory Diseases, 2003-06

Source: Annual Health Bulletins, Ministry of Health, 2004, 2005, 2006,2007

Key Indicators

Average annual number of respiratory disease related hospi-

tal referral cases:

416,239 (2006) (Annual Health Bulletin -2007)

Average annual number of respiratory disease related

deaths:

112 (2006) (Annual Health Bulletin - 2007)

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

450,000

2003 2004 2005 2006

Other Respi r ator y Di seases

Pneumoni a

Acute Phar yngi t i s/ T onsi l i t i s

Common Col d

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2003 2004 2005 2006

Other Respi r ator y Di seases

Pneumoni a

Acute Phar yngi t i s/ T onsi l i t i s

Common Col d


Response

Use of Cleaner Energy

Bhutanese households are increasingly using cleaner sources of energy in place of tradi-tional solid fuels such as fuelwood. As shown in Figure 36, between 1997/98 – 2004/05, the num-ber of electricity consumers had increased from 31,600 to 57,700 and per capita electricity con-sumption had increased from 619.4 kilowatt-hours (KWh) to 1185 KWh in 2004/05. The PHCB 2005 recorded that for lighting 57.1% of all households used electricity and 2.5% used solar power. For cooking 30.6% of all households used electricity and 25.6% used liquefied petroleum gas (Table 10). On the other hand, the PHCB 2005 revealed that only 37.3% of the total house-holds in the country used fuelwood as the primary source of energy for cooking. While in the rural areas, 56.4% of the households still used fuel-wood as the primary source of energy for cook-ing, in the urban areas only 4.3% of the house-holds used fuelwood for cooking. For lighting, the

use of fuelwood is very low with only 2.6% of the total households using it. In the past, the propor-tion of population using solid fuels was estimated at 75% in 2000 and 70% in 2003 according to the Millennium Development Goals Progress Report 20054. Use of electricity as a primary source of energy is expected to become more widespread and dominant in the near future with the commis-sioning of additional hydropower projects and expansion of power transmission and distribution network. In some remote areas, where the exten-sion of national power transmission grid was not economically viable, micro and mini-hydels have been developed. The use of solar power is also becoming popular in remote areas because of af-fordability and simplicity in use and maintenance of solar power appliances. In addition, the govern-ment plans to provide electricity for all by 2020.

Public Transport System

As of 2007, there are a total of 7 groups of mass passenger transport service operators with

51

Sources of Energy Urban Rural Overall

For Cooking

Electricity 46.5 21.4 30.6

Kerosene 5.4 6.6 6.1

Fuelwood 4.3 56.4 37.3

LPG 43.6 15.2 25.6

Solar and others 0.2 0.4 0.4

For Lighting

Electricity 96.4 40.0 57.1

Kerosene 2.6 51.3 36.5

Fuelwood 0.2 3.7 2.6

Solar power 0.3 3.5 2.5

Others 0.5 1.5 1.2

Table 10: Energy Use by Household Percentage,

Source: PHCB 2005

Figure 36: Electricity Consumption Trend, 1997/98-2004/05

Source: Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan, National Statistical Bureau, 2006

Key Indicators

Number of mass passenger transport operators:

7 Groups (2007)

Total fleet of passenger transport services:

148 buses (2007)

Number of urban centers with public bus service:

Only Thimphu has city bus service with a fleet of 14 buses(2007)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

19 9 7 / 9 8 19 9 8 / 9 919 9 9 / 0 0 2 0 0 0 / 0 12 0 0 1/ 0 2 2 0 0 2 / 0 32 0 0 3 / 0 42 0 0 4 / 0 5

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400Number of consumer s

Per capi ta el ect r i c i t y consumpt i on

Key Indicators

Proportion of households using cleaner sources of energy

(electricity, LPG and solar power) for cooking:

56.6 percent (2005)

Proportion of households using cleaner sources of energy

(electricity and solar power) for lighting: 59.6% (2005)


a total fleet of 148 passenger buses according to figures maintained by the RSTA. Thimphu is the only urban center with a city bus service. The Thimphu city bus service was introduced by the Thimphu City Corporation in 1999 with a fleet of four buses covering Dechenchholong, Hejo, Mo-tithang and Babesa areas. In 2000, the Bhutan Post took over the Thimphu city bus service. To-day, Bhutan Post has increased the fleet size to 14 buses, including one bus maintained as standby. The coverage of the city bus service was ex-panded to two additional areas namely Jungshina and Changbangdu and the frequency of the city bus service was increased to 54 trips a day on weekdays and Saturdays and 48 trips a day on Sundays and public holidays. The frequency of the city bus service was further increased in Au-gust 2005 to 72 trips a day on weekdays and Sat-urdays and 63 trips a day on Sundays and public holidays. As of December 2007, the frequency has increased to 108 trips a day on weekdays and Saturdays and 95 trips a day on Sundays and gov-ernment holidays. In terms of distance, the Thim-phu city bus service at the present covers 1,885 to 2,149 km each day. While theoretically it is assumed that improvement in the mass public transport system would reduce the acquisition and movement of private motor cars, in Bhutan this does not seem to be necessarily the case yet. The number of mo-tor cars has been on the rise even while there has been improvement in the mass public transport system in the recent years. The benefits of the mass public transport system at the present are

more from a social standpoint than from an envi-ronmental standpoint. Students, rural farmers, monks and people from the low-income group are the main users of the existing mass public trans-port system.

Enforcement of Vehicular Emission

Standards

Primarily to curb air pollution, the NEC introduced vehicular emission standards and the RSTA made vehicular emission testing mandatory in 2004. Table 11 presents the emission standards adopted in 2004 and Table 12 presents the en-hanced vehicle emission standards of 2007. When mandatory vehicle emission test-ing was introduced in 2004, about 84% of the diesel vehicles and 95% of the petrol (gasoline) vehicles in Thimphu met the emission standards. Towards the end of 2005, vehicle emission testing was privatized in keeping with the RGoB’s policy to promote the private sector. Analysis of data available from the private enterprises – USD En-terprise and Yangki Automobiles – to whom vehi-cle emission testing has been contracted out show that in 2006 (as of June), overall 92.3% of the vehicles met emission standards. While the per-centage of diesel vehicles meeting emission stan-dards had risen to 95.6, the percentage of petrol vehicles meeting emission standards had dropped to 90.3 (see Figure 37). The increase in the per-centage of diesel vehicles meeting the emission standards can be largely attributed to the import of improved quality of diesel. However, the reason for the decrease in the percentage of petrol vehi-cles meeting emission standards is not clear. It could perhaps be attributed to the accumulation of old vehicles not equipped with emission control engine and lack of regular maintenance. Data from the private enterprises showed that majority of the petrol vehicles that failed the emission test

52

92.3 90.395.6

7.7 9.74.4

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Overall Petrol vehicles Diesel vehicles

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

ve

hic

les

Passed Failed

Figure 37: Results of Vehicular Emission Tests, 2006 (as of June)

Source: Yangki Automobiles and USD Enterprise

Key Indicators

Existence of vehicular emission standards: Vehicular emis-sion standards established since 2004

Proportion of vehicles meeting vehicular emission

standards: Overall– 92.3%; petrol vehicles– 90.3%; diesel vehicles– 95.6% (on the basis of vehicles tested from Janu-ary to June 2005)


were Maruti cars and vans without Euro II (or higher grade) engine and two-wheelers with two-stroke engine. As of July 2007, vehicle emission stan-dards have been enhanced (refer Table 7). The NECS in collaboration with the RSTA, Royal Bhutan Police and vehicle importers are in the process of working out modalities of implementa-tion and enforcement of the enhanced standards. Although in principle vehicle emission test is mandatory, enforcement has not been strict. Checking of vehicle emission test document is not done as a part of the annual vehicle road worthi-ness tests by RSTA, nor it is required to be pro-duced during spontaneous checking of vehicle documents such as driving license, vehicle regis-tration certificate and insurance paper by the traf-fic police. Consequently, many vehicle owners have the perception that vehicle emission testing is not mandatory5.

Establishment and Monitoring of In-

dustrial Emission Standards

The NEC has set industrial emission and discharge standards and the Environment Unit of the Ministry of Economic Affairs (MoEA) has been delegated with the responsibility of facilitat-ing and monitoring the implementation of the standards. A mobile environmental monitoring unit is in place within the MoEA for on-site in-

53

Parameters Standard Unit

Total Susp. Particulate Matter

Industrial area

Mixed area

Sensitive area

(24 hr. ave) 500 200 100

µg/m3

µg/m3

µg/m3

Volatile organic compounds 20 mg/Nm3

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX)

Industrial area

Mixed area

Sensitive area

(24 hr. ave) 120 80 30

µg/m3

µg/m3

µg/m

Oxides of Sulphur (SOX)

Industrial area

Mixed area

Sensitive area

(24 hr. ave) 120 80 30

µg/m3

µg/m3

µg/m3

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Industrial area

Mixed area

Sensitive area

(8 hr. ave) 5000 2000 1000

µg/m3

µg/m3

µg/m3

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 140 mg/Nm3

Ammonia 35 mg/Nm3

Arsenic 20 mg/Nm3

Cadmium 0.05 mg/Nm3

Chlorine 30 mg/Nm3

Copper 30 mg/Nm3

Flouride 25 mg/Nm3

Lead 30 mg/Nm3

Mercury 3 mg/Nm3

Resp. Particulate Matter (PM 10)

Industrial area

Mixed area

Sensitive area

(24 hr. ave) 200 100 75

µg/m3

µg/m3

µg/m3

Table 13: Industrial Emission Standards

Source:: Environmental Discharge Standards - 2004 and National Ambient Air

Quality Standards, NEC - 2007

Vehicle Type Measur-ing Sys-

tem

Maximum Permissible

Limit (%) Unit

Diesel vehicle Bosch 80 Hertz Smoke Unit

Gasoline vehicle

Normal 5.0 Volume CO

Table 11: Vehicular Emission Standards, 2004


Key Indicators

Existence of industrial emission standards:

Industrial emission standards established since 2004

Proportion of industries meeting industrial emission

Standards:

Data not available

Vehicle Type CO % vol

HSU (%)

Test Type Approval

Petrol

Vehicles registered before 1.1.2003 Vehicle registered on or after 1.1.2003

4.5

4.0

- -

Idle Idle

Euro II or above Euro II or above

Diesel

Vehicles registered before 1.1.2003 Vehicle registered on or after 1.1.2003

- -

75

70

Free accelera-tion SAE J1667 Free accelera-tion SAE J1667

Euro II or above Euro II or above

Table 12: Vehicle Emission Standards (July 2007)

Source: National Environment Commission , 2007


spection of industrial emission levels. Further-more, the MoEA has established Clean Technol-ogy and Environmental Management (CTEM) Fund to especially support industries that existed before the enactment of the Environmental As-sessment Act to upgrade their equipment and switch over to cleaner technology that meets the industrial emission standards. The CTEM Fund is implemented on a cost-sharing basis with the recipient industry chipping in 50% of the costs. So far, the CTEM Fund has aided five large-scale industries. In the case of new industries, environ-mental clearance is mandatory and inclusion of measures to adhere to the requisite industrial emission standards in the project proposal is a key criterion for such clearance. Environmental assessment of operational industries are carried out every two-three years by NECS to examine the state of industrial environmental manage-ment, including compliance of emission stan-dards, and recommend measures for improve-ment. A strategy for air quality assessment and management has been drafted under the Danida EUSPS programme. More recently, ambient air quality standards have been adopted for sus-pended particulate matter, respirable particulate matter (PM10), oxides of nitrogen and sulphur and carbon monoxide. The NEC conducts annual compliance monitoring of industries to ensure compliance of the environmental terms and conditions in the environmental clearance. It is encouraging to observe that industries and mines are gradually improving their environmental performance by

adopting use of pollution abatement equipment and improved solid waste management system. However, there is still room for improvement, such as mechanizing the production process and adopting better/cleaner technology. Similarly, mining activities are also showing gradual improvement in environmental performance. As all the mining activities are on-going, the complete restoration of mined activi-ties is yet to be achieved. But progressive restora-tions of some mined areas are underway.

Addressing Trans-boundary Air

Pollution

The effect of air pollution is not con-fined to the urban or industrial areas. Apart from the local effects, air pollutants can travel hun-dreds of kilometers and cause impacts far from its source. To address trans-boundary air pollu-tion issue, South Asian countries have adopted the Malé Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution and its Likely Trans-boundary Effects for South Asia in 1998. UNEP serve as the Secretariat for the Malé Declaration, which focuses on the need for countries to carry for-ward, or initiate, studies and programmes on air pollution in each country in the South Asian sub-region.

54

Key Indicators

Number of trans-boundary air pollution monitoring sta-

tions:

>>A trans-boundary air pollution monitoring station being con-structed at Bhur, Gelegphu. Apart from local effects, air pollutants can travel hundreds of kilometers and cause impacts far from its source.(Photo © Nedup Tshering)

>>Monitoring of Industries: Monitoring of industries and mines is conducted on an annual basis. (Photo © Karma C. Nyedrup)


Bhutan as a party to the Malé Declara-tion is actively participating in its implementa-tion. Baseline studies and actions plan have been developed at the national level, and a trans-boundary air pollution monitoring station has been set up in Gelegphu, bordering the Indian state of Assam. During the next phase, there are plans to set up additional pollution monitoring stations in strategic locations around the country. The affects of climate change due to global warming on Bhutan is mainly due to in-creasing greenhouse gas emissions from beyond its borders. Although Bhutan’s net carbon emis-sion is negative, the impacts of climate change on Bhutan is quiet significant, especially on the high-mountain glaciers. This will, in the long-run impact water flow in the river systems, thereby causing serious implications on hydro-power generation. Other potential impacts of climate change relate to agriculture sector, for-estry and health sectors.

As a Least Developed Country (LDC), Bhutan has also prepared the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in 2005. The NAPA address immediate and urgent adaptation needs to mitigate impacts of climate change. Un-der NAPA, Bhutan has identified nine projects for implementation. Out of these, one project, combining three proposed project activities un-der NAPA has been approved by the GEF for funding. The project titled “Reduce Climate Change-induced Risk and Vulnerabilities from Glacial Lake Outbursts in the Punakha-Wangdue and Chamkhar Valleys” is a US$ 6.9 million pro-ject with a total of US$ 3.45 million from GEF. The Department of Geology and Mines, Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs are implementing the pro-ject.

_______________________________

2The analysis was a part of the Master Plan for Forestry De-velopment in Bhutan Project. It is the only comprehensive wood energy study carried out on a country-wide scale to

date in Bhutan. 3The respiratory diseases referral cases and related deaths seem very high. This could be because of the repeated visits to hospitals by the same patients as well as due to several

other reasons, as mentioned in the document.

4 Solid fuels in Bhutan generally refer to fuelwood, charcoal

and dung. However, the use of the latter two is very limited.

5 This statement is based on personal communication with the private enterprises who have been contracted out to conduct

vehicle emission testing.

55


Chapter 6 Biodiversity

Pressure

Illicit forest harvesting and wildlife

poaching

Each year there are a few hundred of-fence cases pertaining to illicit timber extraction and fuelwood collection. Between 1999-2003, the Department of Forestry had recorded some 1,900 cases of illicit timber extraction and about 280 cases of illicit fuelwood collection. Most of these cases were, however, minor offences. Wildlife poaching occurs covertly and is especially preva-lent in the border areas and a few interior areas. The main species targeted for poaching are musk deer Moschus chrysogaster and Chinese caterpil-lar fungus Cordyceps sinensis since musk pods and Cordyceps spieces, both highly valued for

their medicinal properties, are easy to conceal and smuggle to countries across the border. Poaching of other species is rare. Poaching is driven by the ready and lucrative market for wildlife parts and products for use in traditional oriental medicines. Illegal fishing also occurs but it is largely for sub-sistence and recreation. Altogether, more than 2,600 forest and nature conservation offences have occurred between 1999-2003. As illustrated in Figure 38, the number of offence cases is on decline with the exception of fishing.

Human-Wildlife Conflict

Crop depredation by wildlife is common and widespread in the country. Every year, wild animals, especially wild boars, deer, monkeys, bears and elephants plunder hundreds of tons of crops across the country, inflicting immense losses to the farmers. A study by the RGoB and FAO has estimated that in monetary value crop damage by wild boar amounts to more than Nu. 112 million every year6. In addition to direct loss of crops, farm-ers have to bear several indirect costs such as loss of time, added costs of production, expenditure on items such as torches and batteries, kerosene, used tins, and building of guard sheds, and disruption in family life. Although rare, there is also the risk of human injury or death due to wildlife attacks while chasing animals like wild boar and ele-phant. It therefore comes as no surprise that farm-ers in ten geogs across the country, where a wild boar crop damage survey was carried out in 1996, unanimously ranked crop guarding against wild-

Tim

be

r e

xtr

actio

n

Fu

elw

oo

d c

olle

ctio

n

Wild

life

po

ach

ing

Fis

hin

g

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Nu

mb

er

of

ca

se

s

Source: Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry, 2005

Figure 38: Forest and Wildlife Offences, 1999-2003

56

Key Indicators

Average number of illicit fuelwood and timber extraction

cases in a year: 437 (1999-2003)

Average number of wildlife poaching and illegal fishing

cases in a year: 88 (1999-2003)

Key Indicator

Estimated monetary value of crop damage by wild boar each

year: Nu. 112 million

Estimated monetary value of livestock depredation each

year (Nu. Millions) Date not available


life as by far the most arduous task. This is cor-roborated by RNR Statistics 2000, which ranks crop damage by wildlife as the most severe con-straint faced by farm households. Livestock depredation by predator spe-cies, especially tigers, leopards, wild dogs and black bear, is also prevalent albeit on a smaller scale and less uniformly than crop depredation. In Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary alone, local com-munities have reported to have incurred losses of 17 cattle, 5 yaks and 1 equine every year between 1997 and 1999. In another example, 30% of the households in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park have reported loss of livestock to predators. Although stringent conservation laws and social tolerance to wildlife inculcated by reli-gious sentiments have so far prevented human-wildlife conflict from going out of hand, retribu-tion killing in the form of hunting, trapping and poisoning of predator species by frustrated farm-ers is not uncommon. A potential fallout of the issue is that farmers can become susceptible to resorting to poaching or turning a blind eye to poaching in the face of recurrent losses of crop and livestock caused by wildlife. The government is, however, in the process of drafting a strategy on human-wildlife conflict management to counter this problem. In the past, the government has also resorted to culling of some species (eg. wild boar) to minimize loss of crop and livestock.

Other Pressures Most of the pressures that have been mentioned for the land environment are equally applicable to biodiversity. These include:

Over-grazing of pastures and forests may lead to attrition or loss of plant species. In many areas, there is also competition for forage between livestock and wild ungu-lates due to free-range grazing of pastures and forests. Free-range grazing is also a key reason for livestock depredation by predators. (Trends, figures and indicators related to livestock rearing and grazing are described on pages 41-42).

Excessive forest use can lead to degrada-

tion and fragmentation of the habitats of

many wild species which are forest roam-ing. (Trends, figures and indicators related to forest harvesting are described on pages 22-23).

Forest fire, which is a widespread and

recurrent phenomenon in the country, is a major cause of forest degradation in the country. This is mainly due to the lax regu-lations on forests fires at the present mo-ment. (Trends, figures and indicators re-lated to forest fire are described on page 23).

Infrastructure development such as con-

struction of roads and power transmission grids has damaging consequences on bio-diversity especially when they cut through natural habitats and create wide corridors of barren space. (Trends, figures and indi-cators related to infrastructure are de-scribed on pages 25-26).

Population growth can cause excessive

use of biodiversity resources especially in

>>Yak and blue sheep grazing in an alpine meadow, Lingshi. In many areas, there is also competition for forage between livestock and wild ungulates due to free-range grazing of pastures and forests.(Photo © DB Gurung).

57


Forest Type Key Features

Fir Forest Between 2,700 and 3,800 masl. Hemlock and Birch may also be present. Towards the tree line (at 3,600 – 3,800 masl), Fir become stunted and Juniper and Rhododendron scrubs become more prominent.

Mixed Conifer Forest Between 2,000 and 2,700 masl. This forest type is dominated by Spruce, Hemlock and Larch, or a mixture of these species. Hemlock tends to be found on wetter slopes than Spruce and is generally covered with beard-like lichens and mosses.

Blue Pine Forest Between 1,800 and 3,000 masl in the western and central valleys of the country. It is some-times found mixed with Oak and Rhododendron.

Chir Pine Forest A low altitude (900 – 1,800 masl) xerophytic forest type occurring in deep dry valleys under sub-tropical conditions.

Broadleaf Mixed with Conifer These mixed forest are generally Oak mixed with Blue Pine or upper hill forest mixed with Spruce or Hemlock.

Upland Hardwood Forest Occurs in the temperate hillsides between 2,000 – 2,900 masl, and is mainly of two types: Evergreen Oak Forest, which is more common in the drier areas; and Cool Broadleaf Forest, which occurs in drier areas.

Lowland Hardwood Forest Occurs in the sub-tropical hills between 1,000 – 2,000 masl. This forest type is rich in a mix of sub-tropical and temperate genera.

Tropical Lowland Forest This forest type occupies the low hills below 700 masl. The forests are multi-stories and vary from almost totally deciduous on exposed dry slopes to almost evergreen in the moist valleys.

Table 14: Major Forest Types of Bhutan

Source: Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan, 2002

Source: Red List of Threatened Species, IUCN, 2006 (www.redlist.org)

Threat Category Mammal Species Bird Species

Critically Endangered

Pygmy Hog Sus salvanius -

Endangered Golden Langur Trachypithecus geei

Capped Langur Trachypithecus pileatus

Dhole/ Wild Dog Cuon alpinus

Red Panda Ailurus fulgens

Tiger Panthera tigris

Snow Leopard Uncia uncia

Asian Elephant Elephas maximus

One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis

Asiatic Water Buffalo Bubalus bubalis

Hispid Hare Caprolagus hispidus

Ganges River Dolphin Platanista gangetica

White-bellied Heron Ardea insignis

Vulnerable Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis

Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus

Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus laniger

Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata

Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus

Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata

Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa

Asiatic Golden Cat Catopuma temmincki

Swamp Deer Cervus duvauceli

Gaur Bos gaurus

Serow Capricornis sumatraensis

Takin Budorcas taxicolor

Mouse-eared Bat Myotis sicarius

Sikkim Rat Rattus sikkimensis

Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis

Rufous-necked Hornbill Aceros nipalensis

Chestnut-breasted Partridge Arborophila mandellii

Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus

Beautiful Nuthatch Sitta formosa

Wood Snipe Gallinago nemoricola

Blyth’s Tragopan Tragopan blythii

Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca

Baer’s Pochard Aythya baeri

Hodgson’s Bushcat Saxicola insignis

Dark-rumped Swift Apus acuticauda

Grey-crowned Prinia Prinia cinereocapilla

Table 15: Globally Threatened Species of Mammals and Birds Found in Bhutan

58


places where there is high population den-sity. For instance, hardwood species have become scarce in forests around Thimphu as a result of continuous extraction of hardwood species for fuelwood by a bur-geoning Thimphu population. (Trends, figures and indicators related to population are described on pages 11-13).

Urbanization has led to conversion of

forest land to construct buildings and other infrastructure for the urban population and also to increase in harvesting of timber from adjacent forests to meet construction demands in the urban centers. (Trends, figures and indicators related to urbaniza-tion are described on pages 13-14).

State

Wild Biodiversity

Bhutan is blessed with incredible biodi-versity. The country’s location at the junction of two major biogeographic realms – the Palearctic realm of the temperate Eurasia and the Indo-Malayan realm of the tropical Indian subcontinent – and its extremely heterogeneous physical relief and climatic conditions, have given rise to a wide range of ecosystems. Ecosystem diversity in the country mainly pertains to various forest types (Table 14). The various forest types are interspersed with many rivers, lakes and marshlands, enhanc-ing the mosaic of natural habitats. In addition, above the tree line, alpine meadows and scree harbor many wild fauna such as the snow leopard, blue sheep and Himalayan marmot, and flora such as the blue poppy, the national flower of Bhutan. At the species level, the country’s di-verse ecosystems are reservoirs of a spectacular

assortment of wild flora and fauna. The Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, which has pub-lished the Flora of Bhutan, recorded 5,603 species of vascular plants, including 579 species of or-chids and 46 species of rhododendrons7. Eighty-two of the recorded plant species are said to be endemic, found nowhere else in the world. The country’s wild fauna includes more than 600 spe-cies of birds and 190 species of mammals, of which 14 bird species and 26 mammal species are globally threatened according to the Red List of Threatened Species maintained by the World Conservation Union (IUCN)8. Among them, one species of mammal is categorized critically en-dangered, one species of bird and 11 species of mammal are categorized endangered, and 13 spe-cies of bird and 14 species of mammal are catego-rized vulnerable. Many of these globally threat-ened species such as the golden langur, capped langur, takin, wild dog, and black-necked crane occur in abundant numbers in Bhutan as a result of strict conservation laws and programmes. Ta-ble 15 provides the full list of globally threatened species found in the country. In terms of herpetofauna, there has been very little survey and documentation done al-though wildlife experts have reckoned the country will be rich in reptiles and amphibians particularly in the tropical/sub-tropical areas. 23 species of reptiles and amphibians were recorded in the Royal Manas National Park during a week-long herpetological survey training in 1999. The re-corded list included globally threatened species such as the gharial Gavialis gangeticus, Indian python Python molurus molurus and yellow moni-tor lizard Varanus flavescens.

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Key Indicators

Recorded number of vascular plant species: 5,603

Recorded number of bird species: 616

Recorded number of mammal species: 198

Globally threatened species found in the country:

14 bird species and 26 mammal species

Dendrobium nobile. The country’s extremely rich flora includes 579 recorded species of orchids. (Photo © DB Gurung)


Documentation of invertebrates is also in a nascent stage. Initial records suggest that the country is rich in butterflies, which is a good indi-cator of the overall biodiversity. In and around Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary alone, 90 species of butterflies have been recorded based on pre-liminary surveys.

Crop and Livestock Biodiversity

Bhutan’s diversity of crop and livestock species is also quite impressive. Some 20 crop species and 10 livestock species are known to occur in the country. The main crop species are rice, maize, millet, wheat and buckwheat and the main livestock species are cattle, yak, sheep, horse, and pig. The crop and livestock species diversity can be further broken down into several landraces and breeds respectively. To illustrate the genetic diversity of some of the food crops, there are some 350 landraces of rice, 47 of maize, 24 of wheat, and 30 of barley (Table 16). In live-stock, there are four native breeds and 16 native

sub-breeds of cattle, 12 native sub-breeds of yak, and four native breeds of horse (Table 17).

The White-bellied Heron, a species for-merly found among river systems of Himalayan origin from Pakistan in the west to Myanmar in the east, including sites in Nepal, Tibet, India, and Bangladesh, have, in the recent decades (1990 – 2007) been sighted in Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, Myanmar and Assam. The reasons for range con-traction are not known, but habitat change and human disturbance are suspected. As of 2007, there are 24 known individuals in Bhutan, and four known nests. It is believed that world popula-tion of this species does not exceed few hundred individuals. This makes it the rarest heron in the world, and one of the rarest birds in the world. It should therefore be given the highest conservation priority.

Response

Protection of Wild Fauna and Flora

The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan, 1995, lists a total of 30 species of wild animals and plants in Schedule I as totally pro-tected species. These include 5 species of bird, 1 species of fish, 17 species of mammal, and seven

Livestock No. of native breeds

No. of native sub-breeds

Cattle 4 16

Yak 1 12

Horse 4 -

Sheep 1 3

Pig 3 -

Dog 7 -

Poultry 4 -

Table 17: Livestock Diversity

Source: National Biodiversity Programme, MoA, 2000

60

Crop No. of native races/ varieties

Rice 353

Maize 47

Wheat 24

Barley 30

Amaranthus 17

Beans 37

Peas 9

Soya bean 16

Chilli 18

Table 16: Crop Diversity

Source: RNR Sector Ninth Five Year Plan, 2002

Key Indicators

Genetic diversity of major food crops: 350 landraces (rice), 47 (maize), 30 (barley) and 24 (wheat)

Genetic diversity of major livestock species: 4 native breeds and 16 native sub-breeds (cattle), 12 native sub-breeds (yak), and four native breeds (horse)

Key Indicator

Number of totally protected species in the Forest and Nature

Conservation Act 1995: 5 species (bird), 17 species (mammal), 7 species (plant), 1 species (fish) - total: 30 spe-cies


species of plant. While in general, the law restricts any form of wildlife killing, injury, destruction or capture/ collection, the totally protected species are accorded a higher level of protection than other species by means of more severe penalties and stricter legal provisions. As Table 18 illustrates, only 2 globally threatened bird species and 12 globally threatened mammal species found in the country have been accorded totally protected species status in Bhu-tan. In other words, it means that about 86% of the globally threatened bird species and 54% of the globally threatened mammal species found in the country do not have the highest legal protec-tion at the present. This includes the while-bellied heron, which is a rare bird species found the Bhu-tan. Amongst the totally protected plant species, only one currently belongs to the globally threat-ened status. The Nature Conservation Division of the Department of Forestry is at the present re-viewing the totally protected species list with the intent to rationalize it based on a comprehensive set of national, regional and international criteria, including the status of the species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the Appendi-ces of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES).

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Species Name Globally Threatened Status

Bird Species

Black-necked Crane Grus nigrocollis

Vulnerable

Monal Pheasant Lophophorus impejanus

-

Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron bicalcaratum

-

Raven Corvus corax National bird

Rufous-necked Hornbill Aceros nipalensis

Vulnerable

Fish Species

Golden Mahseer Tor tor -

Mammal Species

Asian Elephant Elephas maximus Endangered

Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa

Vulnerable

Golden Langur Trachypithecus geei

Endangered

Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster In Bhutan it is one of the most targeted species for poaching

Pangolin Manis crassicaudata -

Pygmy Hog Sus salvanius Critically Endangered

Snow Leopard Uncia uncia Endangered

Takin Budorcas taxicolor Vulnerable

Tiger Panthera tigris Endangered

Wild Buffalo Bubalus bubalis Endangered

Spotted Deer Axis axis -

Gaur Bos gaurus Vulnerable

Leopard Panthera pardus -

Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis

-

Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus

Vulnerable

Red Panda Ailurus fulgens Endangered

Serow Capricornis sumatraensis Vulnerable

Plant Species

Agar wood Aquilaria malaccensis Vulnerable

Chinese Caterpillar fungus Cordecyps sinensis

Is highly targeted by illegal collectors for its medicinal value

Gentiana Gentiana crassuloides Not known

Snow-down Lily LLoydia yunnanensis

Not known

Blue Poppy Meconopsis grandis National flower of Bhutan

Himalayan Yew Taxus baccata Not known

Ginseng Panax pseudoginseng Not known

Table 18: Totally Protected Species of Bhutan and their Globally Threatened Status

Source: Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan 1995, Red List of Globally

Threatened Species, IUCN, 2006

White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis): The white-bellied Heron has found a safe heaven in Bhutan. (Photo courtesy NCD, MOA)


Establishment and Management of

Protected Areas

In keeping with its rich biological diver-sity in the wild, Bhutan has set aside a sizeable portion of the country as protected areas. The na-tional protected areas system covers altogether an area of 10,879 km2, which is 29.96% of the coun-try’s total area. This ranks Bhutan among the top 10 countries in the world with the highest propor-tion of area under protected areas (Figure 39). The national protected areas system is made up of a strict nature reserve, 4 national parks and 4 wildlife sanctuaries. These protected areas are well distributed across the country, encom-passing a continuum of representational samples of all major ecosystems found in the country rang-ing from the tropical/sub-tropical grasslands and forests in the southern foothills through temperate forests in the central mountains and valleys to

alpine meadows and scree in the northern moun-tains. All the protected areas are linked by a comprehensive network of biological corridors to facilitate movement of wildlife and contiguity of habitats between various protected areas. These corridors make up about 9% of the country’s area. They, however, do not have a clearly defined con-servation management status at the present. Con-servation management interventions have been piloted since 2003 in the biological corridors adja-cent to Thrumshingla National Park in order to draw lessons and basis for development of conser-vation management strategy related to biological

>>Alpine meadows and scree, Jigme Dorji National Park. Bhutan’s protected areas encompass representational samples of all major ecosys-

62

Protected Area IUCN Category

Area km2

Dzongkhags Operational Status

Torsa Strict Nature Reserve

I 651 Haa, Samtse Not yet operational

Jigme Dorji National Park II 4,349 Gasa, Thimphu, Paro and Punakha

One management plan implemented. Work in progress on the next management plan.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (formerly Black Mountain NP)

II 1,400 Zhemgang, Trongsa, Sar-pang, Wangduephodrang, Tsirang

Management plan under implementation

Royal Manas National Park

II 1,023 Zhemgang, Sarpang One management plan implemented. Work in progress on the next management plan.

Thrumshingla National Park

II 768 Bumthang, Mongar, Lhuentse, Zhemgang

Management plan under implementation

Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary

IV 1,487 Trashi Yangtse, Lhuentse, Mongar

One management plan implemented. Work in progress on the next management plan.

Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary

IV 278 Sarpang Operational under Sarpang Forest Division

Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary

IV 650 Trashigang Management plan under preparation, scheduled to be ready by October 2006

Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary

IV 273 Samdrup Jongkhar Not yet operational

Source: Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry, 2006

Table 19: Protected Areas of Bhutan

Key Indicators

Number of protected areas: 4 national parks, 4 wildlife sanctuaries, and 1 strict nature reserve

Area covered by the national protected areas system:

10,879 km2, i.e. 29.96% of the country’s total area

Number of operational protected areas: 7


corridors. 7 of the 9 protected areas are opera-tional at the present (Table 19). These 7 protected areas collectively cover an area of 9,955 km2, constituting 91.5% of the total area under pro-tected areas. The remaining two protected areas – Torsa Strict Nature Reserve and Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary – are expected to become operational in the oncoming Tenth Five Year Plan. Agro Biodiversity Conservation Pro-

gramme

The National Biodiversity Center (NBC) has initiated programmes for ex-situ and in-situ conservation of crop and livestock diversity. A National Gene Bank was established in early 2005. As of May 2006, the Bank has been able to store a total of 408 accessions of 215 various cul-tivars belonging to 17 different crops. These in-clude 181 accessions of 111 various cultivars of paddy, 94 accessions of 33 various cultivars of maize, and 36 accessions of 19 various cultivars of bean (Table 20). In terms of in-situ crop diver-sity conservation, the Agro Biodiversity Conser-vation of the NBC in conjunction with the Re-gional RNR Research Centers and Dzongkhag Agriculture Offices is implementing an On-farm Plant Genetic Resources Conservation Project. This project has so far covered 18 varieties of rice and 4 varieties of maize at 11 pilot sites in six dzongkhags. Plans are underway to scale up the project activities from 2007 onward. As regards conservation of livestock diversity, the National Gene Bank has taken pre-liminary activities to preserve genetic materials of native breeds of poultry, pig and sheep. In addi-tion, the Department of Livestock has established a number of livestock breeding farms in order to promote native breeds.

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Crop Number of accessions

Number of cultivars

Amaranthus 4 4

Barley 11 7

Bean 36 19

Bitter Buckwheat 5 3

Finger Millet 3 3

Foxtail Millet 7 5

Maize 94 33

Mustard 26 7

Niger 4 2

Paddy 181 111

Pea 1 1

Perilla 1 1

Sesame 1 1

Soya Bean 8 4

Sweet Buckwheat 7 4

Vigna 10 6

Wheat 9 4

Total 408 215

Table 20: Accessions and Cultivars of Various Crops in the National Gene Bank

Source: National Biodiversity Center, 2006

________________________________________

6 Cited from Kuensel feature dated 26th July, 2006 7 Some plant taxonomists reckon that there will be more than 7,000 species of vascular plant in the country 8 Some avifauna experts reckon that there will be more than 700 species of bird in the country

Key Indicator

Number of accessions and cultivars stored in the National

Gene Bank: 408 accessions of 215 various cultivars belong-ing to 17 different crops (as of May 2006)

Number of crop varieties covered by the On-Farm Plant

Genetic Resources Conservation Project: 18 varieties of rice and four varieties of maize

Source: World Resources Institute (www.wri.org) excepting the figure for Bhutan

Note: The list does not feature countries smaller than 5,000 km2

Figure 39: Countries with Highest Protected Areas Coverage

29.3

28.7

28.6

30

28

24

23.9

21.8

18.4

18.3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Germany

Switzerland

Belize

Bhutan

Austria

New Zealand

Brunei Darussalam

Denmark

Israel

Tajikistan

% Area und er protected area


General Conclusions

Currently, most of the environmental problems in the country are localized and gener-ally associated with high population density, ur-banization and industrialization. There are a few environmental problems which are more exten-sive in terms of geographic spread, e.g. forest fire, over-grazing, and crop and livestock depredation by wildlife. And then there are some environ-mental problems which may not necessarily ema-nate from within the country, for example climate change due to air pollution and global warming. Such problems have to be essentially addressed through trans-boundary cooperation. Bhutan has continued to make headways in the field of environmental conservation. Since the SoE 2001, the country has taken several sig-nificant steps. These include the incorporation of environmental conservation as a key article in the draft Constitution of the Kingdom, accession to several multi-lateral environmental agreements, strengthening of legislation and regulatory frame-work, development of environmental codes of practices, standards and norms, and devolution of environmental governance. But, at the same time, significant gaps still remain. Policy implementa-tion has not been able to keep pace with policy formulation. Enforcement of environmental stan-dards and norms is weak due to financial and hu-man resource constraints and weak inter-agency coordination. Some important policies and legisla-tions, for instance pertaining to pollution and solid waste management are lacking. Dearth of infor-mation and data persists, making assessments of environmental conditions and trends difficult. Finally, lack of sustainable financing mechanism for brown sector-based environmental manage-ment remains a critical gap. This Chapter summarizes the major de-velopments that have occurred in the field of envi-

ronmental conservation since SoE 2001, high-lights key gaps that still remain and outlines rec-ommendations to address the key issues.

Major Developments since SoE

2001

Developments in 2001

The Department of Geology and Mines, with support from ICIMOD and UNEP completed a nation-wide inventory of gla-ciers, glacial lakes and GLOFs and pro-duced a report on the inventory. The inven-tory identifies 24 potentially dangerous glacial lakes, providing a good basis for planning and implementing glacial lakes monitoring and GLOF impact mitigation activities.

Bhutan acceded to the World Heritage

Convention.

The Bhutan Water Partnership (BWP) was established as an inter-agency body to co-ordinate programmes and policy develop-ment related to water resources manage-ment and to function as the national focal agency to international and regional bodies concerned with water resources manage-ment.

The Department of Roads produced the

Environment Codes of Practice for Road Construction to support implementation of environment-friendly road construction.


Regulations for the Environment Clearance of Projects and Strategic Environment As-sessment were promulgated, detailing rules

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Chapter 7 Conclusions and Gaps


and procedures for environmental assess-ment and clearance in keeping with the requirements of the Environment Assess-ment Act enacted in 2000.

The Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan, which was first produced in 1998, was updated and reproduced to reflect new and emerging biodiversity conservation cir-cumstances and needs.

Bhutan expanded its participation in global

environmental management by acceding to several international environmental agree-ments. These were: Cartegana Protocol on Biosafety under CBD; Kyoto Protocol un-der UNFCCC; Basel Convention on Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal; and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe-cies of Fauna and Flora.

The re-enacted Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogdu and Geog Yargye Tshogchung Chathrims incorporated several provision for environmental management at the local community level.

Mines and Mineral Management Regula-

tion was promulgated, specifying require-ments for environmental management of mining operations and rehabilitation of mined areas among other things.

Clean Technology and Environmental

Management (CTEM) Fund was conceived as a part of the Ministry of Economic Af-fair’s Ninth Five Year Plan. The CTEM Fund is aimed at aiding industries to switch over to cleaner technology and ad-here to environmental management stan-dards laid down by the NEC.

Bhutan participated in all the regional,

subregional and international preparatory processes for the World Summit on Sus-tainable Development (WSSD) held at Johannesberg, South Africa. In the run-up to the WSSD, Bhutan conducted a compre-hensive review of the implementation of Agenda 21 in Bhutan and produced two key documents: Bhutan—Treading the

Middle Path to Sustainable Development and Bhutan—The Road from Rio.

The BWP commenced the preparation of Bhutan Water Act and a draft was com-pleted following discussion with various stakeholders.


Bhutan acceded to the United Nations

Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and in the process became a party to all the three Rio Conventions – having ratified the other two, i.e. the CBD and UNFCCC, in 1995.

The 78th Session of the National Assembly

ratified the Biodiversity Act of Bhutan.

The BWP developed the draft Bhutan Wa-ter Policy, laying down the vision and guiding principles for the use and manage-ment of water resources. The Policy man-dates the NEC as the central coordinating body for matters related to water resources management at the national level.


Environmental discharge standards for pollution control were developed and man-datory vehicle emission testing was intro-duced.

Sectoral environmental clearance applica-

tion guidelines were revised for highways and roads, forestry, hydropower, industrial projects, mines, and power transmission and distribution lines, and new guidelines were developed for urban development and tourism projects. In addition, environ-mental codes of practice were formulated for storm water drainage system, installa-tion of underground and overhead utilities, tourism activities, and roads.

Bhutan became a party to the Vienna Con-

vention for Protection of Ozone Layer and, by that virtue, also a party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete Ozone Layer.

65


The Department of Forestry published the first-ever Field Guide to the Mammals of Bhutan, giving brief accounts of the physi-cal characteristics, social behavior, habitat and conservation threats of some 200 mammal species found in the country.

The Clean Dzongkhag Award scheme was

initiated in partnership with WWF-US. A sum of Nu. 0.5 million is available annu-ally as prize money for the 3 cleanest Dzongkhags in Bhutan. The aim of the initiative is to encourage cleanliness and better solid waste management around the country. For the year 2003–2004, the win-ners were Mongar, Gasa and Bumthang

Dzongkhags.


Environmental conservation was incorpo-rated as a key Article in the Draft Constitu-tion of the Kingdom (see box). For this initiative and for an excellent environ-mental track record, His Majesty the King and the Bhutanese people were awarded UNEP’s “Champion of the Earth” in its very first edition.

Rules and Regulation on Control of Ozone

Depleting Substances were promulgated and a National Ozone Unit was established at NEC to coordinate the functioning of

mechanisms for control, monitoring and reporting of the import and export of ozone depleting substances.

Dzongkhag Environmental Committee

(DEC) was established in all the dzongkhags, in coordination with the Dzongkhag Administrations. The DECs have the responsibility to ensure integra-tion of environmental concerns in dzongkhag and geog plans and to imple-ment environmental assessment and clear-ance procedures for dzongkhag and geog level projects and activities that are small-scale and unlikely to have any major or complex adverse environmental impacts.

The MoA launched a nation-wide Land

Management Campaign as a continuous programme to instill in people the aware-ness and understanding of various land management techniques to address site-specific land degradation problems. It car-ries out on-the-ground demonstrations us-ing a broad-based participatory approach bringing together local communities, dzongkhag staff as well as professionals from various disciplines relevant to rural land use and management.

66

Environmental Conservation in the Draft Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan Article 5 of the Draft Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan is dedicated to environmental conservation. It states that:

Every Bhutanese is a trustee of the Kingdom’s natural resources and environment for the benefit of the present and future generations and it is the fundamental duty of every citizen to contribute to the protection of the natural environment, conservation of the rich biodiversity and prevention of all forms of ecological degradation including noise, visual and physi-

cal pollution through the adoption of environment friendly practices and ethos;

The Royal Government shall: (a) protect, conserve and improve the pristine environment and safeguard the biodiversity of the country; (b) prevent pollution and environmental degradation; (c) secure ecologically balanced sustainable develop-

ment while promoting justifiable economic and social development; and (d) ensure a safe and healthy environment;

The Government shall ensure that, in order to conserve the country’s natural resources and to prevent degradation of the fragile mountain ecosystem, a minimum of 60 percent of Bhutan’s total land shall be maintained under forest cover for all

time;

Parliament may, in order to ensure sustainable use of natural resources, enact environmental legislation and implement environmental standards and instruments based on the precautionary principle, polluter pay principle, maintenance of

intergenerational equity, and reaffirm the sovereign rights of the State over its own biological resources; and

Parliament may, by law, declare any part of the country to be a National Park, Wildlife Reserve, nature reserve, protected forest, biosphere reserve, critical watershed and such other categories meriting protection.



The MoA commenced the Sustainable Land Management Project (SLMP) with funding from the GEF under their Operational Pro-gramme 15, linked to UNCCD implementa-tion. The SLMP is the first major externally-funded project in the country exclusively dedicated to combating land degradation using an integrated, multi-disciplinary ap-proach in a variety of land degradation sce-narios.

The NEC was reconstituted with the chair-

manship to be held by the Prime Minister, thus enhancing the credence of the body.

Vehicle emission testing by private enter-

prises became operational with upgraded emission testing and data recording equip-ment in place.

The Bhutan Water Policy and Bhutan Water Vision was approved by the Coordination Committee of the Council of Ministers for onward submission to Lhengyel Zhungtshog

for final approval.


The National Environment Protection Act (NEPA), the Umbrella Legislation for the environment sector was approved by the 87th session of the National Assembly of Bhutan.

The Lhengyel Zhungtshog approved the Vi-

sion, Mission, Mandates of NECS, thereby granting a definite mandate to the National Environment Commission and its Secretariat.

The Bhutan Water Policy and Bhutan Water

Vision was approved by the Lhengyel

Zhungtshog

The Land Act of the Kingdom of Bhutan was approved by the 87th session of the National Assembly of Bhutan

District Environment Officers appointed for

20 Dzongkhags were appointed by the NECS, as per resolution of the National As-sembly to appoint Environment Officers for all the Dzongkhags in the country

The Executive Members of the Bhutan Wa-ter Partnership was re-constituted and the Secretariat of the partnership was handed over to the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (an environmental NGO).

As part of UNFCCC’s National Adaptation

Programme of Action, a project called -”Reducing Climate Change-Induced Risks and Vulnerabilities from Glacial Lake Out-brusts in the Punakha-Wangdi and Cham-khar Valleys.” is being formulated. The total amount of the project is US$6.9 million, with US$3.5 million contribution expected from the GEF. Activities under the project include, Installation of early warning system in Pho Chhu basin; artificial lowering of Thorthomi tsho; and disaster management and capacity building of local communities. The project is in the final stages of prepara-tion.

The Vehicle Emission Standards for Bhu-

tan was enhanced with an aim to improve the overall air quality in the country. The standards also include import of better quality vehicles with standards confirming to Euro II and above.

As part of our commitment to the

UNFCCC, the Second National Communi-cation Project was signed between the UNDP and RGoB. The project will report on Bhutan’s greenhouse gas emissions, vulnerability to climate change and its ad-aptation needs.

The standards for national ambient air

quality, industrial emissions and noise were also approved by the National Envi-ronment Commission. An awareness work-shop to disseminate the information to the stakeholders, mainly industrial and mining companies, was held in Phuentsholing in November 2007.

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68

Vision, Mission and Mandate National Environment Commission

Vision Statement:

The National Environment Commission shall endeavor to provide critical contributions to a sustained path of enlightened development in keeping with the development philosophy of GNH enunciated by His Maj-esty the King Jigme Singye Wangchuck. National Environment Commission shall strive to protect the environment in the widest sense of the term for the well-being of all future generations of people and other sentient beings by preserving and managing the natural resources of the Kingdom.

Mission Statement:

In striving to maintain a sustainable path of enlightened development through preservation of the environ-mental wealth of the Kingdom, the National Environment Commission shall initiate, introduce and pro-mote appropriate policies, programmes, legislation, institutions, reforms, activities and technologies that will strengthen:

The mindful consumption of resources, bearing in mind intra-and inter-generational equities; The adoption of accounting standards that genuinely reflect environmental services, including the

gain or loss inherent in environmental externalities, such as natural resources depletion and pollution; and

The promotion of environmental and socially responsible technologies and business practices through introduction of tools such as environmental impact assessments.

Mandate:

The National Environment Commission is a high level multi-sectoral body. It is the highest decision mak-ing and coordinating body on all the matters relating to the protection, conservation and improvement of the natural environment. The mandate of the National Environment Commission is to:

develop, review and revise environmental policies, plans and programmes formulate, review and revise environment related Laws/Acts and monitor enforcement of the same. mainstream environment into the country’s developmental policies, plans and programmes promote environmental awareness amongst all levels of Bhutanese society, including dissemination

of environmental policies, strategies, acts, rules, regulations and standards through print, audio visual and other appropriate means.

institutionalize the Environmental Assessment (EA) process as an integral part of the development planning process through enforcement of EA Act 2000

adopt, review and revise environmental standards for the country monitor ambient air and water quality and land-use changes and inform all sections of the society

through print, audio visual and other appropriate means. promote and ensure an efficient system of gathering and sharing environmental information publish State of Environment Reports and report/submit to the Lhengyal Zhungtshog/Parliament once

every 5 years and disseminate the findings to the general public. promote and conduct environmental research coordinate and facilitate the implementation of bilateral and multilateral environmental agreements,

conventions, treaties or declarations. receive representations on environmental matters from members of the Civil Society develop and facilitate the implementation of the National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) coordinate and monitor cross-sectoral issues related to water, forestry and mineral resources and

waste management in the country. The line ministries/agencies shall be responsible for their Imple-mentation and enforcement functions.

Participate in all environment related regional, sub-regional and international conferences and nego-tiations.


Existing Gaps


Lack of policy and legal framework for

sustainable land management: In ab-sence of policy and legal framework con-cerning land use and management, there is competitive land use between various sec-tors with very little consideration of land capability. Land use decisions are sector-based and implemented in a compartmen-tal manner without taking overall environ-mental conditions and impacts into ac-count.

Insufficient sustainable land manage-

ment interventions on the ground. On-the-ground investment on sustainable land management techniques is very limited, thus impeding awareness and sharing of knowledge among the people. A promising start has been made in this respect in the form of the Land Management Campaign and SLMP but these are in initial stages at the present.

Lack of forest fire management strategy. Existing approach to forest fire manage-ment is largely ad hoc with no planned direction for development of forest fire management infrastructure and activities in absence of a forest fire management strat-egy.

Lack of policy and legal framework for

grazing management. Attempts have been ongoing for several years to formu-late a grazing policy. However, complexi-ties in grazing rights and overlap between grazing land and forest land have hindered discussions between the livestock and for-estry personnel to come up with an agree-able grazing policy. Currently, in absence of grazing policy and legislation, activities on grazing land are governed by the Land Act 1979 and the Forest and Nature Con-servation Act 1995. Both these legislations do not specify any provisions for manage-ment of grazing lands. As per the defini-tion provided by the Forest and Nature

Conservation Act 1995, forests include lands registered as tsamdo. Therefore, the same set of prohibitions and restrictions that apply to forests also apply to tsamdos, thus deterring tsamdo rights holders and users from carrying out activities to im-prove grazing lands.

Lack of information/data on deforesta-

tion and forest densities. Although the overall state of forest is positive, there is a need for a detailed assessment of the na-ture and extent of whatever deforestation is taking place in various parts of the country. Forest density also needs to be assessed and, accordingly, forests need to be classi-fied according to various density classes to give a more accurate picture of our forest quality.

Lack of funds for maintenance of 60%

forest cover. While Bhutan is committed to maintaining a minimum forest cover of 60% of its land area, better efforts are needed to ensure reforestation of barren and/or degraded areas. With rapid popula-tion growth, infrastructure development and increasing demand for timber and wood, this will be the most challenging task in the years to come. Presently, with decentralization of forest plantation activi-ties to Dzongkhags, funds are inadequate to ensure proper forest plantation and es-tablishment.

Absence of a legislation on solid waste

management. The Solid Waste Manage-ment Rules and Regulations 2007 has been adopted recently, but there is an urgent need for a solid waste management act.

Inadequate solid waste management

system. Only about 12 urban centers have some form of solid waste management. But where they exist, they are generally rudimentary. Solid waste segregation is virtually non-existent and existing landfills are managed more like garbage dumps with no regular measures to control pollut-ant emission, leaching and scavenging. A solid waste management strategy is ur-gently required to systemize solid waste

69


management in an effective manner taking into account different types of waste in-cluding electronic waste and health care waste.

Lack of detailed data on different types

of waste. Data exist only for municipal solid waste in Thimphu and Phuentsholing and that too is broadly classified into just green and non-green waste. For planning and design of waste management strate-gies, detailed data are required for all types of waste: papers and paper products, rub-bers, food waste, electronics, plastic bot-tles, glasses, etc.


Lack of Institutional support and re-

sources for overall water resources man-

agement and coordination: The mandate of water resources coordination and regu-lation, although handed over to NEC, has not come with concomitant resources (human and financial). Water resources management is an important aspect of overall development in Bhutan and there-fore, this deserves a special priority.

Absence of an integrated water re-

sources management plan: The Depart-ment of Energy has prepared a national water resources management plan. How-ever, a more comprehensive and integrated water resources management plan taking into account multiple uses and functions of water resources is required.

Non-coverage of the southern stretches

in the national river water quality base-

line survey: The 1997-2000 national river water quality baseline survey carried out by the NECS had left out the southern parts of the country due to security risks then looming in those parts. As a conse-quence, available river water quality base-line information is not comprehensive.

Water quality standards for domestic

use not yet developed: Binding water quality standards for domestic use have not yet been developed although preliminary

recommended drinking water quality stan-dards exist on an interim basis.

Absence of waste water/ sewerage treat-

ment facilities in urban centers other

than Thimphu and Phuentsholing: This may create serious cumulative water pollu-tion problem. Waste water/effluent dis-charge standards are also not present at the moment.

Lack of legislation to regulate water

pollution: At the present, there is no legal framework to institute measures to regulate water pollution. Preparation of Bhutan Water Act was started in 2002. This Act, in its draft form, incorporated legal provi-sions pertaining to water pollution. How-ever, the formulation of the Act has not been expeditious.


Lack of legal framework pertaining to

air pollution: Without specific legal basis, the enforcement of emission standards is likely to be weak and mediation or litiga-tion of disputes/ damages arising from air pollution indeterminate or skewed.

Dearth of information and data on air

quality: Regular air quality monitoring and analysis is extremely limited. Avail-able data are also basically limited to con-centration of particulate matter and there are no regular data on other air quality parameters such as concentration of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur. Permanent ambi-ent air quality monitoring stations are very few.

Weak enforcement of vehicular emission

Standards: Although in principle vehicle emission test is mandatory, enforcement has not been strict. At the present, produc-tion of vehicle emission test document is not considered compulsory during annual road worthiness inspections by RSTA.

Inadequate mass public transport sys-

tem: At the present, city bus service exists only in Thimphu. The city bus service fleet

70


is growing in Thimphu but elsewhere, there is no mass public transport system.

Absence of fiscal instruments to discour-

age vehicle acquisition: Existing fiscal policies such as easy bank loans, low taxa-tion structure and vehicle import quota provision for senior government employ-ees inadvertently provide conducive condi-tion for acquisition of vehicles and in-crease in number of vehicles.


Absence of conservation management

policy for biological corridors. There are no clear policy guidelines for conservation management of biological corridors. As a result, these corridors remain vulnerable to inimical development activities. There is therefore the need to formulate conserva-tion policy guidelines to preempt potential ecologically unsound development activi-ties in the biological corridors.

Exclusion of several globally threatened

species from the totally protected species

list. The existing totally protected species list leaves out 86 percent of the globally threatened bird species and 54 percent of the globally threatened mammal species found in the country. The list needs to be rationalized based on national, regional and international criteria including the status of the species on the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species and CITES Appendices. Work on the revisions is on-going. It, however, needs to be expedited so that the issue is not left in an indetermi-nate state for long.

Lack of a comprehensive strategy and

programme to mitigate human-wildlife

conflicts. The issue of crop and livestock depredation by wildlife is a longstanding one and has very serious repercussions on food security and rural poverty alleviation. There is a need for a comprehensive strat-egy and programme to objectively address this issue. While the livestock depredation problem has been to some extent alleviated by the introduction of Tiger Conservation

Fund, which provides compensation to farmers for depredation of livestock by tigers and leopards, crop depredation prob-lem persists due to lack of any concrete strategy and programme to address it. Field research on the population dynamics and ecology of key crop-damaging species such as wild boar is also lacking, thus im-peding decisions on management of popu-lations of such species through interven-tions such as culling.

Existence of paper parks. The national protected areas system is not yet fully op-erational, with two protected areas—Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve—still remaining to become operational. These two protected areas need to be operationalized beginning with the instatement of staff, preparation of conservation management plan and devel-opment of basic infrastructure.

Lack of legislation to ensure biosafety. In accordance with the CBD in general and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in particular, countries party to these treaties are required to develop legal measures to ensure adequate level of protection in the field of safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have ad-verse effects on the conservation and sus-tainable use of biological diversity. It is noted that in absence of a Biosafety Act, Bhutan is highly vulnerable to unwanted biotechnological interventions given the growing influence of globalization. There-fore, there is a need to develop necessary legal framework for biosafety.

Related to General Issues

Lack of integrated rural-urban plan-

ning. Although rural-urban migration and regionally imbalanced urban development are very serious concerns, very little has been done in terms of institutionalizing an integrated approach to rural and urban de-velopment. Planning for rural development and urban development has to be done in tandem and in a mutually reinforcing man-

71


ner to effectively address rural-urban mi-gration and regionally imbalanced urban development issues.

Enforcement of environmental assess-

ment legislation and regulations is weak. The Environmental Assessment Act 2000 and its supporting regulations—Regulation for the Environmental Clearance of Pro-jects and Regulation on Strategic Environ-mental Assessment—provide a very potent legal and regulatory framework to promote environmentally sustainable development. However, their enforcement has been weak. The principal reason is inadequate human resources, both in terms of number and skill, within line ministries and within the NECS itself. Other major reasons in-clude lack of inter-agency coordination, dearth of information and data, and finan-cial constraints. To enhance implementa-tion at the dzongkhag and geog levels, DECs have been formed. But the effective-ness of these committees is questionable mainly because they lack the technical competence to professionally review pro-jects and programs for potential environ-mental impacts. The committee members are made up of existing dzongkhag sector staff, who have full-time responsibility to implement their respective sector plans and activities. While District Environment Of-ficers have now been posted in all the dzongkhags, they do not have adequate capacity to deal with complex technical issues.

No institutional mechanism for strategic

environmental assessment (SEA). There is currently no institutional mechanism in place to conduct strategic environmental assessment of development policies and plans, which is required according to the Environmental Assessment Act 2000 and the Regulation on Strategic Environmental Assessment. There is an urgent need to institutionalize SEA in the development planning process, starting at the central level and then gradually percolating down to dzongkhag and geog levels.

Lack of sustainable financing mecha-

nism for brown sector-based environ-

mental management. Environmental management in the brown sector is basi-cally being persisted largely through fund-ing from various external donor agencies. For instance, the environmental manage-ment programme in the MoEA is largely due to Danida funding. Similarly, bulk of the funding for NECS’s programmes comes from external sources such as Danida, UNEP, UNDP and GEF. In the Eighth Five Year Plan period (July 1997-June 2002), 79% of the NECS’s funding came from international donor agencies. For the Ninth Five Year Plan period (July 2002-June 2008), RGoB budget allocation has improved but still nearly 60% of the NECS’s total budget outlay comes from external funding sources. While there are signs that external donor support is helping some of the sectors consolidate their envi-ronmental management programme, there is a need to plan and install financing mechanisms to ensure that environmental management is sustained even after exter-nal funding ceases.

72


Recommendations The recommendations outlined herein are sug-gested for implementation and should serve as a guideline/baseline for assessing environmental performance in the next edition of Bhutan Envi-ronment Outlook.


Formulate integrated land use policy and

legislation to ensure a multi-disciplinary and coordinated approach to land use, and to ensure that inappropriate land use does not take place and that land use is based on land capability and carrying capacity. (Responsible Agency: Land Commission in

coordination with other stakeholder Minis-

tries)

Develop land capability classification and

land use and management guidelines, in order to facilitate land use planning and management based on the capability of the land. (Responsible Agency: Land Commis-

sion in coordination with other stakeholder

Ministries)

Develop a National Action Plan for Sus-

tainable Land Management, for a more comprehensive coverage and scope of future sustainable land management initiatives. (Responsible Agency: Ministry of Agricul-

ture and Department of Forest)

Develop and implement sustainable land

management techniques, enlisting experi-ences and lessons from the Land Manage-ment Campaign, Sustainable Land Manage-ment Project and other similar initiatives. (Responsible Agency: Ministry of Agricul-

ture)

Enact a Grazing Act, which among other things provides for management and im-

provement of grazing lands through physical interventions. (Responsible Agency: Minis-

try of Agriculture)

Develop and implement community-based

forest fire management approaches as a strategy to address the recurrent phenome-non of forest fire using community struc-tures and social mobilization mechanisms. Pilot activities on community-based forest fire management have been initiated at two sites in eastern Bhutan. These activities will need to be closely monitored and lessons enlisted to develop and scale up community-based forest fire management approaches across the country. (Responsible Agency:

Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agricul-

ture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs)

Strengthen the implementation of envi-

ronmental codes of practice for various

infrastructure development activities through training of engineers, both in the government and private sector. (Responsible

Agencies: National Environment Commis-

sion Secretariat and Ministry of Works and

Human Settlement)

Improve solid waste management by means of introduction of waste segregation system at the collection points and employ-ment of proper landfill management prac-tices. There is also need to develop adequate infrastructure and facilities for management of health care waste. Solid waste surveys should be carried out in all the major urban centers to derive data on all types of solid waste and consequently aid development of solid waste management system in the urban centers. (Responsible Agency: Ministry of

Works and Human Settlement)

Formulate an anti-littering Act, providing for regulatory measures to curtail littering, including imposition of fines and penalties. (Responsible Agency: National Environment

73

Chapter 8 Recommendations


Commission Secretariat in coordination

with municipal authorities)

Promote the concept and practices of re-

duce, reuse and recycle. A detailed assess-ment of existing and potential opportunities to reduce, recycle and reuse various types of waste should be carried out and recommen-dations made for integration in the solid waste management programme. (Responsible Agencies: National Environ-

ment Commission Secretariat and Ministry

of Works and Human Settlement, Municipal

Authorities)

Expand waste recycling initiatives. A first step would be to enhance the capacity of the existing PET bottle recycling unit at Thim-phu and then to set up PET bottle recycling units in additional towns such as Paro, Wangduephodrang, Bumthang, Gelegphu and Samdrup Jongkhar where there are sig-nificant number of hotels and restaurants. Another possible step would be to establish a paper recycling unit in Thimphu, where the huge number of offices belonging to government, private and international agen-cies potentially generate tons of scrap office paper every day. Incentives/subsidies should also be provided for recycling initiatives/activities (Responsible Agency: National

Environment Commission Secretariat in

coordination with private sector companies,

Ministry of Finance)

Conduct forest resources assessment to determine the nature and extent of deforesta-tion, and forest cover by density class. This will give a picture of the forest quality. (Responsible Agency: Department of For-

ests, Ministry of Agriculture)

Reduce timber use. With high consumption of timber in Bhutan, including out-of-plan harvesting, forest management units can be degraded rapidly. The use of less timber intensive construction practices for Bhutan-ese architecture should be explored and en-couraged. This may require encouragement of innovations to replace or reduce wood with modern materials for decorative and structural elements in modern Bhutanese

buildings (Responsible Agencies: Depart-

ment of Forests - MOA), Ministry of Works

and Human Settlements).

Funds for reforestation and afforestation. Since present budget amounts are inadequate to ensure survival of forest plantations, ade-quate financing must be provided for plant-ing and maintenance of forest plantations. Small scale CDM and other carbon offset projects may also be explored. (Responsible

Agencies: GNH Commission, Ministry of

Finance, Department of Forests - MOA)


Establish water quality standards for do-

mestic use based on field research and keep-ing in view existing criteria and standards used by other countries and the World Health Organization. (Responsible Agency:

NECS in coordination with Ministry of

Health)

Formulate an integrated water resources

management plan using a holistic perspec-tive that takes into account the multiple uses and functions of water resources. (Responsible Agency: National Environment


with Ministries of Agriculture, Economic

Affairs, Works and Human Settlement, and

Health).

Water Resources Management vs. Cli-

mate Change Impacts: Climate change will have serious impacts on Bhutan’s water re-sources. The apparent threats due to GLOFs triggered by the fast-melting glaciers in the Himalayas are more prominent as our under-standing of the science of climate change due to global warming is becoming well-established. GLOFs will have serious im-pacts on life, properties and infrastructure development in the country. Climate change can also have serious implications on the natural flow-regulating capacity of glaciers thereby affecting the water resources in gen-eral and the sustainability of our hydropower plants in particular. Therefore, a coordinated approach to water resources management is

74


more pertinent now than ever before. (Responsible Agency: National Environment

Commission and other Ministries and Agen-

cies related to Water)

Strengthen water quality monitoring and

analysis capacity. This should include es-tablishment of a network of water quality monitoring units through out the country in a phased manner. To build on existing capac-ity and optimize use of limited resources, an option worth exploring would be of combin-ing these units with the existing hydro-meteorology stations managed by the De-partment of Energy. If this option is chosen, collaborative linkages between the NECS and DoE will need to be institutionalized for technical backstopping, data sharing and analysis. Another recommendation related to strengthening of water quality monitoring and analysis capacity is to expand the exist-ing network of river sediment recording sta-tions to cover more locations and rivers. (Responsible Agency: National Environment


with Department of Energy).

Carry out river water quality baseline

survey in the southern stretches. This is required to establish a comprehensive na-tional river water quality baseline. (Responsible Agency: National Environment

Commission Secretariat)

Declare a stretch of river basin or sub-

basin as totally protected to keep it free from any kind of intrusive development such as road construction, industrialization and hydropower development. Such a river basin will be useful for ecological research and comparative assessments of protected and non-protected river basins/ sub-basins to aid future decision-making. (Responsible Agen-

cies: National Environment Commission

Secretariat, Nature Conservation Division,

National biodiversity Centre)

Expansion of Sewerage System in Thim-

phu and Phuentsholing. In order to mini-mize pollution of river water, the sewerage system in Thimphu and Phuentsholing should be expanded to cover more areas of the cities. For instance, in Thimphu, the cov-

erage of the sewerage system currently is only 19% whereas, a study conducted by ADB suggests that the population of Thim-phu is expected to grow to 130,000 people by the year 2016. Therefore, the above trends indicate increasing pressure on our water resource and expansion of the sewer-age system is a must, in order to cater to the needs of the rapidly expanding areas of the cities. (Responsible Agencies: Ministry of

Works and Human Settlement, City Corpo-

rations of Thimphu and Phuentsholing)

Introduction of waste water treatment

and sewerage management facilities in

additional urban centers. Apart from Thimphu and Phuentsholing, other urban centers do not have waste water treatment and sewage management facilities. There is a need to introduce these facilities in other urban centers based on criteria such as popu-lation size, severity of water pollution prob-lem and techno-economic feasibility. (Responsible Agency: Department of Urban

Development and Engineering Services,

Ministry of Works and Human Settlement,

Dzongkhag Municipal Authorities)

Formulate and enact legislation and regu-

lations pertaining to water pollution. In order to provide legal and regulatory frame-work for the implementation of water qual-ity standards and mediation or litigation of disputes/ damages arising from water pollu-tion, there is the need to enact legislation and regulations related to water pollution. Ongoing work on Bhutan Water Act, the 2002 draft of which incorporated a chapter on water pollution, needs to be expedited and at the same time the chapter on water pollution needs to be strengthened. (Responsible Agency: National Environment



Improvement of mass public transport

system. While the overall scope of develop-ing mass public transport system in the country is restricted by the small number of commuters and geophysical constraint, there may be the possibility to expand the existing

75


city bus service in Thimphu and introduce a new one in Phuentsholing. (Responsible

Agencies: Road Safety and Transport Au-

thority, Thimphu City Corporation, Phuent-

sholing City Corporation and Bhutan Post)

Introduction of electric passenger buses

and cabs. There is the need to look at the possibility of introducing electric buses and cabs in view of the affordability and abun-dance of electricity in our country. Intro-duction of electric buses may be possible along routes with relatively gentle gradient, e.g. Babesa-Jungshina route in Thimphu. Introduction of electrical cabs may be pos-sible through state subsidy. (Responsible

Agencies: Road Safety and Transport Au-

thority, Thimphu City Corporation, and

Bhutan Post)

Explore the possibility of alternative fu-

els. The possibility of introducing alterna-tive fuels such as compressed natural gas, biogas, wind energy, hydrogen fuel, and solar energy may also be explored. (Responsible Agencies: National Environ-

ment Commission Secretariat, Department

of Trade, and Department of Energy)

Develop a comprehensive network of

pedestrian walkways in the urban centers, starting with Thimphu and Phuentsholing, to promote walking and reduce use of vehi-cles. (Responsible Agencies: Ministry of

Works and Human Settlements, Thimphu

and Phuentsholing City Corporations)

Full enforcement of vehicular emission

standards. Production of vehicle emission test certificate should be made mandatory during annual vehicle road worthiness in-spections. Furthermore, traffic police should be required to check vehicle emis-sion test certificate when checking driving license, vehicle registration certificate and insurance certificate. (Responsible Agen-

cies: Road Safety and Transport Authority

and Royal Bhutan Police Traffic Depart-

ment)

Introduction of fiscal instruments to dis-

courage vehicle import. At the present,

soft taxation and easy bank loans aid acqui-sition of motor vehicles. Heavier taxation structure for vehicle import and higher in-terest on motor vehicle loans would deter acquisition of motor vehicles. (Responsible

Agencies: National Environment Commis-

sion, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Ministry

of Finance and various financial institu-

tions)

Establishment of regular ambient air

quality monitoring and reporting system. There is an obvious need to establish a net-work of regular ambient air quality moni-toring units covering all major urban and industrial centers. Where such centers are expansive, more than one unit will be re-quired to capture site-related variations. For instance, in Thimphu there could be at least two additional units—one at Changzamtog Industrial Estate and the other in the city center—besides the one existing in Tashich-hoe Dzong premises. Similarly, monitoring stations should also be established in Phuentsholing and Pasakha Industrial Es-tate. Once a network of regular monitoring units has been established, NECS could launch a “Pollution Watch” reporting sys-tem in association with the Bhutan Broad-casting Service Television to inform the public about the pollution levels in major industrial and urban centers on a regular basis and issue public alerts whenever pol-lution levels cross permissible limits. In India, the Eureka Forbes Institute of Envi-ronment is implementing such a public re-porting system in association with the NDTV television network. (Responsible

Agency: National Environment Commission

Secretariat in coordination with Bhutan

Broadcasting Service)

Environmental performance reporting

by industries. There is a need for industries to integrate environmental performance reporting in their regular reporting system. Larger industries with potentially signifi-cant environmental impacts may need to produce separate environmental perform-ance reports. Such reports should specifi-cally outline the performance of the indus-tries against the various environmental stan-

76


dards and norms set by the NECS and MEA. Besides catering to NECS environ-mental reporting requirements, industries showing good environmental record can enhance their public image and use it for marketing purpose. In addition, industries should be encouraged to apply for interna-tional standards such as the ISO certifica-tion. (Responsible Agencies: Ministry of

Economic Affairs and National Environ-

ment Commission Secretariat)

Formulate and enact a Clean Air Act and

supporting regulations. This is needed to provide a legal and regulatory basis for en-forcement of emission standards and norms and for mediation or litigation of disputes/ damages that occur as a result of air pollu-tion. (Responsible Agency: National Envi-

ronment Commission Secretariat)


Revise the totally protected species list,

based on a set of national, regional and in-ternational criteria including the Red List of Threatened Species and CITES Appendices. The revision is ongoing but it needs to be expedited. (Responsible Agency: Depart-

ment of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture)

Develop and implement human-wildlife

conflict management strategies, using an integrated approach that combines fiscal (e.g. monetary compensation), social (e.g. community mobilization and awareness) and technological (e.g. planting of chilli along the periphery of agricultural fields to ward off elephant raids) interventions. (Responsible Agency: Department of For-

estry, Ministry of Agriculture)

Operationalize the conservation manage-

ment of Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary and

Torsa Strict Nature Reserve, beginning with the instatement of staff, development of conservation management plans, and construction of basic infrastructure such as park management office and warden posts. (Responsible Agency: Department of For-

estry, Ministry of Agriculture)

Strengthen the Agro Biodiversity Con-

servation Programme, through increased national funding, staff training and im-proved coordination between NBC, RNR Research Centers, and regional and dzongkhag agriculture and livestock sector programmes. (Responsible Agency: Na-

tional Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agri-

culture)

Formulate legislation for biosafety. If such an Act is not considered viable at the present, then it is vital to ensure that all necessary biosafety needs are fully incorpo-rated in the rules and regulations for imple-mentation of the Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003, the formulation of which is underway at the present. (Responsible Agencies: Na-

tional Environment Commission Secretariat

and National Biodiversity Center, Ministry

of Agriculture)

General Recommendations

Introduce integrated rural-urban plan-

ning, to address the issues of rural-urban migration and balanced regional urban de-velopment. (Responsible Agencies: Plan-

ning Commission Secretariat, Ministry of

Home and Cultural Affairs, Ministry of Ag-

riculture, and Ministry of Works and Hu-

man Settlement)

Discourage further expansion of Thim-

phu and Phuentsholing urban centers, and focus on developing other urban centers especially those in the central and eastern regions of the country to bring about a more regionally balanced urban development process. (Responsible Agency: Ministry of

Works and Human Settlement in coordina-

tion with Dzongkhag Administrations)

Develop human resources for environ-

mental assessment and monitoring. In close coordination with the Royal Civil Service Commission, develop human re-sources for environmental assessment and monitoring with the aim to appoint a Dzongkhag Environment Officer and an assistant in each dzongkhag, who can be fully dedicated to monitoring development

77


activities, implementation of environmental assessment and clearance process and pro-cedures and provide advisory services to the Dzongkhag Administration and Dzongkhag

Yargye Tshogdu on environmental matters concerning development programmes and activities at the dzongkhag and geog levels. A beginning could be made with the strate-gic assessment of 10th Five Year Plan. (Responsible Agency: Planning Commis-

sion in coordination with NECS and Royal

Civil Service Commission Secretariat)

Establish institutional mechanisms for

implementation of SEA. A starting point would be to create a SEA unit within the Planning Commission with trained staff (at least two) seconded from NECS or with new staff trained in SEA. Concurrently, SEA training should be conducted for plan-ning officers in the line ministries and Dzongkhag Administrations and SEA re-sponsibilities should be incorporated in their job description. (Responsible Agency:

National Environment Commission Secre-

tariat in coordination with Planning Com-

mission Secretariat and Royal Civil Service


Establish sustainable financing mecha-

nism for brown sector related environ-

mental management activities. This could be attempted through a number of options. One option is to establish a separate endow-ment fund through mobilization of contribu-tions from donor agencies, government sources and private sector companies. The second option is to establish a system of collection of fines and environmental ser-vice fees which could be ploughed back into an environmental management fund. The third option, and perhaps the most practicable, is to broaden the mandate of the Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Con-servation to accommodate brown sector related environmental management funding needs. The last one would require amend-

ment in the article through which BTF was incorporated in the Royal Charter and mo-bilization of additional capital to effectively meet the expanded mandate. (Responsible

Agency: Ministry of Finance, Bhutan Trust

Fund for Environmental Conservation, and

National Environment Commission Secre-

tariat)

Establish and institutionalize a robust

environmental information management

system to expeditiously generate reliable information and data. This recommendation is made in view of the persistent weakness in data collection, analysis, storage and dis-semination. While such a system is being developed by the NECS, to institutionalize and sustain it as a fully functional system, it is imperative for the NECS to regularly network with various institutions that are primary data sources and to develop consis-tent and mutually beneficial working rela-tionships with these institutions. (Responsible Agency: National Environ-

ment Commission Secretariat)

Create synergies between the three Rio

Conventions. The synergies and linkages between the three Rio Conventions of UN Climate Change Convention, UN Conven-tion on Biodiversity and UN Convention to Combat Desertification can be created through establishment of national task force or working groups on each of the three con-ventions. The task force/working groups should consists of all relevant stakeholders involved in the different fields of expertise. (Responsible Agency: National Environ-

ment Commission and the stakeholder Min-

istries).

Promote and enforce the Polluter Pays

Principle. In order to further strengthen existing efforts on environment conserva-tion, promote and enforce the polluter pays principle to discourage people from deliber-ately polluting the environment.

78


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servation management plan 2002/03 – 2006/07. Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Thim-phu NCD (2003) Jigme Singye Wangchuck National

Park: Conservation management plan July 2003 –

June 2007. Nature Conservation Division, Depart-ment of Forestry Services, Ministry of Agricul-ture, Thimphu NEC (1998) The Middle Path: Bhutan’s national

environment strategy. National Environment Commission, Thimphu NEC (2000) First Greenhouse Gas Inventory. National Environment Commission, Thimphu NEC (2000) Environmental Assessment Act,

2000. National Environment Commission, Thim-phu NEC (2002) Regulation for the Environmental

Clearance of Projects and Regulation on Strate-

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NEC (2002) Environment Sector Ninth Five Year

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ment. National Environment Commission, Thim-phu NSB (2004) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2003. National Statistical Bureau, Thimphu NSB (2004) Poverty Analysis Report, Bhutan. National Statistical Bureau, Thimphu NSB (2005) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2004. National Statistical Bureau, Thimphu NSB (2006) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2005. National Statistical Bureau, Thimphu NSB (2007) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2006. National Statistical Bureau, Thimphu Norbu UP (1998) Human-Nature Interactions and

Protected Area Management: A study of the situa-

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tional Park. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK RGoB (2000) Bhutan 2020: A vision for peace,

prosperity and happiness. Bhutan’s Vision Docu-ment, Planning Commission, Thimphu RGoB (2002) Ninth Plan Main Document (2002-

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for Master Plan for Forestry Development in

Bhutan. Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Food and Agriculture Or-ganization of the United Nations, Bangkok

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and Challenges in Forest Plantation. Paper pre-sented at Annual Forestry Conference 2005, Thimphu Tshering S and Tamang B (2004) Hydropower—

Key to Sustainable Socio-economic Development

of Bhutan. Bhutan country paper presented at the United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, 27-29 October, 2004, Beijing UNDP (2004) Outcome Evaluation of Energy and

Environment Portfolio. United Nations Develop-ment Programme, Thimphu UNDP (2005) Poverty Outcome Evaluation Re-

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Our Changing Environment. United Nations En-vironment Programme, Nairobi Wangchuk S (2005) The Changing Role of For-

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Mammals of Bhutan. Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu World Bank (2005) Project Appraisal Document

of Sustainable Land Management Project. World Bank, Washington DC. MoWHS (2007) Thimphu municipal Solid Waste Management Rules and Regulations 2007. Dept of Energy and TERI (2007) Energy Data Directory 2005

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www.dor.gov.bt. Website of the Department of Roads, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement www.moa.gov.bt. Website of the Ministry of Ag-riculture www.mti.gov.bt. Website of the Ministry of Trade and Industry www.nec.gov.bt. Website of the National Envi-ronment Commission www.rbge.org.uk. Website of the Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh www.redlist.org. IUCN’s website on red list of globally threatened species www.rma.gov.bt. Website of the Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan www.unep.org. Website of the United Nations Environment Programme www.wikipedia.org. An on-line encyclopedia www.wri.org. World Resources Institute’s web-site; and earthtrends.wri.org an on-line environ-mental information portal maintained by the World Resources Institute

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Appendix 1 BEO 2008 Indicators Framework

Pressure State Response

Land

Unsustainable agriculture (proportion of agriculture land on steep slopes, proportion of land under tseri)

Livestock population and density (animals per Km2)

Forest harvesting (annual wood supply and demand m3)

Forest fire occurrence (area burnt and incidents)

Conversion of agricultural and forest land (hectares)

Mining (number of mines and area under mining)

Infrastructure (km of roads and power transmission/distribution lines)

Solid waste generation (tons per year)

Population (growth rate, density and distribution)

Urbanization (urban population size, proportion of population living in ur-ban areas, rural-urban migration rate)

Proportion of land under agriculture

Proportion of land covered by forests

Degraded land (hectares)

Reforestation (hectares)

Community forests established (number and hectares)

Forest area covered by FMUs (number and hectares)

Area under sustainable land man-agememnt

Number of urban centers with solid waste management facility

Proportion of households con-nected to sewerage system

Solid waste recycling (tons/year)

Environment friendly road con-struction (km of roads covered)

Water

Gross and per capita water consump-tion/ demand (m3 per year)

Volume of domestic sewage discharge (m3 per year)

Volume of industrial effluent discharge (m3 per year)

Pesticide use (kg or equivalent liters)

Global warming of water sources (glacial retreat – meters per year)


Urbanization (urban population size, proportion of population living in ur-ban areas, rural-urban migration rate)


Water availability (m3 per year)

Water quality (DO, turbidity, conductivity, pH)

River sediment load (tons per km2)

Occurrence of water-borne diseases and related death (number of cases)

Number of potentially dan-gerous glacial lakes

Number of glacial lake out-burst floods in current his-tory

Proportion of population with access to improved water source

Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation

Volume of obsolete pesticides disposed (tones)

Percentage of industries meeting industrial discharge standards

Wastewater treatment (number of urban centers covered and volume treated)

Continued to next page

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Pressure State Response

Air

Vehicular population (number)

Vehicular population growth rate (percent per annum)

CO2 emission from road transport source (million kg)

Number of operational industrial li-censes.

CO2 emission from industry sector (million kg)

Per capita fuel wood consumption (tons per annum)

CO2 emission from domestic source (million kg)

Population (size, density, growth rate and age structure)

Urbanization (urban population size, proportion of population living in urban areas, rural-urban migration rate)

Per capita fuel wood consumption (tonnes/annum)

CO2 emissions from domestic sources (million kg)

PM10 concentration (µg/ m3)

Concentration of oxides of

sulphur and nitrogen ((µg/ m3)

Average annual number of respiratory diseases related hospital referral cases (number).

Average annual number of respiratory disease related deaths (number).

Proportion of households using cleaner sources of energy (%)

Number of mass public trans-port operators and the size of their fleet

Number of urban centers with public bus service

Enforcement of vehicular emis-sion standards (percentage of vehicles meeting the standards)

Enforcement of industrial emis-sion standards (percentage of industries meeting the stan-dards)

Number of trans-boundary air pollution monitoring stations

Biodiversity

Illicit fuel wood and timber extraction (number of cases)

Wildlife poaching (number of cases)

Estimated monetary value of crop dam-age by wild boar each year (Nu. Million)

Estimated monetary value of livestock depredation each y ear (Nu. Million)

Overgrazing—livestock population and density (animals per km2)

Forest harvesting (annual wood supply and demand m3)

Forest fire occurrence (area burnt and incidents)

Infrastructure development (km of roads and power transmission/ distribution lines)



Urbanization (urban population size, proportion of population living in urban areas, rural-urban migration rate)

Wild species diversity (number of species of mam-mals, birds, plants, herpeto-fauna, etc)

Number of globally threat-ened wildlife species found in the country

Domestic species diversity (number of crop and live-stock varieties)

Ecosystem diversity (forest and vegetation types, other habitats)

Number of species accorded total protection by law

Number of protected areas op-erational.

Area covered by national pro-tected areas systems (hectares)

Number of crop and livestock varieties covered by agro-biodiversity and RNR research programmes

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Appendix 2 BEO 2008 Preparation Team

Data Collection, Analysis and Report Writing

Ugen P. Norbu, Consultant, Norbu Samyul Con-sulting for Environment and Development Karma L. Rapten, Dy. Chief Environment Officer, National Environment Commission Secretariat Rinzin Namgay, Data Manager, National Environ-ment Commission Secretariat.

Editorial and Review:

Thinley Namgyel, National Environment Commis-sion Choeky Wangmo, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Tshering Dorji, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Advisory and Preparatory Support Dasho Nado Rinchhen, Deputy Minister, National Environment Commission Secretariat David Annandale, Chief Technical Advisor (Danida), National Environment Commission Secretariat Oversight and Coordination

Karma L. Rapten, Dy. Chief Environment Officer, National Environment Commission Secretariat G Karma Chophel, Senior Environment Officer, National Environment Commission Secretariat

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Appendix 3 Participants at the BEO Inception Workshop

Karma L. Rapten, Head, Research, Monitoring and Statistics Section Jigme, Sr. Environment Officer, Research, Moni-toring and Statistics Section, National Environ-ment Commission Secretariat

David Annandale, Chief Technical Advisor (Danida), National Environment Commission Secretariat Namgay Bidha, Legal Assistant, National Envi-ronment Commission Secretariat Ritu Raj Chhetri, Head, National Ozone Unit, National Environment Commission Secretariat Sonam Choki, Engineer, Department of Roads, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement Sonam Desel, Environment Assessment Officer, Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

Tandi Dorji, Communication Officer, National Environment Commission Secretariat

Sangay Dorji, Head, Environment Unit, Ministry of Economic Affairs

Singay Dorji, Programme Officer, National Bio-diversity Center Kiran Mahat, Research Officer, National Plant Protection Center, Ministry of Agriculture Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agricul-ture, Ministry of Agriculture Ugen P. Norbu, Consultant, Norbu Samyul Con-sulting for Environment and Development

Karma C. Nyedrup, Dy. Chief Environment Offi-cer, National Environment Commission Secre-tariat Tshering Peldon, Librarian, National Environ-ment Commission Secretariat Narayan Pradhan, General Manager, Natural resources Development Corporation Ltd.

Purna C.L. Rajbhandari, Senior Programme Offi-cer, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, United Nations Environment Programme Tshewang Rinchen, Administrative Officer, Na-tional Environment Commission Secretariat

Ugen Tenzin, Chief Programme Officer, Policy and Coordination Division, National Environment Commission Secretariat

Dolay Tshering, Programme Officer, Energy and Environment Unit, United Nations Development Programme Karma Tshering, Assistant Programme Officer, Policy and Coordination Division, National Envi-ronment Commission Secretariat Sonam Yangley, Director, National Environment Commission Secretariat Jigme Zangmo, Environmental Technician, Na-tional Environment Commission Secretariat Jinhua Zhang, Acting Regional Director, Re-gional Office for Asia and the Pacific, United Nations Environment Programme

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Appendix 4 List of People Contacted for Information/ Data

Jigme, National Environment Commission Secre-tariat

Tshewang, National Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agriculture

G Karma Chophel, National Environment Com-mission Secretariat

Sonam Desel, Policy and Planning Division, Min-istry of Works and Human Settlement

Tshering Dhendup, Marketing Section, Druk Seed Corporation, Paro D.B. Dhital, Forest Resources Development Divi-sion, Department of Forestry Dimple Thapa, Forest Resources Development Division, Department of Forestry

Dr. Lam Dorji, Royal Society for the Protection of Nature Rinchen Dorji, National Biodiversity Center, Min-istry of Agriculture Rinzin Dorji, Policy and Planning Division, Min-istry of Economic Affairs

Sangay Dorji, Environment Unit, Ministry of Eco-nomic Affairs

Singay Dorji, National Biodiversity Center, Min-istry of Agriculture

Tandin Dorji, Forest Fire Section, Social Forestry Division, Department of Forestry

Dr. Thinley Dorji, National Plant Protection Cen-ter, Ministry of Agriculture

Ugyen Dorji, Managing Proprietor, Yangki Auto-mobiles

Karma Drubchu, Hydrometeorology Services Division, Department of Energy K.N. Ghimirey, Forest Plantation Section, Social Forestry Division, Department of Forestry Ganesh Gurung, Environment Unit, Thimphu City Corporation

Kinley Gyeltshen, Thimphu City Bus Service, Bhutan Post Tenzin Khorlo, Sr. Environment Officer, National Environment Commission Secretariat Chencho Norbu, Director, Ministry of Agriculture

Nidup Peljor, Policy and Planning Division, Min-istry of Agriculture Sonam Penjor, Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture Namgay Phuntsho, Phuentsholing City Corpora-tion

Karma L. Rapten, National Environment Com-mission Secretariat

Pashupati Sharma, Hydrometeorology Services Division, Department of Energy Rinchen Ongmo, Royal Society for the Protection of Nature

Sonam Tamang, National Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agriculture Sangay Tempa, Census Commission

Karma J. Temphel, Community Forestry Section, Social Forestry Division, Department of Forestry

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Chado Tshering, Social Forestry Division, De-partment of Forestry Karma Tshering, Department of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs

Nedup Tshering, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat Dr. Sangay Wangchuk, Nature Conservation Divi-sion, Department of Forestry

Karma Wangdi, Sewerage/ Wastewater Treatment Plant, Thimphu City Corporation Sonam Wangmo, Infectious/ Health Waste Pro-gramme, Ministry of Health

Kado Zangpo, Health Information Unit, Ministry of Health Sonam Wangyel Wang, Nature Conservation Di-vision, Department of Forest, Ministry of Agricul-ture Tasho Dorji, Department of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs Sherub, Nature Conservation Division, Depart-ment of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture Karma Gayley, Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture

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Appendix 5 Distribution List of Drafts of BEO 2008 Report

Jigme, National Environment Commission Secre-tariat

David Annandale, National Environment Com-mission Secretariat

Ritu Raj Chettri, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Tek B. Chettri, Liaison Office of Denmark, Thim-phu

Sonam Choki, Department of Roads, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

G Karma Chophel, National Environment Com-mission Secretariat

Karma Chophel, Hydro Meteorology Services Division, Department of Energy

Pasang Dema, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Sonam Desel, Environment Unit, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

Dr. Lam Dorji, Royal Society for the Protection of Nature

Lobzang Dorji, Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture

Sangay Dorji, Environment Unit, Ministry of Eco-nomic Affairs

Singay Dorji, National Biodiversity Center, Min-istry of Agriculture

Tandi Dorji, National Environment Commission Secretariat

Thinley Dorji, National Environment Commission Secretariat

Tshewang Dorji, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Dungkar Dukpa, Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

Kumbu Dukpa, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Ichharam Dulal, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

Richard Geier, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

Sangay Gyeltshen, Department of Geology and Mines, Ministry of Economic Affairs

Mylvakanam Iyngararasan, UNEP Regional Re-source Center for the Asia and Pacific, Bangkok

Kezang Jamtsho, Department of Agriculture, Min-istry of Agriculture Tenzin Khorlo, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat P.K. Kotta, South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme

Sonam Lhaden, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Kiran Mahat, National Plant Protection Center, Ministry of Agriculture

Rinzin Namgay, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Tobgay S. Namgyel, Bhutan Trust Fund for Envi-ronmental Conservation

Chencho Norbu, Director, Ministry of Agriculture

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Karma C. Nyedrup, National Environment Com-mission Secretariat Rinchen Ongmo, Royal Society for the Protection of Nature

Yeshey Penjor, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Mahesh Pradhan, UNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok

Narayan Pradhan, Forestry Development Corpo-ration Limited

Purna C.L. Rajbhandari, UNEP Regional Re-source Center for the Asia and Pacific, Bangkok

Dr. Surendra Shrestha, UNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok Dr. Subrato Sinha, UNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok

Tunnie Srisakulchairak, UNEP Regional Re-source Center for the Asia and Pacific, Bangkok

Tshering Tashi, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Chadho Tenzin, Food and Agriculture Organiza-tion of the United Nations, Thimphu

Ugen Tenzin, National Environment Commission Secretariat

Dr. Dechen Tsering, UNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok

Chado Tshering, Social Forestry Division, De-partment of Forestry

Doley Tshering, Energy and Environment Unit, UNDP, Thimphu

Karma Tshering, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Kinga Tshering, Department of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs

Nedup Tshering, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat

Dr. Tashi Wangchuk, UNDP, Thimphu Sonam Yangley, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat Deki Yonten, Policy and Planning Division, Min-istry of Agriculture Jigme Zangmo, National Environment Commis-sion Secretariat Tshewang Zangmo, National Environment Com-mission Secretariat Jinhua Zhang, UNEP Regional Resource Center for the Asia and Pacific, Bangkok

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National Environment Commission

Royal Government of Bhutan

Logo of the National Environment Commission

The design of the logo is based on the concept of the four life

forces (Jungwa Zhi), namely, EARTH, WATER, FIRE and WIND.

These four elements make up Mother Nature.

The lush green mountain represents Earth.

The blue swirling river represents Water in all its abundance.

The gentle curving clouds represents Wind.

The yellow-orange background (also alluding to the colors of

the national flag) or the sun itself represents Fire.