FROM THE NEW WORLD

Exhibition at the Palmengarten, Frankfurt, Germany

16 May – 22 Sep. 2013

English texts by Theodor C. H. Cole

European grocery shops nowadays are stocked with fresh fruit and vegetables derived

from plants that are native to the Americas. Many customers take this produce for

granted without being aware that they once "sailed the ocean blue" on long journeys in

order to reach Europe and initially either were regarded as oddities or were as precious

as gold: potatoes, tomatoes, beans, pumpkin, avocado, pineapple, corn, cocoa, as well

as spices like vanilla and chili. Europe also owes credit to the Americas for many of the

now common park and forest trees and horticultural plants.

The exhibition covers the historic past, European exploration, overseas trade, and a

selection of plants that created curiosity and excitement among Europeans encountering

the New World. Six geographic regions from north to south are introduced along with 26

prominent food plants whose origins stretch from the North American forests, the Central

American highlands, and down to the tip of South America – some are now integrated as

everyday foods in Europe and around the World, others less known but still with great

potential. Exciting details are presented about the plants' origins and domestication in

ancient times, their native ecosystems, the long journeys in reaching Europe, and their

botanical and culinary features. Please, enjoy!

The Settling of North America First traces of humans in central Alaska have been recorded for the time of the last glacial period at around 15.500 years ago. Stone-age hunter-gatherers migrated in from NE Asia via the Bering Strait; at the time, the two continents were connected by a narrow land bridge. As the glaciers receded, ice-free gaps formed around 11.000 years ago within the area of today's central Canadian grassland provinces, and people started spreading south. The first Europeans to have reached the New World were the Vikings at around 1000 A.D. – Leif Eriksson and his people could only manage to survive for some very few years in Newfoundland, however. It is likely that other precolumbian expeditions from Europe occurred in early times. Soon after Columbus' first voyages to South America, the British, French and Spanish also explored the North American coastline and intruded further inland. Eventually the Spanish reached the West Coast and European colonization set in. British colonies were established along the East Coast. In 1741 the first Europeans coming from Asia started arriving on the West Coast on a Russian-led expedition by Vitus Bering, which was also followed by colonization. Alaska was sold to the U.S.A. in 1867. Trade societies were already involved in the exploitation of the continent in the 17th century. The United States of America were declared independent in 1776, ending the War of Independence of 1775–1783 and the rest of the continent was gradually settled by Europeans who took possession of most of the land; railroads were built to provide better access to the West; native American populations lost their sovereignty. Precolumbian Cultures of Central and South America The historic settlement of America most likely occurred in waves of exploration and emigration of groups of people from eastern Asia – much of the details of this process are still not fully understood. The Mesoamerican cultural realm extends from southern Mexico down to the Nicoya Peninsula of Costa Rica. Early traces of human activity in Mexico have been dated at 40.000–33.000 B.C. Around 1500 B.C. there was an early cultural center in the Tehuacán Valley of Mexico, which seems to have influenced all later cultures of the region. The Mayas developed an own script and a calendar. The 8th century marks the peak of this culture, the famous pyramids being from this era. The Central American region is less uniform in cultural terms and bears elements of Mesoamerican, Caribbean, and South American influence. The most highly developed precolumbian cultures existed in the South American Andes. Evidence of agricultural practice has been found in the region of today's Peru dating back to 9000 B.C. The oldest compact American city was also excavated in Peru (Caral; ca. 2600 B.C., discovered in 1996). The Valdivian culture is the oldest know from America, having centered in the northern Andes (Ecuador) around 3000 B.C. The Incas are generally the most widely known high culture of South America. They ruled the area from the 13th to 16th centuries – their capital Cuzco was founded at the end of the 12th century. Two years after the Europeans had arrived in the Americas, Pope Alexander VI. divided South America between Spain and Portugal – Brazil became Portuguese. Gold discoveries in Mexico led the Spanish monarchy to subdue the Inca Empire. The majority of Incas died from introduced diseases and hard slave labor. The mission was exploitation, including an export-oriented agricultural development (e.g., sugarcane). Once the indigenous population had been decimated, the Spanish and Portuguese started a slave trade from Africa to supply the necessary workers for their plantations. Today South America is a melting pot of people from all these diverse backgrounds.

North American Coniferous and Deciduous Forests

South of the permafrost arctic tundra, the vegetation in northern America is forest –

first a zone of fairly exclusive conifers, which blends into mixed forests of conifers

with broadleaf deciduous trees of the various kinds – from east to west and up into

Alaska. The main types of conifers are evergreen spruces, firs, pines, with occasional

hemlocks and arbor vitae – mostly forming extensive natural monocultures. Such

primordial forests still exist in large parts of Canada and are considered – along with

the tropical forests – as crucially important ecological "lungs" for our planet. In the

undergrowth there are mushrooms and ferns (look for fiddleheads*!), but few

flowering plants; here and there, along the fringes of the forest and in boggy soils you

can find cranberries* – if the birds don't get them before you do!

Mixed forests are more typical to the south and towards the east. Further to the south

and with increasing precipitation and temperatures the number of conifers decreases

and eventually broadleaf trees such as beech, maples, hickory, oaks, and sasafras

start to dominate. Soils are deep and rich through the decomposing leaves favoring a

more diverse undergrowth of annuals and there's a much better chance for

springtime flowers. The spectacular change of the colors during Indian Summer,

typical of the Appalachians and Smoky Mountains, attracts millions of tourists every

year.

Prairie – North American Grasslands

Between the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains, from southern Canada to

northern Mexico – lies the great expanse of flat to slightly hilly, but relatively dry

terrain of short-grass and tall-grass prairies – typical of the Mid-West and Great

Plains of the United States ... cattle and buffalo country – land of herbivores and

carnivores!

Prairies have annual precipitation ranging from 250–1000 mm and it can be very

windy (tornadoes!) due to the enormous temperature fluctuations. Vegetation is

mostly grasses, but intermixed with legumes and composites of the various sorts.

The plants, especially the grasses, develop a fibrous root system which firmly holds

on to the soil in order to keep it from blowing away. The low amount of precipitation

along with fires and grazing animals have kept the number of shrubs and trees down

that otherwise would eventually dominate. Human activities have largely altered this

landscape now and some areas are even turning into desert if not properly managed.

Mexico – Cradle of Diverse Economic Plants

Mexico, due to its different climatic zones, has been a center of biodiversity;

stretching from the northern temperate grasslands and deserts to the southern

tropical forests – from the fertile tropical lowlands of Yucatan to the tallest mountains

such as the volcanic Popocatépetl. The Tehuacán-Cuicatlán biosphere reserve in

Oaxaca and Puebla is particularly rich in endemic plants and animals due to its

extreme variations in topography, altitudes, soils and climates.

Native Central Americans in ancient times domesticated, cultivated, and used quite

many of those food plants that today are extensively grown throughout the World,

serving as basic staple foods for a vast number of people on Earth. Maya, Aztecs,

Olmecs, Toltecs all based their splendid cultures on the availability of nutritious foods

that included beans*, corn*, pumpkins and squash, tomatoes*, avocado, papaya*,

bell peppers, agaves*, amaranth, and cocoa.

* plants displayed in our exhibition

The Amazon – Tropical Rain Forest Along a Majestic River

The lush evergreen rain forest covering the great expanse of central and northern

Brazil and parts of Peru are humid and hot with daily downpours nourishing the big

rivers and providing the water for a fascinating, throbbing diversity of plant and

animal life.

Dense stands of tall-growing trees (up to 60 m) form a compact canopy and block out

the light down below. Life is a constant competition for light! Epiphytes and vining

plants abound, all trying to reach the light. Species diversity is at its highest here. Yet

individual plants of one and the same kind are spaced so far apart as to appear to be

rare.

Tropical rain forests are strongly endangered by deforestation and environmental

exploitation of resources and thus require to be protected as they crucially contribute

to the climatic balance on Earth and also to preserve the remaining precious plants

and animals, many of which have already become extinct.

In our exhibition we introduce cassava, guaraná, pineapple, and passion fruit as

typical plants originating in the Amazon or adjacent areas.

Andean Mountains – Tubers and Grains

The enormous Andes stretch out at a length of 7500 km from Venezuela down to the

tip of Chile and Patagonia – the highest peaks reaching heights of close to 7000 m

with snow and eternal ice and there are many active volcanoes. Between the main

mountain chains are deep valleys and high plateaus which had been settled in

ancient times by Incas, Moche, and Chimú and who cultivated many of the food

plants that they encountered there: potatoes*, tomatoes*, sweet potatoes*, ulluco*,

oca*, canna*, tuber nasturtium* (isaño, añu, mashua), quinoa, amaranths all are

native to the Andes and have a long agricultural tradition.

The Peruvian Andes are characterized by a clear vegetational zonation: desert-like

along the southern coast, tropical rain forest up to about 1000 m elevation, moist

mountain forest above 1000 m, and cloud forest between 2000 and 3500 m altitude.

The latter allows for intense agriculture of potatoes and wheat and cattle ranging, so

that the number of people inhabiting this area is quite high (Machu Picchu is located

at 2360 m elevation). Timberline is at around 3500 m. Mountain grassland and tundra

dominate this high-altitude landscape, and the common grazing sheep, llamas,

alpacas, and vicuñas provide the basis for an otherwise very strenuous human

existence in very thin air.

* plants displayed at our exhibition

The Tip of South America – Land of Araucarias ... and "Native" Strawberries

The topography of the southern tip of South America varies drastically, and accordingly

there are big differences in the type of vegetation in these regions of Chile and Argentina

– deserts, shrub grasslands, seasonal dry forests, and even temperate rain forest.

Southern Chile is moderate to cold and humid and this region is characterized by

Southern Beech (Nothofagus) and extensive Araucaria forests. The Valdivian rain forest

reaches down to about –49° latitude. The chilly South is dominated by low prostrate

shrubs, heath, and bogs – continuous, dry winds strongly affect the overall vegetation.

The great expanse of the Argentinean pampas are dry grassland ideally suited for cattle

ranging.

Our exhibition introduces our commercial strawberry as having partly originated from a

southern Chilean ancestor species that, once having reached Europe, was accidentally

crossed with a North American strawberry to become what we nowadays delightfully

enjoy – our favorite European springtime "fruit" (mostly imported from Spain) would not

be possible without its Patagonian ancestor!

SUGAR MAPLE: HOW SWEET A TREE CAN BE! A maple leaf adorns the National flag of Canada – the leaf of the sugar maple! Sugar maples together with the American beech (Fagus grandifolia) dominate the higher ranges of the mixed deciduous forests of the Appalachians. The sweet sap obtained by tapping the tree trunks has been used as a natural sweetener since ancient times to make maple syrup and maple sugar. Harvesting begins in March from trees that are at least 40 years old. While traditional harvesting used wooden or metal buckets, today's highly mechanized harvesting technology applies vacuum pumps that draw the sap through tubing systems directly into the processing facilities (historically called "sugar houses") where the fresh sap is boiled and concentrated into syrup. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• mature trees up to 40 meters in height • natural range extends from the Northeast down to Guatemala • several local subspecies • yellow pentamerous radial flowers borne in cymes, appear prior to foliage in

early spring • dehiscent fruit disintegate upon seed maturation into two winged fruitlets that

spin to the ground like a helicopter, carried by the wind • foliage in autumn displays in splendid hues of yellow, crimson, and orange

('change of the colors', Indian Summer) • maple syrup: four grades according to translucence, from light and mild to dark

and strong. The grading systems vary between the U.S. and Canada: Grade A light amber = No. 1 extra light Grade A medium amber = No. 1 light Grade A dark amber = No. 1 medium Grade B = No. 2 amber

OSTRICH FERN: FIDDLEHEADS – A NEW CULINARY EXPERIENCE

The ostrich fern grows throughout the Northern Hemisphere in temperate coniferous and mixed forest biomes, including some few spots in Germany. There it is a common horticultural plant popularly grown in gardens, parks, and cemeteries. It spreads readily by underground runners to the point of sometimes becoming annoying and hardly controllable. The green fiddleheads start to grow in early spring, eventually unrolling and forming a whorl of symmetrically arranged, attractive lush-green fronds. In summer, shorter sterile spore-forming leaves develop inside the funnel which turn dark brown, loosing their chlorophyll and exclusively serving the function of reproduction – these bear a resemblance to ostrich feathers to which the plant owes its name. In North America the young shoots are called "fiddleheads" or "croziers", in Japan "kogomi", and are a common springtime vegetable. Eating ostrich fern "fiddleheads" is virtually unknown in Germany and thus has a culinary potential. Because ostrich ferns are rare in the wild, they are protected by German Law and should under no circumstances be harvested in nature. Please refer to commercial horticultural and gardening outlets for plants which can be easily cultivated in Central Europe – or to order imported deep-frozen croziers through local suppliers. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• short, but erect stem • habitat: shady • soils: generally moist (but not waterlogged) • green trophophylls (up to 1.5 m), sterile; inside marked by a deep groove (U-

shaped, trough-like appearance); young green fronds called "fiddleheads" (croziers)

• brown spore-bearing sporophylls (up to 0.5 m), resemble ostrich feathers • young fiddleheads safe to eat (blanching/cooking!); asparagus-like flavor

CRANBERRIES – ESSENTIAL TO A TRADITIONAL THANKSGIVING DINNER Cranberry sauce is essential – along with roasted turkey – for the traditional North American Thanksgiving dinner meal since the Europeans arrived along the East Coast some four hundred years ago. Collecting the fruits in the woods, as they had learned from the local indigenous peoples, helped them survive the first chilly winters. Today, cranberries have become a major industrial crop being cultivated by modern agricultural techniques. The huge plantations on marshy soils are flooded at harvesting time; the mature cranberries are then loosened by raking and, because of the air-chambers in the mature fruit, they then float on top of the water from where they are scooped. In Germany, cranberries have recently become a popular import item, often found in supermarkets as dried fruit or juice, while fresh cranberries are available here only in late autumn. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• evergreen, prostrate shrublets • Canada and eastern U.S. down to Virginia (also Siberia) • marshy, sandy soils • pink, beak-like flowers on curved stalk → "craneberry" → cranberry • red berries, ∅ 1–2 cm, tart-sour flavor • 4 air chambers • high in vitamin C, iron • may prevent urinary tract infections • European cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus) berries ∅ 0.6–0.8 cm

SUNFLOWER AND JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE: SOLAR SISTERS The genus Helianthus consists of about 50 species, all being native to North and Central America, several of which having been used by native North Americans since ancient times. Sunflowers have been cultivated for more than 4000 years, initially along the Mississippi, throughout Mexico, and into Central America. As early as 1552, Spanish explorers introduced sunflowers to Europe – at first they were cultivated strictly as ornamental plants. Oil production became widespread only in the 19th century. Today sunflowers are one of the leading oil crops worldwide. Jerusalem artichokes (also called sunchokes) are neither from Jerusalem nor are they related to artichokes. The name is a corruption from the French (Italian) girasole (girasola) meaning sunflower, and the Arabic al churshūf referring to a thistle or thorny plant. It's taste also resembles that of artichokes. The tubers were important for early French settlers and reached Europe around 1610 where they were admired as "miracle plants" having "rescued lives". The French name "topinambour" (German: Topinambur) must have resulted from the coincidence that, at the time, representatives of the Brazilian Topinambos tribe were residing at the French Court. At first an exotic delicacy, it developed into a staple food in Europe as well, soon to become displaced by potatoes which have a considerably longer shelf life. In Europe, sunchokes are spreading readily along river banks and are competing with the local endemic flora. The distilled spirit "Topinambur" is a specialty of Baden in southwest Germany. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• disk-like flower head (capitulum) composed of multiple single flowers (central tubular disk florets and peripheral irregular ray florets)

• fruit a one-seeded achene • sunflower:

o annual o up to 4 m o flower head up to ∅ 0.5 m o seeds: 23% protein, 50% mostly polyunsaturated fat, vitamin E

• Jerusalem artichoke: o perennial, deciduous o up to 2–3 m o short-day plant: flowers in late summer/early fall o tubers (rhizomes) white, yellow, or reddish; high in inulin, fructose,

potassium; taste similar to artichoke

CORN – MAIZE: A GIANT AMERICAN GRASS, NOW WORLD #1 GRAIN CROP An ancient Mexican food plant, in cultivation there for more than 6000 years. Today's corn is derived from the much smaller wild maize (teosinte, Zea mexicana). Traditionally maize was grown in mixed crops with beans and pumpkins-squash, the beans using the cornstalks as supports and the cucurbit serving to keep weeds out. The Mayas and Aztecs worshiped maize gods (Tonsured, Centeotl and others). COLUMBUS encountered corn on his first journeys. Maize arrived in Spain in 1493, where it initially was referred to as "Turkish Corn“, as the plants apparently first reached the Near East, and were cultivated there, prior to becoming know to Europeans. Maize was able to overcome problems with other grain crops at the time and alleviate hunger, but its lack of certain essential amino acids and vitamin B3 again led to malnourishment and pellagra. The availability of a more varied and balanced diet eventually improved general health and well-being – while the traditional Mexican combination with beans and squash never made pellagra nor amino acid deficiency a real health issue in the Americas. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• robust annual grass (up to > 3 m) • male flowers in terminal tassels, female flowers with long styles (silk) • "ears" = "corn cobs" (an infructescence), enclosed by husks, composed of

kernels, each of which an actual one-seeded fruitlet • seed color may vary from white, yellow, purple, to black • different types are: flint, sweet, dent, waxy, soft, baby corn, and popcorn • starch in the endosperm, some protein and fats (→ corn oil) in the embryo • lacking the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan; vitamin B

BEANS: MAJOR SOURCE OF PROTEINS ... NOT ONLY FOR VEGETARIANS! Beans of the genus Phaseolus originated in Mexico, and have been cultivated in Central and South America, and the southern parts of North America for thousands of years – especially important are the common beans (Ph. vulgaris) and scarlet runner beans (Ph. coccineus). The classical American Indian food plant triangle consisted of beans, maize, and pumpkin – which are mutually complementary foods on the basis of their different nutrient content and nutritonal value. The Spaniards brought both of these plants to Europe in the 16th century, which due to their superior adaptability and disease resistance largely led to the displacement of the Old-World fava beans (Vicia faba). BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS Common beans (Ph. vulgaris)

• annuals, either: - climbing-twining (var. vulgaris): pole beans - bushy, erect (var. nanus), max. 60 cm: bush beans

• flower colors: white, greenish, pink, or purple • pods up to 30 cm long • seeds oblong to kidney-shaped: white, brown, purple, black • high protein content: 20–24%

Scarlet runner beans (Ph. coccineus)

• perennials • flowers: orange-red • huge, hairy pods with 3–5 huge seeds • seeds kidney-shaped, usually purple and mottled • today mainly cultivated in Central and Northern Europe

Beans should never be consumed raw and uncooked – pods and seeds contain the toxic proteins called lectins, which cause nausea, diarrhea, and in serious cases of poisoning can be fatal. The lectins are destroyed by cooking for 15–20 minutes.

PITAHAYA: SPECTACULAR "DRAGON FRUIT" Long cultivated by the Aztecs for their juicy, edible cacti fruit, pitahaya was introduced to Vietnam in the early 20th century by the French, but only recently became more popular in Europe. Today they are widely grown as export produce in Columbia, Nicaragua, Vietnam, China, and Israel. Trellises or live trees serve as supports for easier harvesting of the spineless fruits; their color and scales resemble common features of Chinese dragons. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• hemiepiphytic creeper-climber; aerial roots (attaching to objects) • stems: ∅ 3–5 mm, up to 6 m long; three-angled (ribs); spiny • flowers: huge (∅ up to 30 cm and equally long) fragrant, white, nightbloomer

(only one night); self-sterile: usually pollinated by hand in cultivation • fruits: spineless, pink to red, up to 600 g each; fruit pulp white to dark red • seeds: small (1–2 mm), black, digestible • ideal as buffet "decoration" (curiosity!), for drinks, cocktails, and for fruit salads • taste: relatively bland with mild sweetness (associations with melon–kiwi–

pumpkin) • nutritional value: 50 kcal per 100 g; vitamin C

AGAVES: SPINY, FLESHY, STRONG ... BUT SWEET! Also referred to as century plants – flowering only once at full maturity after many years at the end of their lifetime, exhausting themselves in the process of reproduction. There are more than 200 species in this genus centered in Mexico and Central America, but various species are native to North and South America. Agaves yield beverages, fiber, soap, and medicinals and have been used by the native Americans from ancient times. The impressive, dramatic appearance of huge mature plants of Agave americana led early explorers to bring specimens to Europe in the 15th century, and the first blooming century plant was publically displayed in 1583 in the botanical garden of Pisa. Agaves became prestigious collector items for exotic and succulent gardens throughout Europe, now many species are common household plants. In 1658, one specimen in Stuttgart was recorded to bear 12,000 individual flowers. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS Agave americana

• massive, fleshy, fibrous-leaved succulents (∅ up to 4 m) forming a rosette with stout, swollen base

• flowering stalk ('stem' or 'mast') up to 12 m tall; massively branched with thousands of flowers

• readily spreads by suckers ('pups')/offsets from the stem base/roots and can become invasive, as particularly in the Mediterranean (bulbils rare for this species!)

• aguamiel (honey water) is collected from the heart of the plant after chopping down the flower stalk shortly before the flowering-fruiting stage; concentrated into agave nectar or syrup or fermented into pulque and distilled into mezcal; often bottled with the typical 'mezcal worm', a moth caterpillar or weevil larva (pulque from Agave tequilana is distilled into the higher-grade tequila)

MARIGOLDS FOR HONORING THE DEAD Marigolds, most species of which originating from Mexico, had already been used by the Aztecs for decoration, for rituals, and as medicinal plants. The ritual use of marigolds still persists today in the traditional celebration of "Día de Muertos", honoring the deceased ancestors on the first two days of November. It is a joyful gathering of friends and family to remember family members and friends who have died. Mexicans build private altars and decorate graves with sugar skulls, prepare the favorite foods of the deceased, and spread marigolds all around. The souls of the dead are allegedly attracted by bright yellow-orange colors, which explains the choice of marigolds for this purpose. Marigolds were brought to Europe in the early days of Spanish exploration. The signet marigold (T. tenuifolia) was distributed all over Europe via the Botanical Gardens of Madrid at the end of the 18. century. They profusely produce seeds and are easy to cultivate and thus quickly became a horticultural favorite. In Germany they are referred to as "Studentenblumen" (student flowers) in reference to the colorful student caps worn in the 19th century. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• about 50 species of Tagetes • mostly annuals, few perennials, shrubs and half-hardy subshrubs • leaves often aromatic: lobed or pinnate • flowers single or multiple, profusely forming throughout the year • horticultural favorites: T. patula, T. erecta, and T. tenuifolia • popular aromatic herbs (e.g., Mexican tarragon, T. lucida) • herbal teas, medicinal plants • insect repellents

PAPAYA – SWEET N' TART TROPICAL FRUIT OR VEGETABLE Papayas had been cultivated by the Mayas, and were distributed from Mexico to Central and South America long before the Europeans arrived in the Americas. In the 16th century, Spanish and Portuguese colonists carried them to the West Indies, on to the East Indies, and soon they were spread throughout the tropics. The popular and commercially widely available papaya variety 'Solo' yields small pear-shaped fruits. There are several other kinds of papayas: the mountain papaya (Carica pubescens) is a smaller (3–5 m) plant than it's more popular 'big brother' and forms smaller five-angled fruits. The babaco (Carica x pentagona), which is a natural hybrid between the mountain papaya and the siglalon (C. stipulata), forms larger, oblong, and seedless fruit which are more acid and more flavorful. Papayas have become an essential food throughout the tropics especially among the poorer rural populace as the plants thrive well in relatively poor soils and fruit are usually borne on plants year-round. As a leading World crop, annual papaya production now exceeds 10 million tons. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• giant perennial herb, robust stem reaching up to 9 m tall • strictly tropical (21–33°C; never less than 12°C at night) • separate male/female plants or hermaphrodites • flowers scented; pollinated by nocturnal moths • fruiting year-round • seeds germinate readily; also edible • eaten full-ripe as a fruit in desserts a.o., or pre-ripe as a vegetable • latex in peel of unripe fruits contains papain, a proteolytic enzyme → medicinal

use, textile/food processing (meat tenderizer) • sulfur-containing glucosinolates responsible for a slight 'musty' flavor • vitamins A and C, calcium; carotene, lycopene

PINEAPPLE: NEITHER A PINE NOR AN APPLE Pineapple had long been cultivated by native Americans before the arrival of the Europeans. It originated from the lowlands of northern South America and was spread from there to Central America – COLUMBUS encountered them in Guadeloupe. The Portuguese eventually distributed them throughout the tropics. As the fleshy fruit are highly perishable it was rare to find pineapples in Europa before the 18th century. They were initially grown in special greenhouses in England and France that were stocked with horse manure for heating. In the 19th century, fresh pineapple was imported from the Azores and the Canary Islands. The first canned pineapple from Hawaii reached Europe in 1892 and in larger quantities after Word War II. From the 1980s, fresh ripe pineapple 'air cargo' from overseas has been widely available in supermarkets year-round. Main producers today are Brazil, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia and Nigeria. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• perennial ground-rooting bromeliad (others are epiphytes) • central swollen stem bears up to 200 small flowers below characteristic crown

of leaves • fused fleshy flowers and axis form a compound fruit (syncarp) • all known forms of pineapple are sterile: seeds not viable • most popular cultivar 'Smooth Cayenne' originally from French Guiana • dry tropics, sensitive to frost • crowns and suckers used for propagation • fibers used in textile industry • juice, fruit salads, chutneys, pickles, jam • vitamins C, A, and E; citric acid • bromelain: contains proteolytic enzymes →

antiinflammatory, debridement of burns • unripe pineapple juice is a violent purgative

GUARANÁ: AN AMAZONIAN ENERGIZER AND APPETITE SUPPRESSANT Guaraná is native to the region of Maués (Manaus) where it has been a sacred plant to the local tribes since ancient times. Its caffeine-rich seeds have traditionally served the native Amazonian tribes as a stimulant and for controlling appetite during hunting. As a medicinal plant it also has been used against various ailments and as an aphrodisiac. The dark-brown seeds are surrounded by fleshy, white tissue called arils and borne in orange-red capsules. Due to the association with human eyes, a local legend has it that the plant grew from the eye of a dead child that was bit by a malevolent, transformed serpent in the forest. In the traditional preparation process, seed kernels are ground into a paste with cassava and molded into sticks (guaraná em bastão) which are then roasted; later these are grated on a bony arapaima fish tongue (língua de pirarucu) as needed. ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT encountered the plant on an expedition to the Orinoco in 1800 and it was prescribed against headaches in Europe in the 19th century. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• woody climber (vine) native to the Amazonian region of Maués (Manaus) • inconspicuous yellow flowers • fruit: bright orange-red capsules • seeds 1–3 per capsule; dark-brown seed coat surrounded by fleshy, white aril • caffeine: 3–6% by dry weight (only 1–2% in coffee!) with slow, long-lasting

action, as the caffeine is linked to tannins; tannins (astringent); saponins • stimulant beverages from seed powder

(stirred into water/milk, sweetened with honey) • appetite suppressant (herbal weight-loss products)

PASSION FLOWER: A SYMBOL OF CRUCIFIXION Spanish explorers first encountered passion fruits in Peru around 1560. First passion flowers were cultivated in Germany around 1660. Since, they have become popular ornamentals and are now extensively used in the food industry in various ways. The attractive flower was a symbol of Christ's passion and crucifixion: the three-curved stigma-styles representing the nails, the five stamens the five wounds, the ovary a hammer, the corona the crown of thorns, the petals the ten true apostles, the white and blue being the colors of purity and heaven. There are two main varieties: the purple passion fruit (P. edulis f. edulis), also called granadilla and the golden passion fruit (P. edulis f. flavicarpa), also called guavadilla, the latter with a higher level of carotene and vitamin C, and thus more sour than purple passion fruits. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• subtropical; native to Brazil, Paraguay, and N-Argentina • vigorous climber (vine) with spiralling tendrils • three-curved stigma-styles and five stamens • fruit an egg-shaped berry with tough skin (purple or yellow) • showy white and blue corona (paracorolla) • seeds surrounded by fleshy aril • juice with intense characteristic flavor • vitamins A and C, carotene • alkaloids in fruit rinds and leaves: variously used as a medicinal plant

CASSAVA: DETOXIFICATION BY INGENUITY Cassava has been used as a staple food by native Americans of the Amazon for thousands of years. Various strains and varieties have thus been selected by people over time. Portuguese colonists brought cassava to West Africa in the 16th century; currently Nigeria is a major producer. The Dutch established cassava plantations in Southeast Asia in the 18th century, especially in Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Cassava is a globally important staple food and source of animal feed and used in bioethanol production. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• 100 species native from Argentina to Mexico • cassava is a cultigen, ancestors unknown, probably Amazonian • perennial, woody shrub (up to 5 m) • digitately compound leaves • small green flowers (male and female flowers on separate plants) • tuberous roots up to 1 m long, ∅ 10 cm, up to 5 kg; brilliant white inside

(starch); contain cyanide, especially the peel (toxic in the raw state!) • bitter and sweet types (vary in cyanide) • starch 30–35% (staple food), low in protein (1%)

Cyanogenic glycosides are stored in cell vacuoles and released when the tissue is damaged, to then be converted into the toxic hydrogen cyanide by cellular enzymes. The plant uses this mechanism as a means of natural defense against pests and enemies. In order to utilize the plant as a food source, people have developed ingenious ways for removing the toxic cyanide. Traditionally, native Americans in the Amazon cut the cassava roots in small pieces; after a few hours these are stuffed into a long extensible tube (called a tipiti, see display!) woven from palm-leaf fibers. By applying pressure, the toxic juice is squeezed out along with liquid starch (this part is collected and heated to evaporation forming a tasty tapioca); the content of the tube is placed in huge pans on the fireplace and roasted into farinha or baked into beiju (pancakes). Some sweet varieties of cassava are naturally free of cyanide and can be simply cooked (like potatoes) without prior processing.

PINK PEPPERCORNS – A SPECIAL KIND OF SPICY The Brazilian peppertree or rose pepper is a shrub to small tree, native to coastal S Brazil, N Argentina, and Paraguay, and the source of 'pink peppercorns' often added to fancy spice mixtures that have become popular in Western cuisine recently. Since ancient times, the native Americans have used the 'berries' for medicinal purposes, as a spice, or for making vinegar and alcoholic beverages. It is sometimes used to flavor the Mexican national drink pulque. After having been introduced to Florida and Hawaii at the end of the 19th century, the plant has become a serious invasive plant where eradication programs are now in action. The fruits contain essential oils which contribute to the sweet, fruity, and spicy flavor with a pine-like undertone – these are chemically dissimilar to the pungent compounds of black pepper or red peppers, however. The current main producer of commercial pink peppercorns as a spice is the island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean. The related Peruvian peppertree (Schinus molle) occurs naturally in the Andes from Peru to Chile, in S-Brazil, and Uruguay, but now has also become naturalized throughout the World, also widely encountered around the Mediterranean. It is a taller tree (growing to 15 m) and has finer-divided drooping leaves than the Brazilian peppertree. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• native to coastal S Brazil, N Argentina, Paraguay • dioecious small shrubs or trees (max. 6–7 m) often planted as an ornamental • compound leaves with glossy surface, aromatic • fruit ∅ 4–7 mm, a red spherical drupe • aromatic terpenes: phellandrene, pinene, limonene • medicinal plant: antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, wound-healing

STEVIA: JUST A LEAF ... BUT SURPRISINGLY SWEET – AT ZERO CALORIES Stevia has been used as a sweetener since ancient times by the native Americans inhabiting the border region between Paraguay, Brazil, and Argentina. The Guaraní Indians traditionally have used it to sweeten maté tea (yerba maté). Europeans discovered the use of Stevia in the 16th century and it became more popular there when the Swiss botanist MOISES SANTIAGO BERTONI, who had emigrated to Paraguay, described the plant in 1888. Stevia had been used as a sugar substitute in England during World War II. But it took another half century to become generally accepted in the modern food sector after extensive health safety investigations had proven it nontoxic. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• 200 species, all of which native to the Americas • Stevia rebaudiana occurs naturally in the mountains boardering Brazil and

Paraguay in moist and shady habitats • tolerates full sunlight • annual, biennial, or perennial herb to shrub (depending on climate); reaching

up to 0.7–1 m in height • not hardy in Central Europe • many small white, but inconspicuous flower heads arranged in cymes; each

flower head with 2–6 self-sterile disk flowers (plants usually propagated by stem cuttings)

• foliage leaves 2–3 cm, oblong, decussate; 30 times sweeter than table sugar • the sweetener stevioside extracted from leaves is 300 times sweeter than

sucrose at zero calories, is heat-stable (in contrast to other non-carbohydrate sweeteners such as aspartame), and noncariogenic, and has been proven to be nontoxic

CAPE GOOSEBERRY/GOLDENBERRY: ACTUALLY THE 'CAPED' GOOSEBERRY In the 19th century, Portuguese explorers encountered the pleasantly sour little berry growing in the Andes from Venezuela, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, to Peru. The cape gooseberry (Golden berry or Peruvian cherry) is surrounded by a persistent calyx which eventually turns papery brown, giving it the appearance of a 'caped' gooseberry. The name is alternately attributed to the fact that the fruit were successfully cultivated in South Africa after having been brought there by the Portuguese. Fresh and dried cape gooseberries are now commercially widely available throughout Europe mainly imported from Columbia, while they are also grown in Southern France. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• perennial shrub-like herb up to 2m tall • downy, symmetrical leaves • flowers yellowish with brown spots in the throat • fruit a many-seeded berry surrounded by persistent calyx ('caped') • vitamins C, B, and E; carotenoids, potassium • suggested use: in a chocolate fondue

The tomatillo (Physalis philadelphica = P. ixocarpa), a Mexican relative, has similar but much larger fruits. The Chinese lantern (Physalis alkekengi) from western Asia and China, is a popular ornamental plant with a brightly red 'cape', used extensively for floristic decorations; the berry is not palatable; it has also been used as a medicinal plant (steroid physalins).

TOMATO – NOT JUST KETCHUP! The ancestors of the present-day's tomatoes are from the Andes of Peru and Ecuador and bear miniature fruit the size of black currants. These plants were spread early through northern South America and Central America and became domesticated by the Aztecs, who referred to them as xitomatl or tomatl. First tomatoes were brought to Europe in the 15th century by Spanish explorers, initially strictly grown as ornamentals, because they were considered poisonous – which is true for the green plant parts, partly true for the green and unripe fruits, but not the case for fully ripe tomatoes. The scientific genus name Lycopersicum, meaning "wolves' peach", points to this potential toxicity. Tomatoes started to be grown as a vegetable crop in Italy in the 18th century, but only gradually gained acceptance in the rest of Europe, in Germany only after World War II. American tomato ketchup has become a most popular condiment throughout the World (so, tomatoes actually reached Europe twice!); first recipes are documented from American cookbooks from the early 19th century. The term ketchup is of Chinese origin, kêtsiap referring to a fermented fish sauce, which later was adopted by the Indomalay into kecap or ketjap, which designates various kinds of soy sauces; mushroom ketchup is a salted mushroom extract popular in Britain, and neither contains sugar nor vinegar. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• annuals (biennials), up to 2 m • aromatic, compound leaves • small yellow flowers self-pollinating, but assisted by bumblebees • fruit a berry ∅ 10 cm; various colors • thousands of cultivars • globe (round-shaped), plum (paste), beef (U.S.: beefsteak), cherry tomatoes • Flavr Savr: a genetically engineered beefsteak tomato with extended shelf life

(marketed 1994–1997); first genetically engineered food • vitamins A, B, and C; lycopene • toxic alkaloid solanine: small amounts in green, unripe – none in ripe tomatoes

POTATOES: A CROP LINKED TO HUMAN FATE Potatoes (as the related tomatoes) are nightshades native to the Andes – already cultivated in the area around Lake Titicaca at 4000 m a.s.l. in ancient times. The tubers of these first cultivated potato plants were no larger than cherries. The extreme frost at these high altitudes has served farmers to apply a type of freeze-drying process, yielding storable so-called chuños. Spanish explorers brought potatoes to Spain in the mid 16th century via the Canary Islands. Potatoes became an important staple food carried on overseas ship voyages because of their high nutritional value (vitamin C, which protected sailors from scurvy). The Prussian Emporer Frederick II in 1756 ordered the cultivation of potatoes and by the 19th century this had largely displaced the common porridge staple foods (grains) in Central Europe. Potatoes were extensively grown in England and Irland and there was a general dependance on this crop at that time. Then the Great Famine (Irish Potato Famine) from 1845–1852, caused by the potato blight (a fungal infestation of the tubers), repeatedly wiped out the complete potato crops and caused mass starvation (1 million deaths), which eventually led to massive emigration to America – thus spelling history. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• herbaceous perennial with underground tubers • flowers white, purplish, to rose; small, green berries (toxic) • carbohydrates (starch) and proteins (all essential amino acids);

vitamins B and C • toxic alkaloid solanine in green plant parts, berries, and 'skin'

(especially if green) of potato tubers • main producers today: China, India, Russia, Ukraine, USA • now extensively used in biofuel and recyclable biopolymer production

MORE SOUTH AMERICAN TUBERS All sorts of starch-rich tubers (aside from potatoes and cassava) have originated in South America that are extensively used there but less known in Europe.Some are grown as ornamentals or as 'exotics' in home gardens in Central Europe. Ulluco (pronounced: oo-yoo-koh), Papa Lisa A relative of spinach and purslane. Native to the high Andes (~4000 m); ancient Inca food; widely grown in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Venezuela, Argentina.

• perennial, prostrate herb (up to 1 m) • underground stem tubers; small, roundish or elongate (2–8 cm); various colors • heart-shaped fleshy, hairless leaves: also eaten

Sweet Potato Indigenous to tropical South America (Peru?); domesticated from ~4500 BC; arrived in Polynesia in pre-Columbian times. Colorful varieties grown as ornamentals.

• trailing herbaceous perennial spreading along ground and rooting at the nodes • tubers whitish, red, orange, or dark purple up to 3 kg • high in protein, vitamins A, B, and C

Oca Native to the Andean highlands, it had been used extensively by the Incas and is still an important staple food from Venezuela to Argentina.

• hardy perennial herb; fleshy stems; clover-like leaves • tubers 7–15 cm; white, yellow, pink, or red • some varieties contain oxalic acid, sweet varieties almost none • exceptionally hardy; tolerates poor soils, drought and cold

Tuber Nasturtium (Isaño, Añu, Mashua, Maswa) Important staple food in the high Andes where potatoes cannot be grown.

• twining creeper (extending up to 2 m); fleshy stems • attractive, orange-red, spurred flowers • rhizomes with pear-shaped underground stem-tubers (5–15 cm) • strong flavor (sharp-tasting mustard oils) which disappears after cooking and

long-term freezing Arrowroot, West Indian Arrowroot Indigenous to tropical America, grown extensively there. Now widespread in the tropics worldwide.

• tropical, perennial (< 2 m); often variegated (also cultivated as ornamentals); requires permamoist soils

• tubers mainly used for starch extraction (high fiber content) • high-quality starch (thickens at lower temperature than flour or cornstarch);

used to thicken gravies and sauces • extensively cultivated in West Africa, India, SE Asia; main exporters:

Caribbean Canna (Indian Shot, Achira) Native to Andean Peru (documented from archeological remains from 2500 BC). Widely cultivated in India; seeds appear like shotgun ammunition.

PEANUTS: WHY UNDERGROUND? All of the about 50 species of the genus Arachis are native to central South America. The peanut is a cultigen which had already been domesticated in ancient times in NW Argentina and S Bolivia, and having reached Central America were grown there for thousands of years. The Spanish and Portuguese brought peanut plants to India, the Philippines, and to Indonesia. Peanuts reached Africa in conjunction with the slave trade and made their appearance in Europe only in the 18th/19th centuries where attempts at large-scale cultivation in Spain and France were unsuccessful. Now peanuts are grown throughout the tropics and subtropics (ideal temperature 25–28°C and precipitation of 500 mm per annum) mainly in China, India, USA, and Nigeria. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• annual, up to 50 cm • yellow, self-pollinated flowers • flower stalks (carpophores) elongate after pollination and grow downward,

eventually 'sinking' the fruit in the ground as a means of 'hiding' them from predators and keeping them moist

• soft-shelled, 2–4-seeded nut (indehiscent, thus not a pod!); seeds with reddish-brown seed coat

• harvested by uprooting the entire plant • four groups (types) of peanut plants: two prostrate (Virginia and Peruvian) and

two erect (Valencia and Spanish) • seeds must be roasted or cooked (denaturing of potentially harmful PNA, a

plant lectin!); roasting develops the typical flavor and aroma • peanut butter (smooth and crunchy) also popular in Europe now! • peanut allergies are common (not caused by the lectins!); carcinogenic

aflatoxins in moldy peanuts are a serious health-related concern • nutritional value: proteins, oil (unsaturated fatty acids; nondrying), vitamins

GARDEN STRAWBERRY: A EUROPEAN-BRED AMERICAN BY SUCCESSFUL 'COOPERATION' This successful breed resulted by chance around 1750, as a result of hybridization of two American strawberry species: the Virginia strawberry (F. virginiana) of North America (United States and Canada) and the Chilean strawberry (F. chiloense) of South America, the natural range of which stretches along the entire American Pacific Coast and Hawaii; the Chilean strawberry (habitat ranging from sea level to about 1500 m) had already been cultivated by native Americans in the Andes more than 1000 years ago. In Germany, first strawberry plantations were established in the mid 19th century in the climatically privileged southwestern region of Baden. The tiny local Central European woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca) is a delicious aromatic treat, but very fragile and perishable – sometimes grown as a curiosity in home gardens. The most plausible etymological origin of the name strawberry stems from the early observation regarding the woodland strawberry that the nutlets where 'strewn' about by birds and animals and thus the plants were broadly spread around (Old English, about 1000 A.D., strēawberige, streaw from Germanic strawa = strewn as floor-covering litter). Other popular explanations, as for instance, that the name refers to the strawlike runners or that the delicate fruit are susceptible to ground-dwelling predators and soil-borne infections and thus are mulched in cultivation with fresh straw – do not seem to hold! The German name Erdbeere translates into earth berry. BOTANICAL AND CULINARY HIGHLIGHTS

• perennial herb; short woody stem with rosette of compound leaves • white flowers borne is small groups on second-year plants • 'fruit' actually a swollen receptacle bearing many nutlets, referred to as an

aggregate accessory fruit (i.e., composed of many individual fruitlets) • vegetative reproduction by stolons and runners • vitamin C, potassium, sugar • main producers: USA, Spain, Turkey, Egypt

In botanical terms, the strawberry is not a 'berry' at all, but an aggregate accessory fruit composed of many individual nutlets borne on a swollen, inflated receptacle.