l Mª Amor Pérez & Águeda DelgadoHuelva (Spain)

From Digital and AudiovisualCompetence to Media Competence:

Dimensions and indicatorsDe la competencia digital y audiovisual a la competencia mediática:

dimensiones e indicadores

D O S S I E R

Comunicar, n. 39 v. XX, 2012, Scientific Journal of Media Education; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 25-33www.comunicarjournal.com

ABSTRACT The need to set out the conceptualization of media competence leads to a broader perspective in which there is aconvergence of factors linked to the digital and audiovisual competences, both of which constitute the reference frame -work for «information processing and digital competence», which is the key competence in Spain’s national curricu-lum. Despite the ongoing experiences in audiovisual and digital communication few attempts have been made todefine the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for a person to be deemed competent in these two areas, whichare essential for the teaching and learning processes. This paper analyzes six important studies on digital and audio-visual literacy, considering issues such as the recipients, the conceptualization used in each study and the dimensionsthey suggest, the type of taxonomy, indicators...and the educational proposals: objectives, content, activities are sys-tematized in a series of dimensions and indicators to define media literacy and design activities for a didactic proposalin accordance with the indicators established. The development of this research has led us to affirm the need forconvergence in terminology and the expansion of resources based on the indicators defined, which affect the diverseareas of media literacy in an effective way and function to enable teaching actions among the various groups thatcomprise today’s society.

RESUMENLa necesidad de plantear la conceptualización de la competencia mediática conduce a una perspectiva más ampliaen la que convergen aspectos vinculados a la competencia audiovisual y a la competencia digital. Ambas constituyenel marco de referencia de «El tratamiento de la información y competencia digital», competencia básica del currícu-lum vigente en nuestro país. A pesar de las experiencias que se están llevando a cabo tanto en comunicación audio-visual como digital, aún son pocas las tentativas para definir, de manera precisa, los conocimientos, habilidades yactitudes necesarios para considerarse competente en sendos ámbitos, ineludibles a la hora de llevar a cabo los pro-cesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje. Este trabajo parte del análisis de seis estudios significativos en la temática de alfa-betización tanto digital como audiovisual. Considerando aspectos como los destinatarios, la conceptualización quese utiliza en cada uno de ellos, las dimensiones que plantean, el tipo de taxonomía, indicadores… y las propuestasdidácticas: objetivos, contenidos, actividades, se sistematizan en una serie de dimensiones e indicadores para definirla competencia mediática y plantear el diseño de actividades para una propuesta didáctica de acuerdo a los indica-dores establecidos. La investigación desarrollada nos ha permitido afirmar la necesidad de la convergencia termino-lógica, así como de la elaboración de recursos, a partir de los indicadores definidos, que incidan en los distintos ámbi-tos de la competencia mediática de una manera efectiva y sirvan para llevar a cabo actuaciones didácticas en los dis-tintos grupos que componen la sociedad actual.

KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVEMedia competence, key competences, digital competence, media literacy, dimensions and indicators.Competencia mediática, competencia digital, alfabetización mediática, dimensiones e indicadores, didáctica.

DOI: 10.3916/C39-2012-02-02

v Dr. M. Amor Pérez-Rodríguez is Professor of Didactics of Spanish Language and Literature at the Department of Didactics of Spanish Language at the University of Huelva (Spain) (amor@perez-rodriguez.es).

v Águeda Delgado-Ponce is a Member of Agora Research Group and Lecturer in the Department of Didactics of Spanish Language at the University of Huelva (Spain).

Received: 11-02-2012 / Reviewed: 25-02-2012Accepted: 28-03-2012 / Published: 01-10-2012

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1. IntroductionChildren and the youth of today develop new and

uncontrolled skills, and ways to manage informationand provide answers that differ from adults’ views.This explains the relevance of the ‘digital native’ con-cept subscribed to by Prensky (2011; 2001). The newways of dealing with information, to link concepts, tosearch, to express and ultimately, to think in a morevisual, kaleidoscopic way, faster and more interactivethan before, challenge the current pedagogical approa -ches followed at schools. Paradoxically, this develop-ment implies a confrontation with the traditional skills.

The speed of technological advances unquestio-nably affects teaching and generates changes in com-municative processes. According to Buckingham(2006), «we urgently need to define a much more pro-active role for the school as a key public sphere institu-tion». And as the Delors report (1994: 91-103) statesthat «the 21st century offers unprecedented resourcesfor information dissemination, information storage andfor communication. These resources demand educa-tion to provide new requirements for a massive andefficient transmission of information, with more andmore evolutionary, theoretical and technical compe-tences at stake, as well as new approaches whichneed to be defined». Therefore, education «must pro-vide the guidelines in a complex, changing world as acompass that guides us along the new paths».

Technologies and the media are complicating thetraditional paths, and their presence in education is notsystematized. As we observe, the implementation ofnew technologies has often been an exclusively politi-cal issue. Politicians provided schools with equipmentthat in many cases has not been used while promotingtraining courses for teachers... In any case, technologi-cal determinism does not imply a direct change in edu-cation. Attempts to consolidate coordinated projects inthe curriculum, transforming the media and the newtechnologies into tools for learning, are usually unsuc-cessful. «Technology must not be an end in itself, anda significant use is necessary to overcome difficultiesregarding its implementation in education, consideringthe purposes for its usage and establishing an integralpedagogical framework according to the needs of tea-chers, students and society» (Levis, 2006: 79).

According to Pérez-Tornero & Martínez-Cerdá(2011: 41-42), the paradoxical effect of technologicaladvance and the inadequate citizenship training provehow diffusionist, economic and biased approachesleave aside changes in cultural attitudes and in thedevelopment of critical skills, creativity and the perso-nal autonomy of individuals. Some of the investigations

in which we have participated confirm this paradox(Pérez-Rodríguez, Aguaded & Monescillo, 2010). Inthis sense, the development of media competencewould support a new concept of education, fosteringcritical thinking, cooperation, dialogue and the produc-tion and management of new knowledge, the functio-nality of learning, tolerance and diversity.

In the late twentieth century, the concept of «com-petence» gradually emerges in the educational context,evolving towards a new perspective, from the traditio-nal behavioural approach into a new approach closerto the social constructivism, including the skills neededto face the complex demands of specific contexts(Pérez-Gómez, 2007).

These basic competences were incorporated intothe Spanish education system in 2006, with the appe-arance of the Organic Law of Education 2/2006.However, these initiatives first started to appear backin 1990, with the «World Declaration on Educationfor All and Framework for Action to Meet BasicLearning Needs» (Jomtien, Thailand), ratified tenyears later at the World Education Forum in Dakar.More recently, a working group appointed by theEuropean Commission presented a report on «Edu -cation & Training 2010. Key competences» (OECD,2005; European Commission, 2006).

There are interesting elements in competency-based education which are presented as new ways toapproach and solve some of the current educationalproblems. One of the most interesting ideas is intro -duced by Perrenoud (2004), «the capacity to chooseand use relevant content to face specific situations andproblems», which is very useful when confrontingcurrent social challenges in education. This newapproach should integrate the media and ICTs, foste-ring the development of critical skills, creativity and fre-edom of speech with no limits in format, time or space.

In accordance with the guidelines provided by theEuropean Parliament, the Organic Law of Education2/2006 (MEC, 2006) includes eight basic competen-ces among which «information processing and digitalcompetence» represent a significant acknowledgmentof the initiatives carried out in Spain in the implemen-tation of ICTs. Also in line with the European Parlia -ment guidelines, the Spanish Organic Law of Edu -cation sets out some extra skills in relation to the infor-mation and communication process, as the main aimof this competence is to transform knowledge. In ouropinion, this competence incorporates language andmedia proficiency, the decoding and transfer patternsused by the media and their subsequent comprehen-sion, the critical approach, communication and deli-

very. According to the guidelines, «information doesnot automatically imply knowledge acquisition.Transforming information into knowledge requiresthinking skills to organize, link, analyse, synthesise,infer and deduct information at different levels of com-plexity, also with prior knowledge. These skills alsopermit the transfer of the information using expressiveresources, different languages, specific techniques andpossibilities offered by the ICTs» (MEC, 2006). Allthese aspects need to be taken into account for the lite-racy required in the development of media competen-ce.

Historically, the digital andaudiovisual competences havebeen separate, with the latterfocused on the knowledge,skills and attitudes related tothe mass media and audiovi-sual language, and the formerlinked to searching abilities,processing, communication andinformation dissemination withtechnologies. Masterman (1993:275-284) laid the groundworkfor media education, highligh-ting the impor tance of audiovi-sual literacy, collaborationwith families, teachers andmedia professionals, trainingprograms for teachers and thecreation of agencies to fosterthe interaction and integrationof media education in schools.By the end of the twentiethcentury, technological development displaced theaudiovisual, and many media education supportersthought that technologies would turn everything upsi-de-down in education. However, nowadays the ins-trumental dimension of technology prevails over trai-ning practices, critical skills development and creati-vity.

The need to train to develop critical viewstowards the media remains a priority for the EuropeanParliament and the European Commission. Many ini-tiatives have been launched to pursue the goal of glo-bal media literacy in the educational environment(Audiovisual Media Services Directive, EuropeanApproach to media literacy in the digital environment,Commission Recommendation on Media Literacy,Mapping Media Education policies in the world: con-tributions and world challenges). In order to create anew concept of media literacy, it is important to com-

bine the educational and socio-cultural dimensions,the new digital competences and classic forms of lite-racy (reading and writing), and take into account thecultural transformation and the convergence of themedia (Pérez-Tornero, 2004; Pérez-Tornero & Mar -tí nez Cerdá, 2011).

According to Spanish Directive 2007/65 «MediaLiteracy includes abilities, content and comprehensionskills to interact efficiently and safely with the media.Competent users are able to choose and understandcontent, to optimise the opportunities offered by new

technologies and to protect their families and themsel-ves from offensive content». As digitalisation is thecurrent trend today, it is necessary to consider the con-ceptual and terminological integration of digital and/oraudiovisual literacy together with media literacy and,therefore, to propose dimensions and indicators to for-mulate a didactic and convergent approach.

2. Material and methodsAfter the analysis of six investigations on digital and

media literacy, this study qualitatively describes therelevant aspects of each, focusing on the audience, theconceptualization used and the concept itself (audiovi-sual, digital or media literacy), the dimensions propo-sed, the taxonomy and indicators and the didactic pro-posals: objectives, content, activities... directly linked tothe development of media competence. All this infor-mation permits us to introduce dimensions and indica-

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There are interesting elements in competency-based educa-tion which are presented as new ways to approach andsolve some of the current educational problems. One of themost interesting ideas is introduced by Perrenoud (2004),«the capacity to choose and use relevant content to facespecific situations and problems», which is very useful whenconfronting current social challenges in education. This newapproach should integrate the media and ICTs, fostering thedevelopment of critical skills, creativity and freedom of speech with no limits in format, time or space.

tors for a convergent, didactic approach for the deve-lopment of media competence.

According to currency, authorship, institutionalsupport and other specific criteria, the sample selectedcomprises:

• An article by Area (2008) about the develop-ment of information and digital competences in orderto train students to become autonomous, intelligentand critical in our current society, defending the use oftechnology in a new educational model, suggestingdidactic activities according to three basic dimensionsdescribed in the competences.

• Research carried out by Celot & Pérez-Tornero(2009) on Media Literacy policies and the analysis,reflection and proposals on digital literacy in Europe,

as a first system of indicators to determine the levels ofmedia literacy.

• «Bloom’s taxonomy in the digital era»(Churches, 2009), in which behaviours, actions andlearning opportunities are analysed and new toolsintroduced for the new learning methods.

• The «Teacher Resource Guide» (Di Croce,2009), whose aim is to develop new media skills instudents to help them deconstruct media images andmessages.

• A proposal by the Pompeu Fabra University incollaboration with the Audiovisual Council ofCatalonia (Ferrés, 2007), with new dimensions andindicators to assess audiovisual competence.

• Contributions by Marquès (2009) on the inte-gration of 39 items organized in 11 dimensions esta-blished in 2002 in the study presented by the «ConsellSuperior d’Avaluació del Sistema Educatiu de laGeneralitat de Catalunya» together with seven otherSpanish regions (Asturias, Baleares, Canarias, Castilla-

La Mancha, Comunidad Valenciana, País Vasco,Murcia).

3. OutcomesThe information in these studies will help to syste-

matize the concept of media competence, establishingdimensions and indicators from a convergent didacticapproach. To this end, the elements analysed are theaudience, the conceptualization or the underlying con-cept, the dimensions and indicators presented and thedidactic proposals if applicable.

The Area study (2008) is aimed at teachers wor-king with students to develop their informational anddigital competences. The ‘information competence’and ‘digital competence’ concepts are based on the

link they have with the currentcurriculum, as it has beendemonstrated that by «separa-ting both competences, as weused to do in the past, theapproaches might be biasedand simplistic». In this study,literacy in digital culture is pre-sented as the best option inorder to learn how to usehardware and software and«to develop cognitive skills forcollecting information, unders-tand content and produceinformation, for communica-tion and social interaction withtechnology, developing values

and attitudes to give moral, ideological and politicalmeaning to the actions developed with technology». Inrelation to these dimensions, the study presents threedifferent scopes for the development of informationand digital competences that should be considered asa whole: 1) Infor mation acquisition and comprehen-sion; 2) Conveying and disseminating information and3) Communication and social interaction. The didac-tic proposal is based on the principles of the NewSchool and Freire’s literacy theory adapted to educa-tional practice with the support of ICTs. Genericdidactic activities are proposed for the use of ICTs inthe three established dimensions.

The research by Celot & Pérez-Tornero (2009) isaimed at assessing media literacy levels in Europe.Media literacy is presented as a concept «that includesthe consideration of all media, traditional (analogue),novel (digital) and their convergence». Two dimen-sions are identified; the first is linked to the individual’scapacity to use the media, divided in turn into indivi-

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Educational training is required in order to become competent, to be able to search for and discriminate infor-mation, to understand meaning and to express oneself withand through the media, to participate and interact, to communicate...Our research leads us to conclude that thereis an increasing interest in information, focused on trainingteachers.

dual and social competences. The second dimensionderives from a contextual analysis of the «environmen-tal factors» of the field. Each dimension is distributedaccording to different criteria. Contextual factorsinclude the following criteria: «availability of themedia» and «context» (educational, legal, industrialand civil), and criteria related to individual skills regar-ding «use» (technical skills), «critical comprehension»(fluency in interpreting and comprehension) and«communicative skills» (the ability to establish sociallinks through the media). According to this research,media literacy is the result of a dynamic process ofavailability, context and communicative skills, inclu-ding the levels of media competence within the scopeof the individual. Other components are also definedand presented as indicators to assess the level of mediacompetence in Europe. There are no didactic propo-sals, but some recommendations for the curriculumthat include the development of media competence,allocating resources for training teachers in media lite-racy, promoting the assessment of media competencein teachers and media training in the professional trai-ning programs.

Churches’ work (2009) focuses on teachers andtrainers in general. The conceptualization is linked todigital competence, and it begins with a classificationof cognitive processes in learning (Bloom’s taxonomy),adapted to include digital competence skills. There aresix categories in ascending order: to remember, tounderstand, to apply, to analyse, to assess and to pro-duce). Each of these categories comprises differentskills. Collaboration and communication are presentedas essential elements, and some digital activities areincluded for use in anyone of these dimensions, high-lighting the importance of using tools to foster coope-ration in students, such as wikis, blogs, collaborativetools, social networks...

The work by Di Croce (2009) consists of a guideto support teachers in the development of media lite-racy in students, helping them to assess consumersocieties and the different responses of people towardsinformation. The terminology used (Media Literacy)implies the convergence of traditional and digitalmedia. It is, therefore, necessary to include it in thedefinition of the Media in the 21st century: Internet(websites, blogs, podcasts, RSS feeds and social net-works), music and films, books (including e-books),comics, journals, advertising (billboards, branded pro-ducts), cell-phones (and applications), video gamesand physical places (Coca-Cola store). Regarding themedia literacy dimensions there are no classifications,but a series of key concepts of the media that refer to

the construction of reality, the negotiation of meaning,commercial, ideological, social and political implica-tions, form, content and aesthetics. A list of activities isincluded to reflect on issues related to the media, aswell as production activities that place students in therole of editors or which deconstruct adverts with theaim of assessing the information provided by themedia.

Ferrés’ research (2007) aims at «identifying objec-tives, processes and contents in audiovisual communi-cation to be acquired and developed by students at theend of compulsory secondary education. These objec-tives, processes and contents would act as the founda-tions for the development of life-long learning.University curriculum content would serve to trainfuture teachers and professionals in the audiovisualcommunication and information environments». Theunderlying concept of audiovisual competence isunderstood as the «ability to critically analyse andinterpret images and audiovisual messages, and tocommunicate properly in the communicative environ-ment. This competence is related to knowledge of themedia and basic use of multimedia technologies».More specifically, this competence involves «masteringconcepts, procedures and attitudes related to the sixbasic dimensions of Audiovisual Communication».

The six dimensions are interconnected and inclu-de indicators divided into two areas: analysis and deli-very of information: language (codes and analysis skillsfor audiovisual messages); technology (theoreticalknowledge and ability to use tools for audiovisual com-munication), production and programming processes(the work of the main agents in the process, ability tocreate audiovisual messages); ideology and values(comprehensive and critical reading and analysis ofaudiovisual messages): reception and audience (abilityto recognise the active role of the audience and to cri-tically evaluate emotional, rational and contextual ele-ments in the reception of audiovisual messages); theaesthetic dimension (ability to analyse and assessaudiovisual messages from an aesthetic point of viewand the capacity to link them to other forms of artisticand media expression). In this research there are noexplicit didactic proposals, but the objectives, proces-ses and content are presented as part of the final pro-duct.

Marquès (2009) focuses on teachers involved inthe development of competences among students.The «Digital competence» concept is defined as the«combination of knowledge, abilities and skills togetherwith values and attitudes to reach objectives efficientlyin different contexts with the support of digital tools.

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This competence is framed within the mastery of fiveabilities related to the different dimensions of digitalcompetence». Five dimensions are presented, eachdivided into five indicators: the learning dimension(transforming information into knowledge and infor-mation acquisition); the informational dimension(access, evaluation and treatment of information indigital environments); the communicative dimension(interpersonal and social communication); the digitalculture dimension (social and cultural practices of theknowledge society and digital citizenship); the techno-logical dimension (technological literacy and masteryof digital environments). These dimensions are embo-died in five abilities related to the media and digital

environments: learning and producing knowledge;obtaining, evaluating and organizing information indigital formats; communicating, interacting and colla-borating in digital environments; acting in a responsi-ble, safe and civic way; using and managing devicesand digital work environments that would be useful forcreating teaching and learning activities to foster digitalcompetence development.

4. DiscussionGiven the fact that skills related to the media, tech-

nology and information are necessary for citizens tobecome autonomous and continue learning, it isimportant to determine the dimensions and indicatorsneeded to present an appropriate didactic proposal forthe development of media competence.

The increasing exposure to information today isnot associated to a growing development of criticalanalysis among viewers. According to studies byAguaded et al. (2007), Aguaded et al. (2011) andPérez-Tornero & Martínez-Cerdá (2011), technologi-cal or media equipment does not make citizens com-petent in that field. Educational training is required inorder to become competent, to be able to search forand discriminate information, to understand meaningand to express oneself with and through the media, toparticipate and interact, to communicate...Our rese-arch leads us to conclude that there is an increasinginterest in information, focused on training teachers, inthe works by Area (2008), Churches (2009), Di Croce

(2009), Ferrés (2007) andMarquès (2009). Ferrés(2007) also includes Spanishstudents in compulsory secon-dary education and futureinformation and communica-tion professionals. In general,all these works focus on formaleducation, but do not includereferences to other sectors ofsociety, which are also part ofthe media society, but remainoutside the literacy process(housewives, the elderly, theunemployed). Coinciding withBuckingham (2009), weunderline the importance ofthis key aspect in relation to thechanges needed in policies onand practices in media literacy.

According to our analysis,and concerning the terminolo-

gical and conceptual questions, there are two differen-tiated tendencies: studies that refer to media literacy(Celot & Pérez-Tornero, 2009; Di Croce, 2009) brid-ging traditional media (TV, radio, newspapers) andnew technologies; studies that describe digital compe-tence (Marquès, 2009) or information and digital com-petence (Area, 2008), focusing on the development ofdigital competence: content, abilities and attitudes rela-ted to searching for and comprehension, communica-tion, creation and dissemination of information usingtechnologies. Ferrés (2007) introduces the concept ofcompetence in audiovisual communication, includingthe technological dimension, but focuses on the use ofthese tools as a boost to audiovisual communication.Churches (2009) adapts the abilities related to digitalcompetence to the cognitive processes of learning in

To carry out didactic proposals that focus on media compe-tence, it is necessary to deal with the procedures for acces-sing information, with the different languages that encodemessages today, with the reception and comprehension ofmessages, the technology spreading this information, theproduction, policies and ideology of the media industry, citi-zen involvement and the creative dimension. In this sense,training citizens to be autonomous and critical towards themedia and ICTs would be a success.

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Bloom’s taxonomy. It seems convenient to propose aterminological convergence together with the conver-gence of the media, as suggested by Pérez-Tornero(2004) in relation to socio-cultural aspects and con-ceptualized by the European Commission (2007;2009).

Regarding the dimensions detailed above, the pro-posals are diverse but there is a link between the worksthat describe the dimensions for media literacy (Celot& Pérez-Tornero, 2009) and those describing compe-tence in audiovisual communication (Ferrés, 2007);and between those works that introduce the dimen-sions of digital competence (Area, 2008; Marquès,2009). The main difference in the first group is theincorporation of contextual factors (Celot & Pérez-Tornero, 2009), while in Ferrés (2007) there appearsto be only one dimension that refers to processes andproduction agents and no references to laws regulatingthe media or citizenship involvement. However, thereis a reference to the dissociation of emotion and rea-son generated by images, one of the most importantand least studied aspects of media education since thediscovery of neuroscience (Damasio, 2005). It wouldbe interesting to analyse the emergence of video gamesand the permanent connection and exposure to ima-ges in adolescent networks.

In «Study on Assessment Criteria for MediaLiteracy Levels», the indicators cited are more functio-nal, and the crite-ria related to tradi-tional digital com-petence are moreintegrated whencompared to the«articulated propo-sal for dimensionsand indicators inthe audiovisualcommun ica t ioncompetence». Asfor digital compe-tence, Area (2008)and Marquès(2009) both pre-sent dimensionsrelated to theacquisition andcomprehension ofinformation, com-munication andsocial interaction,delivery and disse-

mination of information. Marquès (2009) introducesthe digital culture dimensions, which include the socialand cultural practices of the knowledge society anddigital citizenship, the technological literacy dimensionand the knowledge and mastery of digital environ-ments.

Due to the divergence observed, our proposalwould add to these dimensions and indicators the mostrelevant aspects for the development of media compe-tence, with ten dimensions classified in a hierarchicalpyramid in which the knowledge field would includepolicies and media industry, production processes,technology, language and access to information; thecomprehension field would have reception and com-prehension, ideology and values; and at the top of thepyramid, the delivery field would comprise communi-cation, creation and citizen involvement. After defininga series of indicators for each of these dimensions, wewould propose some general activities.

In this sense, only half of the works analysed offerdidactic proposals. Area (2008) and Churches (2009)present general activities related to the dimensions orcategories described, together with material or resour-ces (Area) and digital tools (Churches). This trend isalso evident in Bloom’s taxonomy, where the activitiesproposed consist of defining, reciting and playing in ageneral sense, with no further specific didactic guide-lines. However, in «Guide for Media Literacy» (Di

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Croce, 2009) there are activities that focus on thedevelopment of media literacy, and the context is defi-ned together with background, resources, types ofquestions...

In accordance with the dimensions described andthe analysis carried out, the following activities areproposed for the development of media competence.

With this analysis, we would like to state that thedevelopment of media literacy involves a wider con-ceptualization regarding the concepts, procedures andattitudes needed to express and understand communi-cation in technological or media supports. In conse-quence, to carry out didactic proposals that focus onmedia competence, it is necessary to deal with the pro-cedures for accessing information, with the differentlanguages that encode messages today, with the recep-tion and comprehension of messages, the technologyspreading this information, the production, policiesand ideology of the media industry, citizen involve-ment and the creative dimension. In this sense, trainingcitizens to be autonomous and critical towards themedia and ICTs would be a success. We are awareof the fact that the analysis of six works can limit theresults. Given the nature of technologies, their rapidchanges and evolution require constant revision of thedimensions and indicators. In order to assess the effi-ciency of the classification proposed in this study, thecreation of a specific didactic proposal and its applica-tion in a real context is our next goal.

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