· FRIEND REPORT 2002 iii FRIEND 2002 Foreword The origin of FRIEND goes back to the International Hydrological Decade (IHD), which launched a large number of representative and

iFRIEND REPORT 2002

FRIEND 2002

FRIEND – a globalperspective 1998-2002

Edited by Alan Gustard and Gwyneth A. Cole

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology — Wallingford UK

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

International Hydrological Programme V

FRIEND — Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data

FRIEND 2002

ii FRIEND REPORT 2002

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

International Hydrological Programme V

Hydrology and water resources for sustainable development in a changing environment

Project 1.1 Application of methods of hydrological analysis using regional data sets

FRIEND — Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data

© Copyright CEH 2002

ISBN 1 903741 03 3

Published by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UKin cooperation with the FRIEND Intergroup Coordinating Committeeon behalf of UNESCO

February 2002

This report was prepared at CEH Wallingford on behalf of UNESCO. All rights reserved. No part of thispublication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner,the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxon, OX10 8BB, UK.

iiiFRIEND REPORT 2002

FRIEND 2002

Foreword

The origin of FRIEND goes back to the International Hydrological Decade (IHD), whichlaunched a large number of representative and experimental basins, underpinned mostly bynational financial support. In retrospect, the IHD was a highly visionary programme, whichnow provides the longer-term data sets for assessing the hydrological impacts of climaticvariability and land-use change. At the time the IHD was launched, neither climate changenor global change were commonly part of the scientific vocabulary.

With the launch of FRIEND as a contribution to UNESCO’s Third International HydrologicalProgramme (IHP-III) from 1984-1988, the initial focus was on the data-rich basins of north-west Europe (Northern European FRIEND). Various techniques were established, rangingfrom statistical methods to conceptual and physical models, for assessing the regionalhydrological behaviour of flow regimes. The end of this first phase was marked by the“FRIENDS in Hydrology” Conference in Bolkesjø, Norway in April 1989, the publication ofConference proceedings in the IAHS Series of Proceedings and Reports (Red Books) and atwo-volume report on FRIEND. This started a long partnership between FRIEND and theInternational Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS), which continues today throughsponsorship of conferences and publication of reports.

In its second phase (1989-1993), as project H-5-5 in IHP-IV, FRIEND expanded geographically.With the support of Cemagref (La recherche pour l’ingénierie de l’agriculture et del’environnement) in France, FRIEND became established in the Alpine and Mediterranean(AMHY) region, and later in west and central Africa (AOC: Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale) andin southern Africa in collaboration with SADC, the Southern African Development Community.Even at this stage, FRIEND scientific groups had made a unique contribution by their impacton the policy of national governments towards the international exchange of hydrologicaldata. Until then political considerations had not encouraged such exchanges, but FRIENDnow provided the means by which this could be achieved.

During the third (1994-1997) and fourth (1998-2001) phases, FRIEND has made a majorcontribution to the fifth International Hydrological Programme (1996-2001) as Project 1.1 andhas progressively diffused into other regions. Asian Pacific FRIEND, Nile FRIEND, HinduKush/Himalayan (HKH) FRIEND and FRIEND/AMIGO for Mesoamerica and the Caribbeanhave all been established. Over 100 countries now participate in FRIEND within eight regionalFRIEND groups. Further expansion is expected, with the possibility of establishing FRIEND inMesopotamia, Central Asia and the Andes, the last of these in cooperation with the InternationalCommission on Snow and Ice (ICSI) of IAHS.

In recognition of the expansion of this project, and its ever-enlarging network, the 14th Sessionof the IHP Intergovernmental Council, in June 2000, approved the elevation of FRIEND to astand-alone cross-cutting theme within IHP-VI (2002-2007).

A significant feature of FRIEND is the impressive list of publications that have emerged inrefereed scientific journals, and these are summarised in the current and previous FRIENDreports. FRIEND has been a ‘flag-carrier’ for the IHP in maintaining a high level of ‘cuttingedge’ science. The brief to maintain a core scientific focus will continue in answer to concernsthat the technical focus of FRIEND could be diluted by its new cross-cutting position withinIHP-VI. As with the contiguous cross-cutting HELP (Hydrology for Environment, Life andPolicy) Project in IHP-VI, the ability to undertake good science linked with practical land-water management issues is not a contradiction. FRIEND is now in a position whereby it

FRIEND 2002

iv FRIEND REPORT 2002

should be encouraged to impact on the water policy of national governments through theconveyance of technical outputs where they are most needed. For example, poverty alleviationlinked with the technical outputs of the Low Flow groups will secure a better understanding(and supply) of water during seasonal and inter-annual drought.

In IHP-VI, FRIEND is now sufficiently mature to begin interfacing with other IHP technicalprojects, notably groundwater and ecohydrology, as well as supporting selected HELP basinsas part of the scientific assessment and inventory of water resources to define the appropriateexperimental hydrology response. Steps are now being taken to establish an intrascientificexpert group to advise how best to interface between these various disciplines and projectsduring IHP-VI.

In conclusion, I would like to express my thanks to all the hydrologists, regional coordinatorsand national governments who have provided the necessary financial support to ensure thesuccess of the FRIEND project. In particular, I thank Alan Gustard (Coordinator of NE FRIEND)and Gwyneth Cole, both of the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK, whohave compiled and edited this report on behalf of the FRIEND Regional Groups as a contributiontowards the 4th International FRIEND Conference “Bridging the gap between research andpractice” in Cape Town, 18-22 March 2002.

M. BonellChief of Section: Hydrological Processes and Climate

UNESCO Division of Water Sciences6 November 2001

vFRIEND REPORT 2002

FRIEND 2002

ContentsAcknowledgements ix

Abbreviations and symbols x

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction to FRIEND 11.2 Links with other international projects 41.3 FRIEND Report 4

References 5

Chapter 2 Northern Europe 7

2.1 Introduction 72.1.1 Regional characteristics and challenges 72.1.2 Northern European FRIEND project 8

2.2 The European Water Archive 92.3 Research 12

2.3.1 Low flows 122.3.2 Large-scale variations in hydrological characteristics 152.3.3 Techniques for extreme rainfall and flood runoff estimation 182.3.4 Catchment hydrological and biogeochemical processes in a

changing environment 212.4 Conclusions 24

2.4.1 Achievements 242.4.2 Future research developments 242.4.3 Policy and research 25References 27

Chapter 3 Alpine and Mediterranean (AMHY) 29

3.1 Introduction 293.2 The AMHY database 303.3 Research 30

3.3.1 Regime modelling 323.3.2 Rare floods 343.3.3 Heavy rains 363.3.4 Erosion and sediment transport 38

3.4 Conclusions 38References 39

Chapter 4 Southern Africa 41

4.1 Introduction 414.2 Data 434.3 Research 43

4.3.1 Flood frequency analysis 434.3.2 Analysis of rainfall drought 444.3.3 Identifying and monitoring river flow drought 464.3.4 Rainfall-runoff modelling 484.3.5 Other ongoing research 50

4.4 Training and capacity building 504.5 Conclusions 51

Acknowledgements 51References 51

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vi FRIEND REPORT 2002

Chapter 5 West and Central Africa (AOC) 53


5.3.1 Water Resources Variability 545.3.2 Modelling of hydrological processes 555.3.3 Water quality 585.3.4 Low Flows 58


References 60

Chapter 6 Nile basin 61


6.3.1 Rainfall-runoff modelling 636.3.2 Sediment transport and watershed management 636.3.3 Flood frequency analysis 636.3.4 Drought and low flow analysis 64


References 65

Chapter 7 Asian Pacific 67

7.1 Introduction 677.2 Asian Pacific Water Archive 687.3 Research 70

7.3.1 Water balance studies 707.3.2 Rainfall-runoff models 707.3.3 Statistical and stochastic models 737.3.4 Frequency analysis models 737.3.5 Human adjustment models 74


References 75

Chapter 8 Hindu Kush Himalayas 77


8.3.1 Low flows 818.3.2 Floods 818.3.3 Rainfall-runoff 838.3.4 River water quality 838.3.5 Snow and glaciers 83

8.4 Training and capacity building 848.4.1 Review of training provided 848.4.2 Benefits from training 85

8.5 Conclusions 86References 86

viiFRIEND REPORT 2002

Chapter 9 Mesoamerica and the Caribbean (AMIGO) 89


9.3.1 Hydrological minima 929.3.2 Hydrological maxima 929.3.3 Ecohydrology 93

9.4 Conclusions 94

Chapter 10 Conclusions 95

10.1 Key achievements 1998-2001 9510.2 FRIEND initiatives in IHP-VI 9610.3 The future 98

References 98

Annex 1 Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale (AOC) – en français 99

5.1 Introduction 995.2 Données 1005.3 Recherche 100

5.3.1 Variabilité des ressources en eau 1005.3.2 Modélisation des processus hydrologiques 1025.3.3 Qualité de l’eau 1045.3.4 Etiages 105

5.4 Formations et amélioration des moyens 1055.5 Conclusions 106

Bibliographie 106

Annex 2 FRIEND coordinators 107

Annex 3 FRIEND research participants 108

Annex 4 FRIEND meetings 1997 – 2002 115

Annex 5 FRIEND publications 1997 – 2002 117

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ixFRIEND REPORT 2002

AcknowledgementsThe main contributors to each chapter are listed below. The editors would also like to thankthe many FRIEND colleagues who have contributed to this report through their research, bysupplying information to the authors, preparing figures or translating text. The assistancegiven by our colleagues Maxine Zaidman, David Pitson and John Griffin at CEH Wallingfordis also gratefully acknowledged.

Chapter 1 Introduction: G. A. ColeContributors: A. Gustard, H.G. Rees.

Chapter 2 Northern European FRIEND: A. GustardContributors: H.G. Rees, G.A. Cole (Section 2.2); L. Tallaksen, S. Demuth (Section 2.3);L. Gottschalk (Section 2.4); S. Blazkova, T. Skaugen, K. Beven, A.L. Vetere Arellano,E.G. Langsholt, M. Astrup (Section 2.5); L. Holko, L. Andersson, J. Buchtele, F. Dole�al,V. Eliáš, A. Herrmann, J. Hladný, Z. Kostka, A. Lepistö, P. Miklánek, G. Peschke, E. Querner,P. Seuna, M. Tesar, S. Uhlenbrook, P. Warmerdam, S. Zhuravin (Section 2.6).

Chapter 3 Alpine and Mediterranean FRIEND (AMHY): E. ServatContributors: J.F. Boyer, V. Stanescu, P. Versace, M.C. Llasat, B. Touaïbia

Chapter 4 Southern African FRIEND: S. MkhandiContributors: D.A. Hughes, J.R. Meigh

Chapter 5 West and Central African (AOC) FRIEND: A. AmaniContributors: A. Afouda, M. Maiga, G. Mahe, M. Nguetora, M.O. Ankomah, J.E. Paturel, L. Sigha,D. Sighoumnou.

Chapter 6 Nile FRIEND: M.S.M. Farid

Chapter 7 Asian Pacific FRIEND: K. TakeuchiContributors: R.P. Ibbitt, Z. Xu

Chapter 8 Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) FRIEND: S. R. ChaliseContributors: M.A. Kahlown, A.P. Pokhrel, S. I. Hasnain, B. P. Parida, K. B. Thapa, R. Rajbhandari,A. Shrestha, A.B. Shrestha

Chapter 9 Mesoamerican and Caribbean FRIEND (AMIGO): E. O. Planos-GutierrezContributors: F. Scatena, H. Thomas, C. Buján, B. Lapinel, R. Mejía, L. Montano

Chapter 10 Conclusions: A. Gustard

Annexes collated by G.A. Cole, based on information supplied by regional FRIEND groups.

The FRIEND Programme relies on the support of a large number of universities, governmentdepartments and research organisations, who have contributed data, staff or financial resourcesto the project. Support has also come from the European Union, the International Associationof Hydrological Sciences (IAHS), WMO and national IHP Committees. The editors wouldparticularly like to acknowledge the UK Department for International Development (DFID)for their support of FRIEND, including preparation of this report, and Mike Bonell and staff atthe UNESCO Division of Water Sciences in Paris and at Regional UNESCO Offices, for valuablescientific and financial support to this publication.

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x FRIEND REPORT 2002

Abbreviations and symbols

ADB Asian Development BankAGRHYMET Agricultural Hydrological Meteorological Training Centre, Niamey, NigerAHEC Alternative Hydro Energy Centre, Roorkee, IndiaAMHY Alpine and Mediterranean FRIENDAMIGO Mesoamerican and Caribbean FRIENDAOC West and Central Africa (Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale) FRIENDARIDA Assessment of the Regional Impact of Drought in AfricaARIDE Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in EuropeASTHyDA Analysis, Synthesis and Transfer of Knowledge and Tools on Hydrological

DroughtsBALTEX Baltic Sea ExperimentBTOPMC Block-wise use of TOPMODEL coupled with Muskingum-Cunge methodBUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and TechnologyCATHALAC Water Centre for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the CaribbeanCEH Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (formerly Institute of Hydrology), UKCemagref La Recherche pour l’Ingénierie de l’Agriculture et de l’EnvironnementCHASM Catchment Hydrology And Sustainable Management ProjectCHMI Czech Hydrometeorological InstituteDANIDA Danish International Development AssistanceDEA Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies (postgraduate diploma taken before a PhD)DEM Digital elevation modelDFID UK Government Department for International DevelopmentDHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, HM Government of NepalEEA European Environment AgencyEI, TU Engineering Institute, Tribhuvan University, NepalEIER Ecole Inter-Etats d’Equipement Rural (Interstate School for Rural Equipment)ENSO El Niño Southern OscillationERB European Network of Experimental and Representative BasinsERICA EEA pan- European river network mapEU European UnionEUROSTAT Statistical Office of the European CommunitiesEWA European Water ArchiveFID 7-digit gauging station number on the European Water ArchiveFRIEND Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network DataGAME Asian Monsoon Experiment of GEWEXGCM General Circulation ModelGEWEX Global Energy and Water Cycle ExperimentGIS Geographical Information SystemsGISCO EUROSTAT European Coastline mapGLUE Generalised Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation methodologyGRAPES Groundwater and River Resources Action Programme on a European ScaleGRDC Global Runoff Data Centre, Koblenz, GermanyGTOPO30 USGS Digital Elevation ModelGWAVA Global Water Availability Assessment methodGWP Global Water PartnershipHEAP Hydrological Extremes in Asian Pacific regionHELP Hydrology for the Environment, Life and PolicyHKH Hindu Kush HimalayasHKH FRIEND Hindu Kush Himalayan FRIEND

xiFRIEND REPORT 2002

HTC Regional Humid Tropics Hydrology and Water Resources Centre,Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

HWRP Hydrology and Water Resources Programmes of WMOHYCOS Hydrological Cycle Observing SystemHYDATA Hydrological database and analysis software, developed by CEH WallingfordIAHR International Association of Hydraulic ResearchIAHS International Association of Hydrological SciencesICID International Commission on Irrigation and DrainageICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, NepalICSI IAHS International Commission on Snow and IceIHD International Hydrological DecadeIHP International Hydrological ProgrammeIIASA International Institute for Applied Systems AnalysisIIT Indian Institute of TechnologyIITF International Institute of Tropical ForestsIMTA Mexican Institute of Water TechnologyINTAS International Association for the promotion of cooperation with scientists

from the New Independent States of the former Soviet UnionIRD Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier, FranceIRTCES International Research and Training Centre on Erosion and SedimentsITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence ZoneIWRA International Water Resources AssociationJNU Jawaharlal Nehru University, IndiaLOCAR Lowland Catchment Research Programme, UK.NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Dept. of CommerceNRWQN National Rivers Water Quality Network, New ZealandNVE Norwegian Water Resources and Energy DirectorateOFDA Office of Foreign Disaster AssistanceOHP Operational Hydrological ProgrammePARDYP The People and Resource Dynamics Project by ICIMODPCRWR Pakistan Council of Research in Water ResourcesPDF Probability Density FunctionRDBMS Regional Data Base Management SystemREFRESHA Regional Flow Regimes Estimation for Small-scale Hydropower AssessmentRHDC Regional Hydrological Data CentreROSTLAC Regional Office of Science and Technology of UNESCO for Latin America and

the CaribbeanRSC Regional Steering CommitteeRWG Regional Working GroupSADC South African Development CommunitySAGARMATHA Snow and Glacier Aspects of Water Resource Management in the HimalayasSAU Sindh Agriculture UniversitySGMRM Snow and Glacier Melt Runoff ModelTAC Tracer Aided Catchment modelTAC Technical Advisory Committee of the Global Water PartnershipTECCONILE Technical Cooperation Commission for the Promotion of the Development

and Environmental Protection of the NileTOPMODEL A rainfall–runoff model that bases its distributed predictions on an

analysis of catchment topographyUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganisationUNEP United Nations Education ProgrammeUNITWIN United Nations Student NetworkUSGS United States Geological Survey

Abbreviations

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xii FRIEND REPORT 2002

WATAC West African component of Global Water PartnershipWCRP WMO World Climate ProgrammeWECS Water and Energy Commission SecretariatWHYCOS World Hydrological Cycle Observing SystemWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWR90 Water Resources 1990 study of South Africa and modelling systemWRRI Water Resources Research Institute, Egypt.WWAP World Water Assessment ProgrammeYWRC Yangtze Water Resources Commission

Symbols

AMV Annual maximum series of drought deficit volumesATD Annual total water deficitB Runoff parameter in 4-layer tank modelC

pSnyder’s peaking coefficient

CD Consolidated deposit areaCR Distribution coefficient in given periodCS Coefficient of stabilityDLTKR Depth of rainfall loss (inches)Ei Event iEOF Empirical Orthogonal FunctionFA Frequency of occurrenceH Entropy or stability indexLcv L moment coefficient of variationLP3/MOM Log Pearson Type 3 / Method of MomentsMAX Maximum flowMIN Minimum flowMF Mean flown Sample sizep Probability of occurrence of given hydrological eventP Parent distributionP3/ PWM Pearson Type 3 / Probability weighted momentsPMP Probable Maximum PrecipitationQ Discharge (m3s–1)Q90 Discharge (m3s–1) equalled or exceeded for 90% of the timeQ95 Discharge (m3s–1) equalled or exceeded for 90% of the timeR Rainfall (mm)r2 Correlation coefficientSDL Specific demand levelSTRKR Loss rate function (inches per hour)T Return period (years)Tp Basin lag timeTCEV Two parameter extreme value distributionWVL Waste and vacant landZ Parameter representing runoff in 4-layer tank model

1FRIEND REPORT 2002

Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Introduction to FRIENDWater is an integral part of the environment, and is of vital importance to all socioeconomicsectors. Human and economic development is not possible without a safe, reliable watersupply. With an increasing global population, the challenge of managing water resourcesgrows. Conflicts between different water uses and users become more common, as increasingdemands are placed on this limited resource. Misuse of water resources and poor watermanagement practices have resulted in depleted supplies, falling water tables, shrinking inlandlakes, and stream flows diminished to ecologically unsustainable levels. In addition, waterpollution, originating mostly from human activity, is occurring even more frequently, decreasingthe amount of water suitable for many uses. There are added risks and uncertainties associatedwith climate change, and the long-term impact on water availability is only now beginning tobe understood.

Water stress, where the demand for freshwater water outstrips supply, is keenly felt all overthe world. Europe, for example, has recently suffered a number of extensive and costly floodsand droughts, problems of groundwater pollution, lake eutrophication, over abstraction ofgroundwater and degradation of wetlands. In parts of the Middle East, South Africa and Asiawater shortages are stifling economic growth, limiting food production and depriving manyof adequate clean water for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene. The effects are hardestfelt by the most vulnerable in society, particularly women and children of the poorest families,who lack the adaptive capacity to cope with such water shortages. The challenge for theinternational hydrological research community is considerable: to develop better methodsand tools to ensure more effective and sustainable management of an increasingly scarceresource and, through this, contribute to improving the quality of life for the poorest peoplein our global society.

FRIEND (Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data) is one of theinitiatives being undertaken by hydrologists to meet this challenge. FRIEND is a contributionto the International Hydrology Programme (IHP) of the United Nations’ Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and aims to develop better understanding of hydrologicalvariability and similarity across time and space, through mutual exchange of data, knowledgeand techniques at a regional level. The project was founded in 1985 by a small internationalteam of European scientists, who sought to realise operational benefits from the vast amountof information gathered from representative and experimental basins across northern Europeduring the 1960s and 1970s. The outcome of their work attracted considerable attention andits merits ensured that FRIEND evolved through several successive phases to become theworldwide, regionally-based study outlined in this report. The growth of FRIEND has beensignificant, with some 100 countries now participating in the eight established regional FRIENDprojects of Northern Europe (NE), the Alpine and Mediterranean region (AMHY), SouthernAfrica, the Nile Basin, West and Central Africa (AOC), the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region(HKH), the Asian-Pacific region and the Mesoamerican and Caribbean region (AMIGO) (Table1.1; Figure 1.1). Meanwhile, interest in FRIEND continues to grow, with new projects beingconsidered in central Asia, South America, and the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea region.

FRIEND research covers a diverse range of topics including low flows, floods, variability ofregimes, rainfall/runoff modelling, processes of streamflow generation, sediment transport,snow and glacier melt, climate-change and land-use impacts. As a result FRIEND has beenelevated to the position of a crosscutting theme in the sixth phase of the IHP (IHP-VI) from2002 to 2007, with links to such themes as global changes and water resources, integrated

FRIEND 2002

2 FRIEND REPORT 2002

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3FRIEND REPORT 2002

Introduction

watershed and aquifer dynamics, land habitat hydrology, water and society and water educationand training. The FRIEND programme also complements the other crosscutting initiative HELP(Hydrology for the Environment, Life and Policy), which aims to integrate hydrological sciencewith social issues and provide the scientific basis for improved land and water managementthrough a global network of experimental basins.

Activities within each regional FRIEND project are determined by local project participants,who are drawn from operational agencies, universities and research institutes, and are thereforein the best position to identify the research priorities in their region. The FRIEND projecttends, therefore, to have a problem-solving approach in most of its regions, with its scientificoutput being applied practically towards hazard mitigation and poverty alleviation. As floodsand droughts are not necessarily confined by political boundaries, the major efforts of regionalFRIEND projects towards the sharing of data between countries and the establishment ofregional hydrological databases, used for FRIEND research, have made a real and lasting steptowards international cooperation. Such databases are now well established in the NorthernEuropean, AMHY, West and Central Africa (AOC) and Southern Africa FRIEND projects andare under development in the HKH, AMIGO and Asian Pacific FRIEND regions.

Several FRIEND projects, seeking to build the capacity of local hydrologists and waterpractitioners to assess and manage their own national water resources, have identified as apriority a need for training and skills transfer. Training and capacity building has become animportant part of the FRIEND Programme and is conducted through training courses, technicalworkshops, conferences, symposia, the subsidised distribution of technical literature andsupport to postgraduate students. The transfer of skills, knowledge and experience betweenregional projects at different stages of development is one of the key achievements of FRIEND.

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FRIEND 2002


1.2 Links with other international projectsThe status of the FRIEND project within the international hydrological community is reflectedin its many links to other international programmes and projects. The project has a particularlyeffective relationship with the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), through elementsof the Hydrology and Water Resources Programme (HRWP) and the World Climate ResearchProgramme (WCRP). It was specifically praised for its close cooperation with WMO programmesat the Fifth UNESCO/WMO International Conference on Hydrology (UNESCO/WMO, 1999).The Northern European FRIEND project has had a good relationship for many years with theGlobal Runoff Data Centre (GRDC), one of four sub-regional data centres of the FRIENDEuropean Water Archive. There is also synergy between FRIEND and the WMO WHYCOS(World Hydrological Cycle Observing System) programme. Each of the three ongoing WHYCOSprojects, in the Mediterranean basin (MED-HYCOS), southern Africa (SADC-HYCOS) andwestern and central Africa (AOC-HYCOS), coincides geographically with a regional FRIENDproject and involves organisations that are also active within FRIEND. There are alsocollaborative links with WCRP’s GEWEX (Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment) and ata regional level between Northern European FRIEND and BALTEX (Baltic Sea Experiment),Asian Pacific FRIEND and GAME (GEWEX Asian Monsoon Experiment), and AMHY andGEWEX-Rhône.

FRIEND works closely with the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) inorganising conferences and workshops and publishing conference proceedings. An exampleof this collaboration is the FRIEND 2002 conference in South Africa, the proceedings of whichare published in the IAHS Red Book Series (van Lanen & Demuth, 2002). FRIEND participantsare also working closely with the IAHS International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) toestablish a regional FRIEND project in South America, focusing on hydrological aspects ofsnow and ice in the Andes, and a training programme for glacier mass-balance monitoring inthe Himalayas.

FRIEND has recently been developing links with the Global Water Partnership (GWP), whichit joined formally in October 2000. The GWP is an independent global network that seeks tooffer new and innovative ways of networking between stakeholders and to support countriesin the sustainable management of their resources by bringing together research needs anddonors. The GWP operates through a number of regional Technical Advisory Committees(TACs) and is working in many regions where FRIEND is already established. For instance,the research focus of the Southern Africa FRIEND project has been guided by the regionalTAC, and many of the active FRIEND participants are also involved in the GWP.

In Europe, FRIEND has been supported by, and has contributed to, the Fourth and Fifth EUFramework Programmes for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration, withprojects such as ARIDE (Assessment of the Regional Impact of Drought in Europe: see Section2.3.1) and GRAPES (Groundwater and River Resources Action Programme on a EuropeanScale). Cooperation between Northern European and AMHY FRIEND has provided majorinputs to water resources analysis and synthesis by EUROSTAT and the European EnvironmentAgency (EEA, 1998).

1.3 FRIEND ReportThis volume is the fourth in a series of FRIEND Reports (Gustard et al., 1989; Gustard, 1993;Oberlin & Desbos, 1997), which have been produced to mark the end of successive phases ofFRIEND and to coincide with major international FRIEND Conferences held in Bolkesjø,Norway, in 1989, Braunschweig, Germany, in 1993 and Postøjna, Slovenia, in 1997 (Roald etal., 1989; Seuna et al., 1994; Gustard et al., 1997). This report presents research conducted

5FRIEND REPORT 2002

Introduction

during the fourth phase of FRIEND from 1998 to 2002 and coincides with the Fourth FRIENDConference, Bridging the gap between research and practice, in Cape Town, South Africa,18-22 March 2002.

The report presents a synthesis of global FRIEND research, giving the reader a flavour of thewide range of research activities addressed and the different problems faced by each regionalFRIEND group. Following this introduction (Chapter 1), a chapter is devoted to each of theeight established regional FRIEND projects (Chapters 2 to 9). Each chapter was prepared bythe regional FRIEND coordinator and project leaders, based on contributions from regionalparticipants. They typically describe the hydrological challenges faced by the regional FRIENDgroup, its organisation and project development, an outline of the activities undertaken andselected examples of its research output. Chapter 10 provides a general conclusion, summarisesthe overall achievements of FRIEND and outlines future plans.

Chapter 5 on West and Central Africa /Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale (AOC) was originallywritten in French and was translated into English at AGRHYMET, Niamey, Niger: the originalFrench version is included as Annex 1. Annexes 2 to 5 give background information on theFRIEND project: contact details for the eight regional coordinators in Annex 2, FRIEND researchparticipants in Annex 3, FRIEND meetings since 1997 in Annex 4, and about 450 publicationsby FRIEND participants since 1997 in Annex 5. Although it is impossible to provide a fullycomprehensive picture of all regional groups, these annexes show clearly the vigour, highproductivity and wide-ranging nature of FRIEND research and collaboration, and the widedissemination of research results in scientific journals, conference proceedings, books andreports.

ReferencesEuropean Environment Agency. 1998. Europe’s Environment: The Second Assessment, Elsevier Science Ltd, ISBN

0080432042Gustard, A., Roald, L.A., Demuth, S., Lumadjeng, H. & Gross, R. 1989. Flow Regimes from Experimental and

Network Data (FREND). Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.Gustard, A. (ed.) 1993. Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data (FRIEND), Vol. I,

Hydrological Studies; Vol. II, Hydrological Data; Vol. III Inventory of streamflow generation studies. Instituteof Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

Gustard, A., Blazkova, S., Brilly, M., Demuth, S., Dixon, J., van Lanen, H., Llasat, C., Mkhandi, S., & Servat, E.(eds) 1997. FRIEND’97 – Regional Hydrology: Concepts and Models for Sustainable Water ResourceManagement. IAHS Publ. no. 246.

Oberlin, G. & Desbos, E. 1997. Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data (FRIEND)Third Report: 1994-1997, Cemagref Éditions, France.

Roald, L., Nordseth, K. & Hassel, K.A. (eds) 1989. FRIENDS in Hydrology, Proc. Int. Conf., Bolkesjø, Norway.IAHS Publ. no. 187.

Seuna, P., Gustard, A., Arnell, N.W. & Cole, G.A. (eds) 1994. FRIEND: Flow regimes from InternationalExperimental and Network Data, Proc. Int. Conf., Braunschweig, Germany, IAHS Publ. no. 221.

UNESCO/WMO 1999. Fifth International Conference on Hydrology, Geneva, 8-12 February, 1999.van Lanen, H.A.J. & Demuth, S. (eds) 2002. FRIEND 2002 – Regional Hydrology: Bridging the Gap between

Research and Practice, Proc. Int. FRIEND Conf., Cape Town, South Africa, IAHS Publ. no. 274.

7FRIEND REPORT 2002

Chapter 2 Northern Europe2.1 Introduction2.1.1 Regional characteristics and challenges

European inland waters are used for a variety of purposes, including drinking water, irrigation,wastewater disposal, power generation, transportation, fishing and other recreational activities.Inland surface waters are also an important part of Europe’s landscape and the ecosystemsthat depend on them are of the utmost significance for biodiversity. Increasing population,industrialisation, the intensification of agriculture, canalisation, reservoir building and thegrowth in recreation have significantly increased the pressures on Europe’s inland waters,and there is increasing conflict between different uses and users. Droughts and floods, whichare among the most common natural disasters, add to these problems. The need for sustainablemanagement of water is evident.

Average annual runoff in Europe varies widely, from less than 25 mm in south-east Spain tomore than 3000 mm on the west coast of Norway. Although arid or semi-arid regions are lessprevalent in the Northern European FRIEND region, there are extensive areas with less than150 mm of runoff, often coinciding with large population densities with high water demand.Cooperation between the Northern European and the Alpine and Mediterranean (AMHY)FRIEND group has provided a regional analysis of European water resources for the EuropeanEnvironment Agency (EEA, 1998). For example, Figure 2.1 shows gridded average annualrunoff across Europe at a 10 km grid resolution, based on both gauged and modelled data.Even where there are sufficient long-term water resources, the seasonal or year-to-year variationin the availability of the resource may result in shortages. Figure 2.2 shows urban demand asa proportion of Q90 (the discharge exceeded or available for human and environmentaldemands for 90% of the time). This type of map is useful in identifying those regions of waterstress, such as the urban areas and the Mediterranean coastline, which could be subject toseasonal water shortages.

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Floods are the most common natural disaster and, in terms of economic damage, the mostcostly. In recent years, floods have received much media and public attention within Europe.Some examples of serious floods are the Baison-la-Romaine flood of 1992, the Rhine andMeuse floods of 1993/94 and 1995, the Oder flood of 1997, the 1996 and 1997 floods inBiescas and Badajoz, the 1998 flood in Sarno and Quindici and the UK floods of 1998 and2000/01. Flooding and its impact result from a combination of natural factors and humaninterference. Human actions can influence flooding either by affecting the runoff patterns(e.g. deforestation, urbanisation and river channelisation) or by increasing the possible impactof flooding (e.g. increased development of flood plains for housing).

Large areas of Europe have been affected by drought over the past 50 years. Recent severeand prolonged droughts have highlighted Europe’s vulnerability to this natural hazard andalerted the public, governments and operational agencies to the many problems of watershortage and the need for drought mitigation measures. As the pressure on existing waterresources increases, the effects of a drought will be more keenly felt.

The provision of a common European database through FRIEND has enabled floods, lowflow frequency and the dynamic characterisation of regional droughts to be studied for thefirst time at the pan-European scale. It has also allowed research into large-scale variations inhydrological characteristics and teleconnections and enabled results from studies of catchmenthydrological and biogeochemical processes on small experimental catchments to be compared.

2.1.2 Northern European FRIEND project

The Northern European FRIEND project was started in 1985 by the IHP Committees of the UK,Germany, the Netherlands and Norway, who seconded full-time scientists for a three-yearperiod to collaborate in an international project group based at the Centre for Ecology andHydrology (formerly the Institute of Hydrology), Wallingford, UK. Hydrologists from otherEuropean countries soon joined them on secondment for shorter periods. The first phase ofthe project was completed in 1989 and led to the establishment of the European Water Archive,containing river flow data from 1350 gauging stations in 13 countries. The second, third and

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fourth phases of the Northern European FRIEND project, completed in 1993, 1997 and 2001respectively, have seen participation extend to many countries in central and eastern Europe:24 countries are now actively involved in Northern European FRIEND (Table 1.1). Close linksare maintained with AMHY and considerable efforts are made by Northern European participantsto support and develop the existing FRIEND projects in Southern Africa, the Caribbean andHindu-Kush Himalayas, as well as emerging projects in Central Asia and South America.

As with other FRIEND groups, the Northern European project is overseen by a SteeringCommittee, with one representative from the IHP Committee of each participating country.Administration is the responsibility of the project secretariat at CEH Wallingford, UK. Researchis conducted by five project groups, each comprising ten or more participants representingdifferent European countries. Project groups typically meet annually, providing a forum forparticipants to present their ongoing work and exchange ideas and knowledge. The fivethemes covered are low flows, floods, large-scale variations and teleconnections, catchmenthydrological and biogeochemical processes, and hydrological database development. Theactivities of each theme are summarised in the following sections, starting with a descriptionof the European Water Archive.

2.2 The European Water ArchiveTo develop a better understanding of the temporal and spatial variability of hydrologicalregimes requires good quality long-term flow and spatial data, that is representative of thestudy area. A central feature of Northern European FRIEND, since its inception in 1985, hasbeen the development of a hydrological database, the European Water Archive. This archiveis now arguably one of the most comprehensive hydrological archives in Europe, containinglong-term daily flow data and catchment information for over 5000 river gauging stations(Rees & Demuth, 2000) in 30 countries. The continued development and maintenance of thearchive is the responsibility of the Database group (Project Group 1), coordinated by theCentre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford. This group has formal responsibilities, asspecified by the Steering Committee of the Northern European FRIEND project, for coordinatingdata acquisition, applying quality control procedures and disseminating data to FRIENDresearchers. Data is supplied to the archive on a voluntary basis and free of charge. In turn,the data is made freely available to FRIEND researchers on the condition it is used exclusivelyfor FRIEND research.

The European Water Archive is located at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH)Wallingford. It comprises two distinct elements: a relational database management system(RDBMS), based on ORACLE, which stores time-series of river flow data, catchmentcharacteristics and pertinent derived flow statistics; and a geographical information system(GIS), which stores spatially referenced data as ARC/INFO coverages. For regional analysisboth time series and spatial data elements are routinely used in conjunction with each other.

The European Water Archive currently contains the equivalent of over 140 000 station-years ofgauged daily flow records from over 4600 catchments in 29 countries across Europe. Thedistribution of the stations is shown in Figure 2.3. The high density of stations in north-westEurope reflects the fact that FRIEND originated in this part of Europe with the data coverageonly relatively recently being extended to central and eastern Europe and to the states of theformer Soviet Union.

Every effort has been made to ensure that the data held on the Archive are of good quality.Most data come from small, predominantly natural catchments, generally with a catchmentarea of less than 500 km2, where artificial influences on the flow record are no more than 10%of the mean flow. Typically, stations have a complete daily flow record of at least ten years.

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Each station on the Archive is uniquely identified by a seven-digit FRIEND number (FID). TheFRIEND station numbering is based on the subdivision of Europe into 44 hydrometric regions,with each region generally containing between 10 and 15 hydrometric areas of up to 10 000 km2.The general location of any gauging station can be inferred from the FID: the first two digitscorrespond to the hydrometric region, the next two to the hydrometric area, with the finalthree digits giving the sequential number of the station within the relevant hydrometric area.

As Table 2.1 shows, record lengths are generally long, averaging over 30 years per station,with a large number of stations with over 100 years of record. Gauged monthly flows are alsoavailable for a further 60 stations in Iceland, Poland, Luxembourg and Russia. In addition,38 000 station years of instantaneous annual maxima (flood maxima) are available for over2100 gauging stations in north and west Europe.

There has been a considerable expansion of the archive since the last FRIEND Report in 1997(Oberlin & Desbos, 1997), when it contained 109 000 station years of gauged daily flow datafrom 4233 stations in 25 countries. The expansion was largely facilitated by two projects.Firstly, the inclusion of data from three former Soviet Union countries was enabled by fundingfrom INTAS, the International Association for the promotion of cooperation with scientistsfrom the New Independent States of the former Soviet Union. The project resulted in aregional data centre of the EWA being established at the State Hydrological Institute inSt Petersburg, Russia and the transfer over 9000 station years of gauged daily flow data,annual maxima and spatial data from 273 catchments in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine (Rees &Cole, 1999). The second major source of data has been the European Union Fourth Framework

11FRIEND REPORT 2002

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funded ARIDE (Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe) project, which wascompleted in December 2000 (Demuth & Stahl, 2001). The project led to significantimprovements in the spatial and temporal coverage of gauged daily flow data on the archive.These included a 20% increase in the total number of stations having gauged daily flow dataand, significantly, an increase of 50% in the number of gauging stations with over 30 years’daily flow data.

To complement the time-series component of the European Water Archive, an ARC/INFOgeographical information system (GIS) exists, comprising spatially referenced data (i.e. thematicand map-derived data) that are stored in digital form as ARC/INFO coverages. Coverages canbe readily combined, compared and correlated with each other, thus providing a valuabletool for hydrological analysis. Facilities are available that make it possible to relate the coveragesto the time-series described above. Some of the coverages held include:

� Topographic catchment boundaries for over 3000 catchments in northern Europe;

� The European Environment Agency’s 1:1 million pan-European river network, ERICA;

� The 1:1 million Soil Map of the European Communities;

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� Grids of EU land-use (forest, urban, lake) at 1.25 km × 1.25 km resolution;

� Grids of potential evaporation and actual evaporation for the whole of Europe at0.5 km × 0.5 km resolution, as supplied by the IIASA;

� Grids of monthly precipitation, temperature, pressure and cloud cover at 0.5 km ×0.5 km resolution for the period 1901 – 1996, as supplied by the Climate ResearchUnit of the University of East Anglia;

� The USGS GTOPO30 digital terrain model;

� The Eurostat GISCO 1:1 million European coastline and national boundaries.

Unfortunately copyright restrictions prevent the distribution of several of the spatial datacoverages to FRIEND participants. Nevertheless, most are readily available, either freely (at nocost) or for a nominal charge, directly from the supplier.

The European Water Archive is unquestionably a valuable resource and a prime example ofwhat can be achieved by international cooperation. FRIEND participants all over Europe haveexpended considerable time and effort to make the European Water Archive the high qualitydataset for regional hydrological analysis it is today. Many scientists have already benefitedfrom its existence and have used the data to develop tools and methods that are used forwater resources management and flood design. The Archive will become even more relevantas society demands greater understanding of the impacts of climate and land-use change onwater resources and the incidence of hydrological extremes, such as floods and droughts.

2.3 Research

2.3.1 Low flows

Droughts are complex natural hazards that, to a varying degree, affect some part of Europealmost every year. The temporary shortage of water poses a great threat to nature, the qualityof life and the economy. Any future increases in the demand for water will be most critical inperiods of severe low flow and extensive droughts. As drought is a slowly developingphenomenon, only indirectly affecting human life, its impacts are often underestimated inrelatively rich regions such as Europe. However, recent years have shown how vulnerablecountries can be to drought, as they often cover larger regions and extend for longer periodsthan floods. Unlike aridity, drought is a naturally occurring phenomenon and can be character-ised as a deviation from normal conditions of such variables as precipitation, evaporation, soilmoisture, groundwater or streamflow. The last two quantities, used to define a hydrologicaldrought, represent the available water resources at a site or in a region, and their low flowand drought characteristics provide threshold values for different water based activities.

It is difficult, because of its complexity, to define precisely the onset, duration and severity ofa drought. As a consequence there are numerous definitions available and a lack of consistentanalysis tools. This has hampered the progress of research and limited operational applications,which favour standardised measures. Traditional low flow measures, defined as onecharacteristic of the low flow domain (e.g. the mean annual minimum flow), do not suffer thesame constraints. Low flow processes and different low flow measures have been discussedthoroughly in earlier FRIEND reports. The focus in this phase of FRIEND has been onhydrological drought: its definition, extreme characteristics, variability in time and space andsynoptic behaviour across Europe. Common to many of the studies is the use of the thresholdlevel method to define drought events from a time series of observations. A sequence ofdrought events is obtained when the variable is below a threshold level, with each eventbeing characterised in terms of its duration and deficit volume. The European Water Archivehas offered a unique opportunity to study the regional behaviour of streamflow droughts.Time series of precipitation, and groundwater recharge and heads have also been analysed.


The work in the Low flow group has ranged from statistical multivariate analysis at the regionaland European scale to physically-based and conceptual modelling studies at the catchmentscale. A common objective has been to characterise the spatial and temporal variability of lowflow and hydrological droughts and to identify the main factors governing low flow anddroughts at different scales. As the Low flow group has continued to grow, cooperation hasevolved around smaller groups, such as the European Union supported project ARIDE andthe Eastern European group. This has proved an efficient way to organise the work, withcommon meetings or workshops every 12-18 months. More recently the Textbook group wasestablished. Based on the vast experience of the members of the Low flow group, it wasdecided to produce a synthesis of this knowledge and publish a textbook on low flow andhydrological drought. The book is aimed at both professionals and students and will bepublished by Elsevier Science Publications in 2003. In addition to subgroup and commonmeetings, exchange of students and joint excursions have also proved to be beneficial.

The key objectives of the ARIDE project (1998-2000) were to improve the understanding ofprocesses that control European droughts, our ability to predict their duration, magnitude andextent for a given frequency and the sensitivity of droughts to environmental changes (Demuth& Stahl, 2001). Consistent drought definitions were derived and applied to quantify temporaland spatial variations in meteorological droughts in terms of lack of precipitation, as well ashydrological droughts in terms of streamflow and groundwater deficits (Hisdal & Tallaksen,2000; van Lanen & Peters, 2000; Tate & Gustard, 2000). The main objectives of the EasternEuropean group (established in 1999) have been to exchange data, harmonise methods andsoftware tools for drought analysis, and jointly synthesise the results. The focus has been onregional statistical methods, identification of important catchment and climate characteristicsinfluencing severe droughts and long-term fluctuations in time series of drought. Aregionalisation program for low flow and drought analysis has been developed and appliedto a joint east-European dataset.

The research results of the low flow group have been published in international journals andconference proceedings and cover a wide range of low flow topics, e.g. the link betweenstreamflow drought and atmospheric circulation patterns (Stahl & Demuth, 1999), impactassessment of drought mitigation measures (Querner & van Lanen, 2001), flow variables forecological studies (Clausen & Biggs, 2000), assessment of small-scale hydropower potential(Rees, Croker, Prudhomme & Gustard, 2000), hydrological drought and climate variability(Kašpárek & Novický, 2002), frequency analysis of droughts (Tallaksen, 2000), seasonalityaspects of low flows (Laaha, 2002), changes in water balance and hydrological drought inPoland (Kasprzyk & Pokojski, 1998), and changes in groundwater runoff in Slovakia (Fendekova,1999). Two regional drought studies are presented in more detail below.

Have droughts in Europe become more severe or frequent?

As a part of the ARIDE project, a study was carried out to investigate whether droughts inEurope have become more severe or more frequent (Hisdal et al., 2001). The topic is importantbecause many experts cite the occurrence of recent droughts as evidence of climate change.More than 600 daily records from the EWA were analysed to detect spatial and temporalchanges in drought patterns. Figure 2.4 shows the results obtained by applying the non-parametric Mann-Kendall trend test on annual maximum series of drought deficit volumes(AMV) for the period 1962-90. For most stations, there are no significant changes. However,distinct regional differences can be seen. Examples of increasing drought deficit volumes arefound in Spain, the western part of Eastern Europe and in large parts of the UK, whereas,decreasing drought deficit volumes occur in large parts of Central Europe and in the easternpart of Eastern Europe.

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Despite anecdotal evidence of increased drought frequency in Europe, the results showedthat it is not possible to conclude that drought conditions, in general, have become moresevere. It is important to realise that what is seen as an increased trend in droughts, based ona ‘short’ period of observations, might turn out to be a part of a long-term fluctuation andcannot be seen as evidence of human-induced climate change nor be used as a basis fordrought prediction in the future. The period analysed and also the selection of stations stronglyinfluenced the regional pattern. Trends in drought deficit volumes or durations could, to alarge extent, be explained through changes in precipitation or artificial influences in thecatchment. Changes in the number of drought events per year were controlled by the combinedeffect of climate and catchment characteristics such as storage capacity.

Monitoring droughts

Characterising the dynamic development of historic drought events could help to predict howdrought conditions might spread during future events. This would be important for earlywarning systems, mitigation and improved drought management. A methodology for deriving

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time series of daily flow exceedance from records held on the EWA has been developedwithin the ARIDE project, including facilities to retrieve time-series of daily mean flow andtransformation of daily flow time series to daily exceedance series for selected drought years.A prototype of the electronic drought atlas ElectrA has been developed (Zaidman et al., 2000),based on a regularly spaced grid of 0.25° × 0.25° resolution (see Figure 2.5). Different mappingprocedures, based on catchment area, have also been investigated. A pilot software applicationto evaluate the possibilities of a near-real-time drought monitoring and forecasting system forEurope was also tested, based on near-real-time data from over 50 gauging stations in Europe.In future this system could result in a geographical map of Europe displaying daily streamflowconditions as exceedance values, but there are still some political and technical issues to beresolved before such a system can be realised. The work conducted within the ARIDE projectrepresents an important step towards delivering a tool for a European Drought Watch Systemfor the water industry, but a considerable amount of further research and development is stillneeded to establish an operational system.

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2.3.2 Large-scale variations in hydrological characteristics

This FRIEND project provides a forum for the development and application of methods ofregional analysis in hydrology. The following topics have been addressed:

1. Techniques for mapping hydrological characteristics

2. The use of hydrological “maps” for validating hydrometeorological macro-models.

3. Spatial and temporal variability of hydrological regimes — role of global change andhuman impact.

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4. Relationships between large-scale climatic and hydrologic anomalies andteleconnections.

An ambition in the group has been to define the context of “regional hydrology” and to worktowards writing a textbook on this topic. The underlying approach of the group so far can beformulated as: “Let us allow hydrological data to speak for themselves.” Deductive models, sodominant in hydrological analyses, have been given a low priority in favour of inductivemethods based on statistical theory. The present development of scientific hydrology calls fora change in the concept of regional hydrology and there are suggestions for broadening thebase for the methods used in the future.

Many of the scientific results achieved by the group have been published in internationalscientific journals and conference proceedings. Summaries of scientific achievements can befound in Gottschalk & Krasovskaia (1998) for Topic 1; Krasovskaia (1996) for Topic 3, andShorthouse (1999) for Topic 4. Sauquet (2000) has further developed Topics 1, 2 and 3. Thethree latter publications are doctoral theses completed under the framework of FRIEND.

Interpolation of hydrological information in space and time is an important topic in hydrology,relating to the problems of regionalisation and scaling of hydrological variables. Thoughrunoff is measured at a point (at a gauging site), the value obtained is an integration of thewhole river basin upstream of this point. Interpolation of such data demands consideration ofthe network structure to reflect the specific character of this information. The different natureof runoff characteristics demands different interpolation approaches. For mean discharges, alinear approach is necessary with discharges summed up at river junctions throughout thewhole river system, whereas for index floods and low flows there is a non linear relationshipwith basin area which calls for a different approach. Interpolation algorithms, like thoseoffered by GIS software, produce static colourful digital maps that often disregard both theriver basin with its hydrographic net as the fundamental hydrological unit, and the waterbalance equation as the fundamental hydrological law. Hydrological maps need to behydrological. The complexity of the interpolated hydrological information necessitates theuse of a broad spectrum of interpolation techniques from statistical approaches, involvingsuch aspects as dimensionality and scaling, to those based on physical models.

The study of large-scale variations implies the use of observations from large river basins,regions and continents. During recent years much of the research has therefore been conductedin close cooperation with AMHY FRIEND. Cooperation has also been initiated with the FRIEND/AMIGO project for Mesoamerica and the Caribbean, where some of the approaches developedhave been introduced for practical application.

Two studies, presented below, illustrate research into spatial and temporal variations of seasonalflow patterns (river flow regimes), which are still poorly understood.

Objective interpolation of flow regimes along a river

An approach for objective interpolation of flow regime patterns along a river net has beendeveloped for south-eastern France in collaboration with AMHY FRIEND (Sauquet et al.,2000), based on an extensive monthly runoff record. The interpolation scheme suggestedaccounts for both the auto-correlation in time series and also considers the discharge recordas an integrated value related to the upstream basin. The main river network (water paths) hasbeen used as a logical background for the interpolation scheme. Monthly values were standard-ised to overcome scale dependence with basin size. An Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF)procedure enabled each standardised time series to be interpreted as a linear combination ofamplitude functions defined by weightings at the regional scale. Empirical dependenciesrelated these weights to basin characteristics, with kriging applied for interpolation of weight


residuals. The derived seasonal flow patterns, interpreted within the framework of a simpleregime classification scheme, enabled a hydrological map of flow regimes to be derived, asshown in Figure 2.6.

Spatial and temporal variability of seasonal flow patterns

A methodology for studying the spatial and temporal variability in seasonal flow patterns ofriver flow regimes has been developed by Gottschalk & Krasovskaia (2001). The dimensionalityreduction based on EOF, outlined in the previous example, has been applied to a largesample of Scandinavian monthly flow values with a common record length of 74 years. Theprobability density functions of the weight coefficients in the reduced phase of the two firstEOF has been constructed. These two-dimensional density functions (regime attractors) enablea possible change in the frequency of regime patterns over time to be traced. Figure 2.7shows “regime attractors” for successive 25-year periods.

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2.3.3 Techniques for extreme rainfall and flood runoff estimation

The central topic within extreme rainfall and flood runoff research is that of continuoussimulation, i.e. the use of a precipitation-runoff model coupled with precipitation andtemperature simulators (e.g. Blazkova & Beven, 1997, Cameron et al., 1999) to predict flows.A number of modifications of both simple stochastic simulators and the Bartlett Lewis modelhave been applied on British, Czech and Norwegian catchments. Cameron et al. (2000) carriedout a comparison of rainfall simulators. The precipitation-runoff models used are the SwedishHBV model (e.g. Bergstrom, 1976) in Norway and TOPMODEL (e.g. Beven, 1986) in UK andCzech Republic. In Norway and the Czech Republic, special attention is devoted to snowaccumulation and melt.

These models are applied practically for design purposes and flood warning. In the CzechRepublic there is a particular need to develop new design methods to ensure that dam safetystandards are comparable with those of more developed countries in Western Europe. InNorway the crucial problem is to correctly estimate the amount of water accumulated in snowand the time of onset of the melting season, which has important implications for floodingand energy assessment.

In hydrological research, and recently also in practice, it has become obvious that predictionsand forecasts should be accompanied by the quantification of uncertainty.

In Norway the uncertainty associated with a flood forecast is estimated for risk assessment. Ina critical situation, the probability of the runoff exceeding a certain critical level within thenext day may be more interesting for a decision-maker than the precise level of the forecastrunoff. At the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) a method forquantifying this uncertainty has been developed and incorporated into a flood forecastingroutine. Two major sources of uncertainty are quantified and compared; the uncertainty dueto errors in precipitation and temperature forecasts and the uncertainty associated with using


the hydrological model to approximate natural processes. If these are considered the onlysources of error, then a combination quantifies the composite uncertainty in the runoff forecasts.Models for the distribution of true temperature and precipitation data, given the forecasts, aredeveloped from historical data. For temperature data, a first-order autoregressive Gaussianmodel is assumed, separating positive and negative values of the temperature forecasts. Forprecipitation, a two-step procedure is developed. First, a model is established for the probabilityof precipitation, given the forecasts, and second, the actual amount of precipitation is modelled,assuming a Gamma distribution. As for the temperature model, the error made at the previoustime step is included in the model explanatory variables.

Drawing input data from these distributions, a Monte Carlo technique is applied to generatea sample of HBV simulated runoff data. A first order autoregressive Gaussian model, dependenton present simulated runoff, precipitation and temperature conditions, links simulated andobserved runoff. A synthetic sample of “observed” data can therefore be generated, on whichthe statistical analyses can be made. This procedure (perhaps somewhat simplified) forquantifying uncertainty in the runoff forecasts, can be coupled to a real-time precipitation-runoff model system. When today’s meteorological data is transferred, the HBV models (for alarge number of catchments) are started. After completion, weather realisations, based ontoday’s meteorological observations and forecasts are generated. The HBV-models, in turn,start running again, generating the runoff samples on which the final analyses and the probabilityestimates are made.

In the UK and Czech Republic continuous simulation has been carried out for some timewithin the framework of the Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE) methodol-ogy (e.g. Beven, 1993). GLUE is based on the concept of equifinality. Various model structuresand different parameter sets within a particular model structure can give acceptable results. Avery large number of simulations with parameter sets sampled by Monte Carlo techniqueshave to be carried out. Likelihoods of the simulations are computed using various goodnessof fit criteria, e.g. coefficient of determination of the flow at the outlet, sum of absolute errorsfrom the observed flood frequency curve, from the flow duration curve, from the frequencycurve of maximum snow water equivalents, etc.. The likelihoods are then used for weightingthe simulations in order to produce prediction bounds. This GLUE methodology is beingapplied to a flooding problem, using data from a major flood on the Morava River in theCzech Republic (Figure 2.8).

For modelling extremes, and estimating their frequency realistically, it is necessary to look atthe general relationship between surface flow and groundwater flow. This approach has beenadopted in a study of the flooding problem on permeable catchments (Vetere Arellano et al.,2000). Permeable catchments are not normally associated with flooding, on account of thelow frequency of extreme flood events. The lithology chosen to be studied in detail is thechalk. Two types of methods can be used: the general approach, when synchronous data ongroundwater head and streamflow are correlated and the event-based approach, whengroundwater head and river flow measurements of a particular flooding event are correlated.The former approach represents the relationship between the hydraulic gradient (betweensurface water and groundwater) and baseflow. The latter enables the identification of a criticalthreshold beyond which the rate of groundwater contribution to the river increases drasticallyand estimation of the increase in flow per metre rise of the water table. On permeablecatchments continuous simulation could also be a useful tool for flood frequency estimation.Another problem is the use of data that characterise the catchment saturation, e.g. saturatedarea mapping or piezometric data, for computing likelihoods of simulations (parameter sets)of a precipitation runoff model. On the Uhlirska catchment in the Czech Republic, this approachhas brought a deeper insight into the transmissivity parameter of TOPMODEL (Blazkovaet al., 2002).

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)�*��+�1 ��+��8��#��9""�&��$��3��8 �� 3��,!!4�#�� &��&3��:��3�,!!;$


Prediction bounds of flood frequency curve on an ungauged catchment

An unexpectedly large rainfall event on the ungauged Ryzmburk catchment (3 km2) in theCzech Republic caused the dam of a small pond to fail. Continuous simulation with TOPMODELwithin GLUE was applied to develop new design data. The available data for likelihoodevaluation were the regional quantiles of flood frequency (up to 10 years return period), theregional flow duration curve, and observed snow water equivalents in the vicinity of thecatchment. The parameters of the stochastic precipitation and temperature model werecomputed on a series of 69 summer seasons, in one-minute time steps from the Prague station(Sobota, 1995) and daily temperature data. Computation was in two steps. First, series of 100years were modelled and likelihoods evaluated on the basis of a fuzzy combination of thecriteria above. With the parameter sets having non-zero likelihood, the 10 000 years-serieswere computed. One thousand of those are shown in Figure 2.9, together with predictionbounds computed from 100-years series and those computed from the 10 000 years-series.The upper 95% prediction bound of the 10 000 years simulations can be considered as thedesign curve. Several hydrographs with the peak on the upper prediction bound and exceedenceprobability 100 and 1000 years have been used as new design data. This study was supportedby the Ministry of Environment, Czech Republic, with data provided by the CzechHydrometeorological Institute.

2.3.4 Catchment hydrological and biogeochemical processes in a changing environment

Hydrological research in small catchments comprises many aspects of the hydrological cycleand naturally results in a variety of research interests. The complex interactions betweenhydrology, chemistry and ecology have ensured that process studies remain a vital element ofcatchment studies. A greater understanding and synthesis of the processes and mechanismsresponsible for streamflow generation, variation in flow components and cycling of the mainnutrients in different physiographic and climatic conditions is needed.

The current phase of FRIEND has seen developments in three main areas. Firstly, the knowledgegained in experimental research has been used to validate and improve mathematical modellingof hydrological processes (Güntner et al., 1999, Warmerdam et al., 1999, Koivusalo et al.,2000). Secondly, the cycling of nutrients and transport of solutes (Andersson & Lepistö, 1998,Peschke & Seidler, 2000, Sambale et al., 2000) has been studied and, thirdly, changes inhydrological regime due to land use and climate changes have been estimated in smallcatchments (Buchtele et al., 1998, Querner et al., 2000).

FRIEND has provided a valuable framework for exchanging experience among participants.As the research interests of group participants are close to those of members of the EuropeanNetwork of Experimental and Representative Basins (ERB), annual ERB conferences havebeen, and will in the future be, organised jointly with FRIEND (e.g. Liblice, Czech Republic,1998; Ghent, Belgium, 2000; Demanovská dolina, Slovakia, 2002). Proceedings of theInternational ERB-NE FRIEND Project 5 Workshop held in St Petersburg, Russia, during thelast phase of FRIEND have now been published (Herrmann, 1999).

Tracer Aided Catchment model (TAC)

As noted above, a variety of hydrological processes can be studied in small catchments.Nevertheless, a common output of much of the research is rainfall-runoff modelling. Despiteimproved knowledge on runoff generation, gained from small catchments during the lastdecades, there are still gaps in the development of rainfall-runoff models. One example ofwhere knowledge of runoff generation has been applied in development of a rainfall-runoffmodel is the conceptual Tracer Aided Catchment (TAC) model (Uhlenbrook & Leibundgut,1999). Model development comprised several steps:

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� Distribution of the catchment into zones with the same dominant runoff generationprocesses;

� Development of the runoff generation module, taking into account the dominantrunoff generation process;

� Spatial delineation of zones with the same dominant runoff generation processes(Rutenberg et al., 1999) was based on a digital terrain model and maps of geology,forest habitat and saturated areas. Eight spatial units were defined including saturatedareas, urban areas, moraines, boulder trains, flat areas, hilltop areas and gentlysloping hilly uplands, steeper hillslopes and boulders on top of steeper units.

The runoff generation module was based on linear and non-linear reservoirs. It distinguishedseven zones based on spatial delineation and tracer studies, each with a characteristic dominantrunoff generation process. In such a way, different runoff components were calculated. Allrunoff components from the different reservoirs were added together to give the total catchmentsimulated discharge.

Good agreement was achieved between simulated and observed discharge for the period July1995 to March 1997. The modelled fast, delayed and slow runoff components correspondedto the results given by 18O measurements (Figure 2.10). The simulated and measured silicaconcentrations were also compared. Although for the whole period investigated, a correlationcoefficient (r2) of 0.36 was achieved, for shorter periods reasonable agreement could befound (see Figure 2.10). Model simulations appear plausible, as not only was the total dischargesimulated reasonably well, but, modelled proportions of the runoff components were alsocorrect (multiple response validation).

The TAC model is therefore a promising approach to rainfall-runoff modelling which takesinto account the results of field studies. For hydro-chemical problems, improved representationof the response of different catchment units to rainfall, in a way that enables practical applicationof the model, is important, and may also contribute to the simulation of floods and justifyassessments of climate and land use impacts.

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Hydrological effects of forestry treatment

Many experimental catchments are situated in forested areas and forestry treatment can leadto major land use change in such areas. Seuna (1999) in a summary paper describes theeffects of forestry treatments in Finland, namely forest harvesting and draining.

Forestry drainage has been carried out on about 20% of the land area of Finland. It was foundto have two major effects: a decrease in groundwater levels and a change in the hydraulicproperties of the basin. These result in depletion of groundwater storage, decrease in evaporationfrom the soil surface, increase in the water storage capacity of peaty soils and a change intranspiration. As a result, total runoff increased by 0.3-0.6% per 1% drainage during the first 10years. This increase was higher during the first years after drainage and from very wet areas,and lower after 10 years, from dry areas or if the drainage percentage was above 50%. After15-20 years the total runoff returned to its original level. Drainage often increased snowmeltand summer runoff maxima, and clearly increased minimum runoff and sediment transport.Forest harvesting (cutting of trees) increased total runoff by 5-10 mm per 10 m3 timber/haremoved. The spring (snowmelt) maximum increased by 0.5-0.8% per 1% of clear-cut area;the summer maximum increased by 0.3-1% per 1% of clear-cut area. The summer minimumincreased strongly but only for a short period. Suspended solids increased by 0.4-1% per 1%of clear-cut area, but generally remained low. Phosphorus loads increased strongly afterforest harvesting, especially from peaty soils. Nitrogen loads also increased, but to a lesserextent and probably for a shorter period. Groundwater tables increased after forest removal.

As both forestry drainage and clear-cutting tend to have parallel effects on hydrologicalconditions, application of both treatments in the same area would therefore increase the risksof flooding and erosion (Figure 2.11).

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direct runoff (11%)shallow groundwater (69%)deep groundwater (20%)

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2.4 Conclusions2.4.1 Achievements

Northern European FRIEND has evolved into a well-developed network of hydrologists, whoare implementing an active research programme. Annex 5 lists about 150 publications thathave been completed by Northern European FRIEND participants since 1997 and whichillustrate clearly the breadth of research topics and the range of output, including journal andconference papers, contract reports, software and spatial and temporal databases. This researchis being transferred to the user community mainly through national partnerships betweenresearch groups and operational hydrological agencies. Examples of practical applicationsinclude:

� Regionalisation of flood frequencies;

� Estimating uncertainty in flood prediction;

� Regionalisation of low flows;

� Pan-European drought analysis and monitoring;

� Abstraction management;

� Determination of small-scale hydropower potential;

� Impacts of climate change on water resources;

� Estimating the balance between water supply and demand at the European scale;

� Improved process understanding underpinning model development.

Northern European FRIEND has also supported capacity building in other FRIEND regions,particularly by contributing to the running of training courses in low flow hydrology in SouthernAfrica and HKH FRIEND.

2.4.2 Future research developments

The Northern European FRIEND groups are currently developing contributions to IHP-VI.The Low flows group will give a higher priority to basic and applied research of relevance towater management and water policy in different countries. Potential topics include estimationof instream flow requirements, short and medium term forecasting, daily flow simulation,

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regionalisation and extreme value modelling. Particular attention will be given to integratinglow flow, hydrogeological and ecological research. A major activity will be a textbook on LowFlows and Hydrological Drought, begun in 2000 and due to be published in 2003, which willdraw on the wide experience of members of the low flows group. The book is aimed at bothprofessionals and students and will include worked examples and a CD-ROM with data andsoftware demonstrations. Workshops, student exchanges, establishing links with new members,operational agencies and low flow groups from other FRIEND regions will form part of thenew programme.

Researchers studying large-scale variations in hydrological characteristics in Europe will worktowards a common task of producing an advanced publication on regional hydrology. Newdevelopments in regional macro-scale hydrological modelling are highly relevant to “regionalhydrology” and contain elements of process-based typing/classification of large regions,regionalisation of model parameters and/or establishment of global model parameters. Thepublication will discuss such topics as hydrological analysis of digital map data, interpolationand mapping of precipitation, evaporation, ground water levels, annual and seasonal runoff,techniques for mapping index floods and quantiles, and scaling relationships in mappingteleconnections.

The Floods group intend to establish test data sets for the comparison of precipitation–runoffand hydraulic models of flood events and flood frequency models, and to establish a web sitewhich will provide access to these data sets (and any associated model results), links to otherrelevant sites and a bibliography. A new topic for the group will be a comparison of runoffresponses on small catchments within a region and from nested catchments from the UKCHASM (Catchment Hydrology And Sustainable Management) project, and the Jizera Mountains(experimental catchments in the Czech Republic) for flood event modelling. The results willbe compared with the Norwegian approach of discharge simulation using the HBV model.Hydraulic modelling will take place in collaboration with researchers in the UK (LancasterUniversity), the Netherlands (TU Delft) and the Czech Republic (Czech data sets: MoravaKromeriz - Spytihnev, Orlice River at Usti nad Orlici). Research on floods on permeablecatchments will continue and an attempt will be made to establish links with the UK LOCAR(Lowland Catchment Research) programme and with Imperial College, London, UK, who areworking on a rainfall model calibrated for regions across Britain.

Research on catchment hydrological and biochemical processes will maintain and furtherdevelop close links between field workers, physical hydrologists and mathematical modellers.Increasing knowledge on hydrological processes in research catchments using isotope tracersshould lead to improved mathematical models e.g. either physically based models or conceptualmodels with new routines describing hydrological processes. Determination of parameterisationschemes of mathematical models for different scales is an important part of mathematicalmodelling, which also needs to be addressed. Considerable knowledge on runoff generationprocesses has already been gained and a high priority will be given to the synthesis of thisknowledge and its incorporation into models. The research will maintain close cooperationwith the European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins (ERB). This providesopportunities for FRIEND to cooperate with a large number of European hydrologists throughannual joint ERB and FRIEND conferences and workshops during group meetings.

2.4.3 Policy and research

Increasing priority will be given to ensuring that FRIEND research supports the technicalimplementation of both national and European policies. At the European level this will bedriven by the Water Framework Directive, the most significant piece of European waterlegislation for over 20 years. The Directive introduces an integrated and coordinated approachto water management in Europe and represents an important step forward. It rationalises and

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updates existing water legislation by setting common EU-wide objectives for water. Its keyobjectives, set out in Article 1 are to:

� prevent further deterioration and protect and enhance the status of aquaticecosystems and associated wetlands;

� promote sustainable water consumption, and

� contribute to mitigating the effects of floods and droughts.

The aim of the Directive is to take a holistic approach to water management, as water flowsthrough a catchment from lakes, rivers and groundwaters towards estuaries and thence thesea. Surface and groundwater are to be considered together, in both qualitative and quantitativeterms. The overriding aim of the Directive is that Member States will be required to achieve“good surface water status” and “good groundwater status”, and also to prevent deteriorationin the quality of those waters, which are already “good”. The major change of approach in thisDirective is that ecological quality is a key means by which, surface waters in particular, willbe assessed against “good status” as well as the more traditional assessment of chemicalquality. At the pan-European scale, the Directive will provide an essential policy frameworkfor FRIEND research.

The FRIEND programme in Northern Europe has contributed to and benefited from EuropeanCommunity (IV and V Framework) Programmes for Research Technological Developmentand Demonstration, including:

� Advances in regional hydrology through Eastern European cooperation (Gustard &Cole, 1997);

� The establishment of a regional data centre of the European Water Archive for theEuropean territory of the former Soviet Union (Rees & Cole, 1999);

� Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe (Demuth & Stahl, 2001);

� Analysis, Synthesis and Transfer of Knowledge and Tools on Hydrological DroughtsAssessment through a European Network (ASTHyDA) – an Accompanying Measureproposal to the European Commission, submitted in 2001.

Framework VI will also provide an opportunity for the European Commission to supportFRIEND. The programme will work towards integrating research efforts and activities on aEuropean scale and to develop knowledge and understanding through integrated research ina limited number of priority thematic areas. International cooperation within and beyondEurope will be an integral part of these activities, and is closely allied to the objectives ofFRIEND.

At national level there are also opportunities for FRIEND to engage in research supporting theFramework Directive and specific national research priorities. For example, in the UK, a majornew programme to investigate the processes and dynamics of lowland catchments (LOCAR)has provided a new impetus to hydrological research with 15 million Euro funding over afive-year period (2002-2007).

In conclusion, Northern European FRIEND has maintained an active research and data basedevelopment programme, as demonstrated in this chapter and as described in detail in vanLanen & Demuth, 2002. The project has successfully contributed to national and Europeanresearch initiatives and has supported capacity building in FRIEND groups outside Europe. Ahigher priority will be given in future to integrating hydrological, hydrogeological and ecologicalresearch and to contributing to policy initiatives. Partnerships will be maintained with anumber of international agencies, with research themes in IHP-VI and particularly with theHELP (Hydrology for Environment, Life and Policy) programme.


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Cameron, D., Beven, K.J., Tawn, J., Blazkova, S. & Naden, P. 1999. Flood frequency estimation by continuoussimulation for a gauged upland catchment (with uncertainty). J. Hydrol. 219, 169-187.

Cameron, D., Beven, K.J. & Tawn, J. 2000. An evaluation of three stochastic rainfall models. J. Hydrol. 228, 130-149.

Clausen, B. & Biggs, B.J.F. 2000. Flow variables for ecological studies in temperate streams: groupings based oncovariance. J. Hydrol. 237, 184-197.

Demuth, S. & Stahl, K. 2001. ARIDE - Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe. Final report, EUcontract ENV4-CT-97-0553, Institute of Hydrology, Freiburg, Germany.

European Environment Agency. 1998. Europe’s Environment: The Second Assessment, Elsevier Science Ltd, ISBN0080432042

Fendeková, M. 1999. Space analysis of groundwater runoff changes from selected Slovak catchments. SlovakGeological Magazine 5(1-2), 37-43.

Gottschalk, L. & Krasovskaia, I. 1998. Grid estimation of runoff data. Report of the WCP-Water Project B.3:Development of grid related estimates of Hydrologic Variables. WMO/TD - No 870. World MeteorologicalOrganization, Geneva.

Gottschalk, L. & Krasovskaia, I. 2001. River flow regimes in a changing climate. EGS XXVI General Assembly,Nice, France, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 3, CD-ROM.

Güntner, A., Uhlenbrook, S., Seibert, J. & Leibundgut, Ch. 1999. Multi-criterial validation of TOPMODEL in amountainous catchment. Hydrol. Processes 13, 1603-1620.

Gustard, A. & Cole, G.A. (eds) 1997. Advances in regional hydrology through East European Cooperation. Finalreport to the Commission of European Communities, Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

Herrmann, A. (ed.) 1999. Experimental hydrology with reference to hydrological processes in small researchbasins. Proc. Int. Workshop, St. Petersburg-Valdai, Russia, 2-6 June, 1997.

Hisdal, H., Stahl, K., Tallaksen, L.M. & Demuth, S. 2001. Have streamflow droughts in Europe become moresevere or frequent? Int. J. Climatol. 21, 317-333.

Hisdal, H. & Tallaksen, L. 2000. Drought Event Definition. ARIDE Technical Report No. 6, University of Oslo,Norway.

Kašpárek, L. & Novický, O. 2002. Hydrological drought studies in wider context of climate variability. In:FRIEND 2002 - Regional Hydrology: Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. onFRIEND, Cape Town, South Africa, IAHS Publ. no. 274.

Kasprzyk, A. & Pokojski, W. 1998. Changes of water balance and hydrological drought occurrence in Poland.Acta Universatis Carolinea, ser. Geographica, Prague, Czech Republic.

Koivusalo, H., Karvonen, T. & Lepistö, A. 2000. A quasi-three-dimensional model for predicting rainfall-runoffprocesses in a forested catchment in Southern Finland. Hydrol. and Earth System Sciences 4 (1), 65-78.

Krasovskaia, I. 1996. Stability of River Flow Regimes. PhD. thesis, Department of Geography, University of Oslo,Rapportserie i naturgeografi no 5, Oslo.

Krasovskaia, I., Gottschalk, L. & Kundzewicz, Z.W. 1999. Dimensionality of Scandinavian river flow regimes.Hydrol. Sci. J. 45(5), 705-723.

Laaha G. 2002. Modelling differences between summer and winter droughts for an estimation of river designvalues. In: FRIEND 2002 - Regional Hydrology: Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice, Proc. 4thInt. Conf. on FRIEND, Cape Town, South Africa, IAHS Publ. no. 274.

Oberlin G. & Desbos E. 1997. FRIEND – Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data –Third Report: 1994 – 1997. Cemagref Editions, 1997.

Peschke, G. & Seidler, C. 2000. Changing nitrate profiles under extreme hydrometeorological conditions. In:Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (Eds: N.E.C. Verhoest, Y.J.P. van Herpe &F.P. De Troch), European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIEND Project5 Conference, Ghent, Belgium.

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Querner, E.P., van Acker, J.B.M. & Moens, R.P. 2000. Analysis of catchment response for regional water systemsin the Netherlands. In: River Flood Defence (Eds. Toensmann, F. & Koch, M.), Proc. Int. Symp., Kassel,Germany, 51-58.

Querner, E.P. & van Lanen, H.A.J. 2001. Impact assessment of drought mitigation measures in two adjacentDutch basins using simulation modelling. J. Hydrol. 252, 51-64.

Rees, H.G. & Cole, G.A. 1999. The Establishment of a Regional Data Centre of the FRIEND European WaterArchive for the European Territory of the former Soviet Union. Final report to INTAS (94-4451),Wallingford, UK.

Rees, H.G. & Demuth, S. 2000. The application of modern information system technology in the EuropeanFRIEND project. Wasser & Boden, 52(13), 9-13.

Rees, H.G., Croker, K.M., Prudhomme, C. & Gustard, A. 2000. The European Atlas of Small-Scale HydropowerResources. In: Proc. Small Hydro 2000, Lisbon, Portugal.

Rutenberg, E., Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, Ch. 1999. Spatial delineation of zones with the same dominatingrunoff generation processes. In: Integrated Methods in Catchment Hydrology-Tracer, Remote Sensing andNew Hydrometric Techniques (Eds: Ch. Leibundgut, J. McDonnell, & G. Schulz), Proc. IUGG 99 Symp. HS4,Birmingham, UK, IAHS Publ. no. 258, 281-284.

Sambale, Ch., Peschke, G., Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, S. 2000. Simulation of vertical flow and bromidetransport under temporarily very dry soil conditions. In: Tracers and Modelling in Hydrogeology (Ed:Dassarguee, A.), Proc. TraM’2000 Conf., Liège, Belgium, IAHS Publ. no. 262, 465-471.

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Sauquet, E., Krasovskaia, I. & Leblois, E. 2000. Mapping mean monthly runoff pattern using EOF analysis. HESS4(1), 79-93.

Seuna, P. 1999. Hydrological effects of forestry treatments in Finland. Invited lecture at the Int. Symp. on FloodControl, Beijing, China.

Shorthouse, C.A. 1999. Effects of climatic variability on spatial characteristics of European river flows, PhDthesis, Department of Geography, University of Southampton, UK.

Sobota, J. 1995. Regionalisation of rainfall data and historical rainfall events. In: Blazkova, S. et al., Guidelinesfor safety of dams during floods, Report VUV TGM, Prague.

Stahl, K. & Demuth, S. 1999. Linking streamflow drought to the occurrence of atmospheric circulation pattern.Hydrol. Sci. J. 44(3), 467-482.

Tallaksen, L.M. 2000. Streamflow drought frequency analysis, In: Drought and Drought Mitigation in Europe(Eds: Vogt, J.V. & Somma, F.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands, 103-117.

Tate, E. & Gustard, A. 2000. Drought definition: a hydrological perspective. In: Drought and Drought Mitigationin Europe (Eds: J.V.Vogt & F. Somma), Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands, 23-48.

Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, Ch. 1999. Integration of tracer information into the development of a rainfall-runoff model. In: Integrated Methods in Catchment Hydrology-Tracer, Remote Sensing and New Hydrometric(Eds: Ch. Leibundgut, J. McDonnell, & G. Schulz), Proc. IUGG 99 Symp. HS4, Birmingham, UK, IAHS Publ.no. 258, 93-100.

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AMHY FRIEND

Chapter 3 Alpine and Mediterranean (AMHY)

3.1 IntroductionThe Mediterranean regions are characterised by an uneven distribution of water resources,which can sometimes be a limitation to development and in some regions constitutes a realpolitical issue. This hydrological variability results from a combination of heavy rainfall,irregularly distributed in time and space, heterogeneous land topography and highanthropogenic pressures. Under these conditions, the planning, use and management ofwater resources for human consumption, traditional and irrigated farming and hydroelectricproduction are all difficult, and protecting people and property against droughts, floods anderosion presents further challenges, in both rural and urban areas.

These difficulties clearly demonstrate the need to improve our knowledge of hydrologicalregimes in Mediterranean regions, particularly with respect to spatial and temporal variability,surface and groundwater transfer mechanisms over river basins, extreme events, and surfaceand groundwater resources and their integrated management.

The AMHY FRIEND project was launched in 1991 as a contribution towards solving theseproblems. Cemagref (La Recherche pour l’Ingénierie de l’Agriculture et de l’Environnement)in Lyon, France, hosted the AMHY Secretariat up until December 1998, with Dr Guy Oberlinas General Coordinator. In 1999 the Secretariat moved to IRD (Institute of Research forDevelopment) in Montpellier, France and Dr Eric Servat took over the role of Coordinator.As shown in Figure 3.1, 17 countries currently participate in the project: Albania, Algeria,Bulgaria, Spain, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lebanon, Moldavia, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia,Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey and Yugoslavia. AMHY FRIEND also has contacts in Austria,Belgium, Cyprus, Croatia, Egypt, Finland, United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel, Malta, Morocco,Netherlands, Poland, Macedonia, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Palestinian Territories and Syria.

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Coordinators

Contacts

Coordinators

Contacts

FRIEND 2002


In recent years, AMHY FRIEND has tried to be more open to countries of the southernMediterranean basin: it has welcomed scientists from Tunisia and Lebanon into the projectand has developed contacts in Morocco and the Palestinian Territories. An international seminarwas organised by AMHY in Montpellier, France, in October 2000 on the “Hydrology of theMediterranean regions” (Servat & Albergel, 2002), which provided an opportunity for scientiststo meet and present their work. The scientific direction of the seminar was determined jointlyby AMHY FRIEND and the European HYDROMED project, with a key objective to review thestate of hydrological research north and south of the Mediterranean, while providing a forumfor debate and exchange of data, methods, knowledge and results. About 150 people fromMediterranean countries attended and 45 papers and 25 poster papers were presented.Workshop topics included low flows, erosion, rainfall-runoff modelling, integrated waterresources management, hydrological regimes, hydro-climatological variability and extremerainfalls and floods. The next meeting of AMHY researchers in April 2003 will also be held inMontpellier, as part of an international conference entitled “Hydrology of the Mediterraneanand semi-arid regions”. This is also open to scientists from outside the Mediterranean Basin,and should contribute towards building strong, vital scientific networks.

3.2 The AMHY databaseGood quality time series data forms the basis for improved understanding of hydrologicalphenomena and their variability. The AMHY database, developed since 1991, provides apermanent tool to address current water research needs and has been used by many scientiststo develop methods and tools. It is unique in providing data for several hydrometeorologicalvariables at different time steps, including discharge and rainfall data (Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3).Initially the database contained only data from countries north of the Mediterranean Basin,but since 1999 there have been efforts to extend it to Southern Mediterranean countries. Infuture it is hoped to expand the AMHY database further to include new types of data, such asspatial data, catchment boundaries, geological and soil data, land use and coverage data. TheDigital Elevation Model GTOPO 30 of the US Geological Survey is already available. The dataupdating effort that started in 1999 also needs to be continued, and it is hoped that by 2002 acomplete and updated inventory of the contents of the database will be available on theFRIEND AMHY web site.

3.3 Research

The scientific topics studied by AMHY FRIEND are:

� Data base

� Low flow and droughts

� Regime modelling

� Rare floods

� Heavy rains

� Erosion and sediment transport

� Very long time series

� Integrated water resources management

� Rainfall runoff modelling

Research activity over the last four years has varied between projects, and the work of themost active groups is presented in this section.


AMHY FRIEND

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FRIEND 2002


3.3.1 Regime modelling

This research builds on earlier studies of the regime types of rivers in Romania, Switzerland,Yugoslavia, and Greece, which was reported at the Third FRIEND Conference in Postojna,Slovenia (Stanescu & Ungureanu, 1997). This work examined the spatial variability of sub-regime types across the region and assessed their stability. Since 1998 a new method forassessing river flow stability has been developed, which is outlined in detail below. This usesthe mean monthly flow hydrograph to represent the flow regime, since only monthly dischargedata were available. However, a disadvantage is that it is not possible to identify characteristicphases of daily flows. Research has focused on rivers in France and Italy, based on datasupplied by country coordinators for 36 evenly-distributed gauging stations in each country.This completes the river regime analysis of the northern Mediterranean Basin.

River regime stability

In previous studies, the stability of a certain flow regime was quantitatively expressed by thesum of the entropies of the occurrences of the regime characteristics (MAX1, MAX2, MAX3and MIN1, MIN2, and MIN3). The index H, measuring the entropy as defined by Shannon &Weaver (1941), is the sum H=SH (E

j) of the index H (E

j) characterising the individual stability

of the six hydrological events listed above, as defined by the following equation:

� � � � � ��

� � �� = + − −� � (1)

where �� is the probability of occurrence of the given hydrological event within the selected

discriminating period of the year and � ��− ��

is the probability of occurrence of the sameevent within the complementary period. The function (1) is symmetrical, i.e. H (p

i)=H (1–p

i).

Thus the stability index H can be used only within the interval ��>0.5.

Corbus and Stanescu presented another method for deriving a coefficient of stability in apaper at the FRIEND AMHY Annual Seminar in Cosenza, Italy, in 1999. This is based on thehigher frequency of occurrence of discriminating periods in a characteristic period made upof several consecutive months. They considered that the sum of the frequencies of occurrencein each month belonging to a selected characteristic period (e.g. April to June, denoted byRoman numerals IV–VI) might provide a numerical indicator of the stability of a particulardiscriminating value. However, if that indicator is considered alone, it means that as thecharacteristic period becomes longer, the sum of the frequencies of occurrence of thediscriminating value will rise and therefore the stability will become greater.

This conflicts with the fact that as the period becomes longer, the occurrence of thediscriminating value has a more unstable character. At the limit, if it is admitted that for acertain discriminating value the characteristic period is January to December (I–XII), thefrequency becomes 100%. In spite of this, the regime is very unstable as the occurrence of thediscriminating value is found in every month of the year. It is therefore necessary to considerboth the frequency and the length of period when establishing a numerical indicator of flowregime stability. Based on this concept the coefficient of stability is determined as follows:

�� = � (2)

where FA is the frequency of the occurrence of the discriminating value in l subsequentmonths, and CR is the distribution coefficient along the period, given by:

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=−

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(3)


AMHY FRIEND

Table 3.4 presents the degree of stability of the river regime as a function of the range of thestability coefficient.

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Figure 3.2 shows the stability coefficient curves derived for characteristic period lengths ofbetween 1 and 12 months, and for three frequency scenarios: FA1, FA2 and FA3. Figure 3.3 isan example showing the determination of the stability coefficient. Case I consideredcharacteristic two-, three- and four-month periods: IV–V, IV–VI and IV–VII. Although thefrequencies increase as the period length increases, the distribution coefficient decreases,with the maximum value of the product for the period IV–VI. In Case II, the selected periodswere IV–V and V–VII, with the period IV–V showing the highest stability. The advantage ofthis method is that for several combinations of consecutive months, maximising the stabilitycoefficient leads to an assessment of the characteristic period for a particular discriminatingvalue. This method was used to study regime types in France and Italy.

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FRIEND 2002


3.3.2 Rare floods

In recent years the Rare Floods Group have devoted their efforts to improving theoreticalinterpretations and statistical analyses of flood dynamics. Attention has focused on two mainareas. The first uses classical techniques to estimate the distribution parameters for floodquantile evaluation. Research work has included comparing results obtained by applyingdifferent regional flood evaluation models used in Europe and cross-validated on differenthydrological databases. These ongoing research studies will lead to a more comprehensivesynthesis of the various procedures, from both a conceptual and an applied viewpoint. Thesecond area is less frequently considered by the scientific community, though it is of enormouspractical importance: analysing the links between flash floods and heavy rains. This issue isparticularly relevant because of the high frequency of occurrence of floods caused by highrainfall intensities in the last decade, which have affected a large proportion of the population.Such events have often provoked enormous disasters with insufficient time to activate safetymeasures to reduce inundation.

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Regional flood evaluation models

Initially AMHY researchers into rare floods focused mainly on the statistical features ofhydrological extremes, particularly parameter estimation for both rainfall and flood probabilitydistributions. Recently, further developments have resulted from comparisons of resultsobtained from the most important flood evaluation models (AGREGEE, TOPMODEL, ModifiedRational Method and VAPI procedures), cross-validated on different national databases. Thecomparisons were aimed at the exploitation of links between both theoretical and appliedfeatures of the various procedures, thereby encouraging a synthesis of different models.These efforts have provided practical improvements in some flood evaluation procedures,with good results obtained for flood quantile estimation, peaks over threshold samplingtechniques, the use of historical information and synthetic hydrograph computing methods.Moreover, the application of various procedures in different hydrological environments hasled to a growing flexibility in the models examined, with some specific characteristicssuccessfully transferred from one method to another.

Analysis of the links between heavy rains and flash floods

The recent disastrous floods in Europe have shown that it is normally only rainfall data, whichcan be recorded without problems in such events, with water level data seldom available.Thus, greater attention than in the past is being focused on the analysis of meteorological andhydrological links between flash floods and heavy rains. For instance, specialist seminars onheavy rains and flash floods have been jointly organised by the Rare Floods and Heavy RainsGroups during annual AMHY meetings in Istanbul in October 1998 (Llasat et al., 1999) and inCosenza in October 1999.

Joint research on flash floods and heavy rains by international teams needs to be furtherencouraged. Case studies of flash floods, produced by heavy rains over extensive areas(greater than 10000 km2) have been analysed in detail, taking into account local morphology,lithology, soil, land use and basin flood response. The collation of these case studies, includingboth hydrological analyses and data from experimental basins with large data collectionsystems, will help to create a good hydrological and meteorological database for furtheranalyses.

Attention has also focused on comparative synoptic analyses of hydrological and meteorologicaldata from simultaneous heavy rainfall events, which create floods in geographically distantregions with specific climatic features. The research aims to identify features responsible forextreme rainfall and floods over large areas and to compare the rainfall-runoff dynamics ofdifferent European regions. The European Flood Database has been expanded to includerecent large flood events, which are often usefully described and analysed in local eventreports and elsewhere and can contribute to more accurate mitigation of flood risk.

Future research will include:

� Analysis of exceptional floods in different European countries;

� Development of procedures for joint regional estimation of flood peaks and volumes,based on specific statistical analyses (e.g. a hierarchical approach to parameterevaluation and canonical correlation analysis), which reduce the estimation bias offlood quantiles;

� Identification of flood prone areas, using different procedures, such as the supervisedclassification of cloud-free satellite images, overlain with digital elevation model andland use maps of the area. In these studies, ground observations are often used tocompare the inundated areas obtained from processed images integrated by GIStechniques.

AMHY FRIEND

FRIEND 2002


3.3.3 Heavy rains

This research analyses extreme rainfall events from meteorological, climatic and hydrologicalpoints of view. All countries involved in AMHY FRIEND participate, with Spain, France, Italy,Romania, Greece, former Yugoslavia, Slovenia, Turkey and Moldavia among the most active.Since 1998 the topics considered have included:

� Creation of a database of extreme rainfall events/floods and a database withcontinuous rainfall data (monthly and/or daily);

� Modelling: simulation of rainfall hyetograms; IdF and frequency analysis; multifractalanalysis and PMP; Gradex and AGREGEE;

� Meteorological and climatic analysis, including rainfall forecasting: influence of reliefon the development and distribution of rainfall; climate evolution and rainfall;in-depth analysis of extreme rainfall events; radar applications; application of theanalogous method for rainfall forecasting; typology of extreme rainfall events;

� Regional rainfall analysis.

During last year, the complete flood statistics of Turkey have been made available to theproject and data from other AMHY countries have been updated. The Universities of Calabriaand Barcelona are also preparing a database of heavy rainfall events and floods recorded inCatalonia (Spain) and Calabria (Italy), with analysis of the most important events.

Regionalisation of extreme rainfall events in the Mediterranean area

This ongoing research focuses on the analysis of different simultaneous rainfall series fromthe Mediterranean area with the aim of understanding some general features of rainfall andanswering some basic questions: Is it possible to regionalise rainfall in the Mediterranean?How should the temporal variation be considered? Do regional boundaries vary with time orare they stationary? Is it possible to find a relationship between extreme rainfall events andmonthly data?

The project analysed twenty monthly rainfall series from Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Greeceand Romania for the common period 1940-1989. The persistence of spells of precipitation thatare either above or below average is apparent in periods of positive and negative anomaliesthat extend through successive months or occur in the same season or part of a season overa number of years. Figure 3.4 shows the common positive anomalies between monthly rainfallseries from Barcelona (Spain), Perpignan (France), and Milan (Italy) for each month and yearfrom 1940-1970.

Entropy analysis shows the evolution of the non-periodic components of the signal: an increaseof extreme values implies an increase of the entropy. Figure 3.5 shows the evolution ofentropy for some stations placed in the West Mediterranean Area.

Future research will aim to

� Populate the database with extreme rainfall events or floods (R>200 mm/24 h;R>70 mm/6 h; R>35 mm/30 min);

� Analyse specific high rainfall events or meteorological flood conditions;

� Create a database of references to specific or general studies about extreme rainfallevents recorded in the AMHY region;

� Model the spatial distribution of rainfall;

� Improve knowledge of precipitation in mountainous areas;

� Analyse rainfall behaviour in the AMHY region during the last 50 years in order toimprove rainfall regionalisation;


� Carry out stochastic and statistical analyses of rainfall series;

� Apply meteorological radar to rainfall analysis.

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FRIEND 2002


The Heavy Rains Group will also collaborate with the Rare Floods Group to

� Improve cooperation and mobility among different national groups working on thesame topics, especially with respect to flash floods;

� Produce guidelines for the analysis procedures used in the AMHY project (such asAGREGEE, TCEV, Rational method, meteorological analysis, temporal analysis);

� Produce a series of papers on the most disastrous hydrological events, analysed fromdifferent points of view (e.g. meteorological, hydrological, hydraulic);

� Introduce new topics such as real-time forecasting, flood management or thehydrological safety of dams;

� Improve forecasting and prevention for flood mitigation (crisis management, land-usemanagement, structural measures).

3.3.4 Erosion and sediment transport

Erosion and sediment transport are of crucial importance to the countries of the MediterraneanBasin, particularly Northern Algeria. This country suffers from a water resources deficit, whichhas been resolved by building dams, but these have become silted up as a result of theintense erosion processes in the catchments. Generalising this topic to all Mediterraneancountries has been particularly difficult because of events in Algeria in recent years.

Topics studied include:

� Exploitation of measures and available models to quantify flow;

� Estimation of the silting up and sedimentation of dams;

� Exploitation of hydrological knowledge for fighting erosion and the consequences ofremedial measures on hydrological regimes (resources, sediment stream flows,groundwater, etc.).

� Sediment transport by swells and currents in coastal zones;

� Impact of dams on the environment.

Future research will aim to develop the topic at national and international scale, to create anAlgerian national erosion network and to organise a scientific seminar in Algeria.

3.4 ConclusionsIn the near future, AMHY FRIEND will continue to focus on hydrological themes, which arespecific to the Mediterranean region, namely heavy rains and rare floods, and, which requirean integrated approach. AMHY FRIEND will undoubtedly have to work more closely withgroundwater specialists who can contribute to such questions as resource assessment andrisk analysis. Efforts should be made to develop improved models, which can provide decisionmakers with solutions for the sustainable management of water resources.

Droughts and recent events in the southern countries of the Mediterranean Basin should leadAMHY FRIEND to collaborate and work more closely with universities and research centres inthe region. It will also have to develop contacts with such organisations as MediterraneanInstitute of Water.

Thus, the main future objectives of AMHY FRIEND should be:

� Reducing uncertainties in flood estimation;

� Reducing uncertainties in low flow estimation;

� Better knowledge of Mediterranean heavy rains and rare floods;


� Better knowledge of erosion in Mediterranean catchments;

� Impacts of climate variability on water resources;

� Understanding the variability of hydrological regimes.

The Montpellier International Conference in 2003 will provide an excellent opportunity tomonitor progress in these areas.

ReferencesLlasat, M.C., Versace, P. & Ferrari, E. 1999. Heavy rains and flash floods. Proc. Joint Session of Topic IV (Rare

Floods) & Topic VI (Heavy Rains), FRIEND, UNESCO IHP-V 1.1 Project AMHY Group. National ResearchCouncil. Group for Prevention from Hydrogeological Disasters, Pub. 2049, Cosenza, Italy.

Servat E. & Albergel J. (scientific eds) 2002. Hydrology of the Mediterranean Regions. Proc. Montpellier Int.Seminar. Montpellier, France, October 2000. UNESCO Technical Documents in Hydrology no. 51, 396 pp.

Shannon, C.E. & Weaver, W. 1941. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press,Urbana, USA.

Stanescu, V. & Ungureanu, V. 1997. Hydrological regimes in the FRIEND-AMHY area: space variability andstability. In: FRIEND’97 – Regional Hydrology: Concepts and Models for Sustainable Water ResourceManagement (eds: Gustard, A. et al.), IAHS Publ. no. 246, 67-75.

AMHY FRIEND


SA FRIEND

Chapter 4 Southern Africa4. 1 IntroductionThe Southern Africa FRIEND region is vast, covering approximately 6.8 million km2 andstretching from one degree south of the equator, across the Tropic of Capricorn to the Cape ofGood Hope at 35°S. It is home to almost 150 million people, although its population densityis relatively low. The region is one of diverse geography and climate. Much of it is lowlandplains and plateau at elevations of 1000 m or more, but there are substantial mountain rangesin the east. The climate is mostly tropical, and semi-arid conditions predominate over largeareas. There are also significant areas of extremely arid climate, including the Namib Desert,one of the world’s driest regions, characterised by huge sand dunes and practically zerorainfall. In the east are found a variety of considerably more humid climates, with small areasof rainforest on some of the eastern mountains. Rainfall is typically highly seasonal, with therainy season in the austral summer, but ranges from an equatorial pattern of two rainy seasonsper year in northern Tanzania to a Mediterranean type of climate in the extreme southernCape where the main rains occur in winter. This wide range of climates produces a complexwater balance, characterised by high spatial, seasonal and inter-annual variability. These factorshave very significant implications for water resource availability, as well as for the frequencyof flood and drought across the region.

One of the most important hydrological characteristics of Southern Africa is the large numberof international river basins. Major basins shared by two or more countries include theOkavango, Limpopo, Orange and Zambezi. Shared basins account for a substantial proportionof the water resources in all countries. This degree of interdependence highlights the need forregional cooperation. At government level, there is an existing agreement on water resourcesacross the region (1995 Protocol on shared watercourse systems in the Southern AfricanDevelopment Community region) and a revised agreement is currently in the process ofratification. However, there remains a strong need for enhanced cooperation at a wide rangeof other levels in hydrological studies and research to effectively address the water resourceproblems of the region.

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FRIEND 2002


The activities and achievements of the first phase of Southern Africa FRIEND (1992-1997)have been published by UNESCO (1997). Following the successful completion of this phase,and being aware of the benefits achieved from the project, the Steering Committee agreed tocontinue the project into a second phase, which began in August 2000.

Southern Africa FRIEND currently has 12 member countries (see Table 1.1 and Figure 4.1). Aswell as national hydrological agencies, three research institutions participate in the project:the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Rhodes University, South Africa; the Centre forEcology and Hydrology (CEH), Wallingford, UK. Administratively the project is organised atfour levels: the UNESCO/IHP umbrella; the Steering Committee; the Coordination Centre atthe University of Dar es Salaam; the Project Groups responsible for technical activities. Thetechnical organisation of the project comprises a flow of information from countries to databasesto research projects and finally back to countries as scientific outputs.

Southern Africa FRIEND has the following main objectives:

� To promote and provide facilities for the free exchange of data for hydrological andwater resources studies in the region;

� To promote cooperation between water resources managers and researchers, andprovide a channel for the exchange of expertise, information and ideas;

� To develop improved operational hydrological methods based on knowledge offlow regimes and to establish them in hydrological agencies in the region.

The project takes a demand-driven approach, which is seen as a step towards the overall goalof making an effective contribution to the sustainable management of regional water resourcesand poverty alleviation.

Main hydrological issues in the region

The Southern African region is characterised by water scarcity exacerbated by the unevendistribution of resources, recurrent drought and devastating floods. Development of the waterresources of Southern Africa in a sustainable manner, through the application of a range oftechnical, economic and institutional measures, is essential for optimal and efficient usage.Some of the main issues are:

� Water scarcityIncreasing population and a lack of infrastructure, in a region that includes some ofthe poorest countries in the world, means that many people have inadequate accessto water, with severe impacts on livelihoods and health;

� Extreme variability of water resourcesDroughts are common, and extreme events (such as the droughts of 1992 and 1995)can lead to widespread hardship, with the economic consequences felt at all levelsfrom the individual right up to the national level. Floods can have similarconsequences: the Mozambique floods in January 2000 led to widespread loss of lifeand required an emergency response from the international community;

� Shared resourcesMuch of the water resources come from international basins shared between severalcountries, emphasising the need for cooperation to ensure effective managementand response to problems;

� Scarce hydrological data, underfunded, poorly maintained gauging networksNational water departments and research organisations alike suffer from a low levelof funding, leading to difficulties in retaining staff, and low capacity to manageresources and to investigate improved solutions.


SA FRIEND

4.2 DataA hydrological time series database, comprising gauged daily flows and instantaneous floodpeak data for 662 flow gauging stations across the Southern Africa region, has been compiled.The provision of HYDATA software to all participating countries in Southern Africa FRIENDhas made it possible to develop this unified international hydrological database, which ismanaged and hosted by the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

A spatial database for the Southern Africa FRIEND region has also been developed, using theARC/INFO Geographical Information System (GIS). Development of the database involvedcollecting maps from across the region, digitising rivers and catchment boundaries, standardisingmap projections and collating information to create unified coverage of Southern Africa. Thedatabase currently contains unified national, hydrometric and catchment boundaries, thematiccoverages of geology, hydrogeology, soils, wetlands, vegetation, surface water such as lakes,river networks and grids of average annual rainfall and average annual potential evaporation.The overlay function of ARC/INFO has enabled the derivation of catchment specificcharacteristics for 662 catchments, which will be used to develop statistical relationships withriver flow measures and model parameters within other FRIEND research projects. The spatialdatabase has been documented and a spatial data CD-ROM incorporating browser softwarehas been disseminated to hydrological agencies in all participating countries. Training in theuse of GIS software has also been provided.

4.3 Research

4.3.1 Flood frequency analysis

Flood frequency analysis of annual maximum flood data is used to estimate the flood quantilemagnitude Q and its associated risk of failure T, either using data at the site of interest(generally referred to as ‘at site’ analysis) or data from various locations in the region (‘regional’analysis). Regional analysis of a homogeneous region has the advantage over ‘at site’ analysisas the quantiles estimated from the pooled regional data have a smaller standard error thanthe quantiles estimated from ‘at site’ data. The condition, of course, is that the region must behomogeneous in the sense that all locations in the region have similar flood producingcharacteristics. Within Phase I, flood frequency research dealt with the delineation of SouthernAfrica into homogeneous regions and the selection of suitable flood frequency analysisprocedures. A method to test regional homogeneity was developed as outlined below.

Regionalisation of Tanzania

Regionalisation refers to the grouping of basins into homogeneous regions, in order to achieveregional flood frequency relationships with lower standard errors than those for the combinedarea (Kite, 1977). Hosking et al. (1985), Wiltshire (1986a) and Lettenmaier et al. (1987) havedemonstrated the importance of regional homogeneity. The next step is to test if each regionsatisfies the homogeneity criteria, with respect to the similarity of flood characteristics, whichmay differ between regions. Different types of regional homogeneity tests have been developedto date (Wiltshire, 1986b; Lu, 1991; Hosking & Wallis, 1993). In Southern Africa FRIEND amethod was developed to test for regional homogeneity based on L-moment statistics: the L-coefficient of variation (Lcv) (Kachroo et al., 2000). This tests the hypothesis that a set ofgauging sites forms a homogeneous group in the sense that annual maximum flood dataobserved at these sites belongs to a single parent distribution. The test assumes that thehypothesis is acceptable if Lcv values calculated from historical data at each site are similar tothe Lcv values calculated from synthetic sequences of a parent distribution. Similarity is measuredby comparing the observed Lcv values with the sampling distribution of Lcv for each order ofLcv. The sampling distribution for each order is calculated from synthetically generatedsequences of the parent distribution (P) of the same length as the historical data.

FRIEND 2002


The proposed method was tested using data from Tanzania. Tanzania was delineated into 12homogeneous regions, based on geographical information such as topography, hydrology,climatic conditions and other special characteristics of the region. Figure 4.2 shows thehomogenous regions and distribution of gauging stations used in the study.

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Derivation of regional frequency curves for Tanzania

Fourteen flood frequency procedures were examined to identify the most suitable procedurefor modelling flood flows in the delineated regions. The choice of procedure was based onthe estimation of bias between observed and simulated flows. The procedure giving thelowest bias for return periods T = 100, 200 and sample sizes, n = 15, 30 and 50 was selectedas the most suitable for quantile estimation for a given region. The Pearson Type 3 / ProbabilityWeighted Moments (P3/PWM) and log-Pearson Type 3 / Method of Moments (LP3/MOM)emerged as the most suitable procedures to model flood flows in Tanzania. The selectedprocedures were then used to derive frequency curves for the different regions, as presentedin Figure 4.3. These frequency curves are now in operational use by the Ministry of Water inTanzania and by consulting engineers to design civil engineering structures such as bridges,culverts, spillway and flood protection structures.

4.3.2 Analysis of rainfall drought

This study focuses on departures of annual rainfall from normal or a percentage of normalrainfall. Rainfall deficits, defined as a rainfall value falling below a hypothetical Specific DemandLevel (SDL), were computed and the probability of deficit occurrence determined for riverbasins in Southern Africa. GIS was used to map the probability of deficit occurrence. Themagnitude of this value can then be used to judge, and hence map, the areas most prone todrought. This information is helpful in establishing water management and control proceduresfor agricultural and water resource projects, in the design of water supply systems, allocationof water, and in planning mitigation measures against drought.


SA FRIEND

Figure 4.4 shows the probability of deficit occurrence for different values of SDL for thePangani basin in Tanzania. This shows a large area, mainly comprising the Masai Steppes,which registered a probability of deficit occurrence of more than 75% with reference to 80%SDL. It is thus more prone to drought. The narrow eastern portion of the basin, which includes

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Meru, Kilimanjaro, Pare and Usambara Mountains, was found to be less prone to drought.These areas registered a probability of deficit occurrence of less than 15%.

4.3.3 Identifying and monitoring river flow drought

Droughts continue to affect large numbers of people in the region, particularly the poor whohave less reliable access to fresh water supplies. Severe drought affects food security, but itsimpact on water resources has received less attention. The need to address water resourceproblems is made more urgent by the water scarcity situation that is currently developing inSouthern Africa, due to increasing population, urbanisation and possible climate change.There has been some progress in mitigating the impacts and vulnerability to drought, butresponses (at both national and international levels) are still often woefully inadequate.

The ARIDA project (Assessment of the Regional Impact of Drought in Africa), funded byDFID, UK and with close links to FRIEND, sought to investigate the water resources aspectsof drought (Tate et al., 2000; Meigh et al., 2002). The key aims were:

� To investigate better methods for identifying river flow droughts in Southern Africa;

� To develop tools and software that water resources managers in the region coulduse to monitor droughts.

Quantitative indicators are needed to determine the timing, duration and severity of droughts.It is important that both indicators and methods take into account the hydrological characteristicsof the area for which they are intended. Southern Africa is a vast region, with a wide range ofhydrological regimes, so no single approach to drought assessment is likely to work region-wide. Various drought analysis methods were therefore developed and by combining differentapproaches satisfactory analysis was possible across the whole area. Methods included:

� Low flow frequency analysis – identifies the probability of occurrence of low flowsover a particular time period.

� Run-sum analysis – identifies periods of flow below a specified threshold as well assuch characteristics as drought duration and the corresponding total volume of waterdeficit (Figure 4.6). This method was generally found to provide the most robust,flexible and widely applicable approach and can be used to analyse both short(within-year) droughts and longer (multi-year) droughts.

� Runoff accumulation analysis - determines volumes of accumulated runoff fromspecified dates and enables estimation of associated probabilities (Figure 4.7).

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Improvements in river flow monitoring are under way as part of the SADC-HYCOS project(Southern African Development Community – Hydrological Cycle Observing System), withriver and meteorological measuring equipment being installed at sites across Southern Africa.Data, transmitted by satellite, are made available in near real-time to linked databases in eachcountry. Software developed for the ARIDA project can be linked to the same databases andincorporated into an operational approach to drought assessment in order to quantify theseverity of a drought as it develops.

4.3.4 Rainfall-runoff modelling

The overall aim of the rainfall-runoff component of Phase 1 of Southern African FRIEND(1992-1997) was to “develop procedures and guidelines for the application of appropriatedeterministic catchment models within the Southern African region for a variety of waterresource assessment purposes”. The main part of the research programme involved settingup, calibrating and verifying two rainfall-runoff models (one monthly and one daily time-step) on test data sets that represent the region as a whole. The two models used were themonthly Pitman model (Pitman, 1973) and the daily VTI model (Hughes & Sami, 1994). Amajor constraint on catchment selection was the availability of rainfall and observed streamflowdata of adequate quality. Some 77 catchments from 9 countries were used in assessing thePitman model; 41 catchments from 7 countries were available for testing the daily VTI model.The models, data availability, calibration techniques and results are reported by Hughes (1997a;1997b); further details of some modelling issues and results relating to the semi-arid parts ofthe region are presented in Hughes (1995) and Hughes & Metzler (1998).

The methods were developed using historic data, but the approaches are also intended to besuitable with near real-time flow data and can be used to indicate how droughts are developingand to forewarn of possible future conditions. The techniques have been combined in asoftware package to provide a rapid assessment capability (Figure 4.8). The package includesgraphical representation of flow or drought characteristics at a site and provides easily exportedsummaries of the state of a current drought relative to historical events. Some national waterdepartments in Southern Africa have tested it, and a training workshop has taken place atwhich software was disseminated to all departments in the region.

)�*��-�1 )��)��


SA FRIEND

One of the major problems experienced, particularly in the drier and less well gauged parts ofthe region, was the general lack of representative rainfall input data. This sometimes made itextremely difficult to establish satisfactory calibrations and to determine whether the finalcalibrated parameter values could be considered representative of the rainfall-runoff processes,or whether they reflected the inadequacy of the rainfall input data. Another issue in the drierparts of the region is the influence of channel transmission losses. Not only are these processesdifficult to model, but there is very little quantitative information on their operation (in SouthernAfrica as well as elsewhere in the world). There is a great deal of scope for improving the wayin which such processes are simulated in rainfall-runoff models, but very little information isavailable to support such improvements.

The results from both models for the more humid parts of the region were relatively successful,showing that both can be considered applicable. It was encouraging that there seemed to bea reasonable degree of parameter stability between catchments within the same area for themonthly model. This suggests that parameter regionalisation studies, with the intention ofbeing able to generate simulated data for ungauged catchments, have a reasonable prospectof success in parts of the region. This is an important conclusion from the perspective ofmaking use of the monthly model for more widespread water resource assessments.

Part of the programme also involved assessing the capabilities of the two models to estimatethe hydrological consequences of land use change. There are a limited number of gaugedcatchments within the region with documented land use change information available. However,despite the limitations of the data set, it was possible to demonstrate that the model parametersare sensitive to land use change impacts. Initial guidelines were developed to suggest thetype of parameter value changes that are necessary to simulate the impacts of land use changein relation to afforestation. It seems reasonable to suggest that other types of land use changecan also be simulated if the nature of the impact is reasonably well understood. While neithermodel simulates the processes related to land use change impacts as explicitly as some othermodels, both certainly appear to be suitable for assessing such impacts at the level requiredfor water resource management and planning.

Rainfall-runoff modelling in the second phase of Southern Africa FRIEND has concentratedon the practical application of models within the region for water resources management. Theterms of reference for a long-term study of the surface water resources of the entire regionhave been compiled for SADC (SADC, 2001). This document refers to the need for common,practical water resources assessment procedures to be developed for the region and suggeststhat the long-term study should consist of the regional application of the Pitman model toboth gauged and ungauged catchments. This would involve data collation and checking(spatial and time series), database development, model calibration and verification, modelparameter regionalisation, as well as the development of data analysis and display softwareand training. The proposed long-term study is ambitious, but considered essential for thesatisfactory integrated planning of the region’s water resources given the number of internationalbasins. The SADC Member States have accepted the terms of reference in principle and thenext phase is to consider various funding options, before more detailed proposals for thedifferent components of the study can be considered and serious work can commence. Whilethis type of study may not be viewed directly as research, given the relative lack of experiencein using rainfall-runoff models within the region and the poor quality of some of the data, itwill necessarily involve a large research component. The proposed study is certainly consistentwith the overall aims of the FRIEND programme in terms of encouraging the sharing of dataand analysis tools within a cooperative regional framework.

In addition to the initiative to develop broad terms of reference for future regional modellingstudies, some smaller scale rainfall-runoff modelling studies have also been started in Phase

FRIEND 2002


II. A DFID sponsored MSc student from Zambia is assessing the application of the Pitmanmodel to the entire Kafue catchment. This study involves calibration and model assessment,as well as a pilot project to assess the feasibility of establishing regional parameter values forZambia. Results are due in late 2002. An EU funded project on various environmental issuesrelating to the Okavango Delta includes a component being undertaken by Linköping University,Sweden, and Rhodes University, South Africa, which establishes the Pitman model for thewhole Okavango catchment (including parts of Namibia, Botswana and Angola) and providesflow data required by other disciplines.

4.3.5 Other ongoing research

Other ongoing activities in Phase II of Southern African FRIEND are mainly directed atdeveloping improved tools for water resources assessment and management. This has threecomponents:

� Implementation of drought assessment and monitoring software to enhance abilitiesto analyse historic water resource droughts and to monitor ongoing droughts, usingthe ARIDA software (section 4.3.3 above);

� Development and implementation of GIS water resources software, with theobjective of strengthening abilities to assess, plan and manage surface waterresources, taking account of the importance of droughts in the region. This is beingundertaken through the development of a GIS-based water resources softwarepackage suitable for application in Southern Africa which can be used to estimateflow characteristics at ungauged sites and account for the impact of upstreamdevelopments on the flow regime;

� Implementation of the GWAVA water availability assessment system (Meigh et al.,1999; Schulze et al., 2001) to improve the abilities of the countries to make surfacewater resource assessments and to study the long-term impacts of scenarios of futurechanges in demands and climate.

4.4 Training and capacity buildingTechnology transfer and capacity building is a key component of Southern Africa FRIEND.During Phase I, staff training was directed towards short courses in the application of floodand low flow design techniques, the assessment of water resources and impact of land-usechange. In Phase II, training aims to strengthen regional capacity for surface water resourceassessment, planning and management, as follows.

� Regional staff training and skills transferA series of regional training workshops are being carried out in Phase II which aredesigned to strengthen capacity in the region for surface water resources assessment,planning and management. The workshops cover a variety of topics, including: lowflow analysis, introduction to GIS and the spatial database (held in Lilongwe,Malawi, January 2001); river flow drought analysis methods and software (held inGabarone, Botswana, November 2001); principles and use of GIS water resourcessoftware.

� Postgraduate studiesCapacity is also being strengthened through supporting two postgraduate students inFRIEND research. Research is being undertaken at Rhodes University, South Africa toextend the WR90 water resources modelling system to catchments in Zambia. WR90is a system developed to model and estimate runoff for all catchments in SouthAfrica. At the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania the water balance of LakeMalawi/Nyasa is being studied. The objectives are to understand the variability ofcomponents of the lake water balance and to develop models and more generalmethodologies that emphasise the use of remote sensing techniques.


SA FRIEND

4.5 ConclusionsThe first phase of Southern Africa FRIEND, successfully completed in December 1997, resultedin the following key achievements.

� Establishing a regional database containing flow data from almost 700 catchments in11 countries;

� Identifying procedures for flood prediction;

� Improvement in the techniques to assess surface water resources and drought;

� Testing of rainfall runoff models to simulate monthly and daily flow time series.

Of particular benefit has been the training of staff from participating countries in data processing,flood frequency analysis and rainfall-runoff modelling. Some practical applications of thisresearch are as follows:

� The University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania has applied FRIEND techniques in ahydrological study of floods and droughts in the Pangani and Rufiji basins and alsoin the design of drainage structures for various road projects;

� Consulting firms in the region have benefited from the dissemination (inpublications) of techniques developed in FRIEND and are starting to implement theimproved methods;

� The Southern Africa Water Departments have benefited from FRIEND training onflood frequency analysis (organised by the University of Dar es Salaam);

� Postgraduate students have benefited in their research work from access to theFRIEND database.

Phase II, which commenced in August 2000, is building on these achievements by carryingout further research and capacity building activities which emphasise the need for improvedtools and methodologies for the integrated management of water resources (Meigh & Mkhandi,2000). Phase II is also providing further opportunities for scientists, hydrologists and watermanagers to exchange information and ideas, leading to strengthened cooperation in theregion. Training and capacity building aspects are being emphasised through the provision ofregional training workshops and through the funding of postgraduate research students.

AcknowledgementsGrateful acknowledgement is made to UNESCO for supporting the Southern Africa FRIENDProject since its inception. We are also grateful to the Department for International Development,UK, which funds much of the activity under the project as a component of the “UnitedKingdom Contribution to the International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO”.

ReferencesHosking, J.R.M., Wallis, J.R. & Wood, E.T. 1985. An appraisal of the Regional Flood Frequency Procedure in the

UK Flood Studies Report. Hydrol. Sci. J. 30(1), 85-109.Hosking, J.R.M. & Wallis, J.R. 1993. Some statistics useful in regional frequency analysis. Water Resour. Res.

29(6), 1745-1752.Hughes, D.A. & Sami, K. 1994. A semi-distributed, variable time interval model of Catchment hydrology -

structure and parameter estimation procedures. J. Hydrol. 155, 265-291.Hughes, D.A. 1995. Monthly rainfall-runoff models applied to arid and semi-arid catchments for water resource

estimation purposes. Hydrol. Sci. J. 40(6), 751-769.Hughes, D.A. 1997a. Rainfall-Runoff Modelling. In: Southern African FRIEND, IHP-V, Technical Documents in

Hydrology, No. 15, UNESCO, Paris, 1997, 94-129.Hughes, D.A. 1997b. Southern African FRIEND - The application of rainfall-runoff models in the SADC region.

Water Research Commission Report No. 235/1/97, Pretoria.

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Hughes, D.A. & Metzler, W. 1998. Assessment of three monthly rainfall-runoff models for estimating the waterresource yield of semi-arid catchments in Namibia. Hydrol. Sci. J. 43(2), 283-297.

Kachroo, R.K., Mkhandi, S.H. & Parida, B.P. 2000. Flood frequency analysis of Southern Africa: I. Delineation ofhomogeneous regions. Hydrol. Sci. J. 45(3), 437-448.

Kite, G.W. 1977. Frequency and risk analysis in hydrology. Water Resources Publications, Colorado, USA.Lettenmaier, D.P., Wallis, J.R. & Wood, E.F. 1987. Effect of heterogeneity on flood frequency estimation. Water

Resour. Res. 23(2), 313-323.Lu, L.H. 1991. Statistical methods for regional flood frequency in investigations. PhD dissertation, Cornell

University, Ithaca, New York, USA.Meigh, J.R., McKenzie, A.A. & Sene, K.J. 1999. A grid-based approach to water scarcity estimates for eastern and

southern Africa. Water Resources Management 13, 85-115.Meigh, J.R. & Mkhandi, S.H. 2000. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II – Internal strategic appraisal of the activities

and outputs of the project. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.Meigh, J.R., Tate, E.L. & McCartney, M.P. 2002. Methods for identifying and monitoring river flow drought in

southern Africa. In: FRIEND 2002 - Regional Hydrology: Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice,Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on FRIEND, March. 2002, Cape Town, South Africa, IAHS Publ. no. 274.

Pitman, W.V. 1973. A mathematical model for generating monthly river flows from Meteorological data in SouthAfrica. Hydrological Research Unit, Univ. of the Witwatersrand, Report no. 2/73.

SADC 2001. Assessment of Surface Water Resources. Report to SADC Water Sector Coordinating Unit by theWater Research Commission of South Africa on Project Document 14/03 of the Regional Strategic ActionPlan.

Schulze, R., Meigh, J.R. & Horan, M. 2001. Present and potential future vulnerability of eastern and southernAfrica’s hydrology and water resources. South African J. of Science 97, 150-160.

Tate, E.L., Meigh, J.R., Prudhomme, C. & McCartney, M.P. 2000. Drought assessment in southern Africa usingriver flow data. DFID report 00/4, Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

UNESCO 1997. Southern African FRIEND, Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 15, UNESCO, Paris.Wiltshire, S.W. 1986a. Identification of homogeneous regions for flood frequency analysis. J. Hydrol. 84, 287-302.Wiltshire, S.W. 1986b. Regional flood frequency analysis I, Homogeneity statistics. Hydrol. Sci. J. 31(3), 321-333.


AOC FRIEND

Chapter 5 West and Central Africa (AOC)

5.1 IntroductionThe FRIEND-AOC project for West and Central Africa was established in 1992 in Ouagadougou,Burkino Faso with support from UNESCO and the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement(IRD) in Montpellier, France. The project, now in its second phase, is coordinated by Mr AbouAmani at AGRHYMET in Niamey, Niger.

The FRIEND-AOC project is currently underpinned by:

� a genuine community of African hydrologists and others with an interest in Africanhydrology;

� refocused research themes;

� participation by institutions rather than individuals;

� opportunities for the use and development of the international database.

The objectives of FRIEND-AOC are:

� to develop a regional scientific programme aimed at operational and developmentalissues at a regional scale;

� to establish a network of research teams to enhance scientific cooperation withrespect to the water cycle at the continental scale;

� to facilitate the dissemination of information and results to the African continent.

This idea of a hydrological network at a regional scale has gained ground and the African andother hydrologists involved in the project welcome the opportunity of the unique forumprovided by FRIEND-AOC for cooperation. The research results presented and promotedthrough scientific workshops organised by FRIEND-AOC (e.g. Yaoundé workshop in December1999) and participation in other conferences are testimony to this. Figure 5.1 shows thegeographical extent of the FRIEND-AOC region. The sixteen participating countries are listedin Table 1.1.

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FRIEND 2002


To achieve its objectives, FRIEND-AOC is currently focusing on four research themes, whoseorganisation is devolved to institutions, and not to individuals as in the past. The four themesand coordinating institutions are as follows:

� Water resources variability: IRD and Ecole Inter-Etats d’Equipement Rural (EIER);

� Modelling of hydrological processes: National University of Bénin;

� Water quality: Hydrology Research Centre of Yaoundé;

� Low flows: Water Research Institute of Ghana.

These themes are a response to some of the main hydrological issues of the region. Thehydrology of Western and Central Africa is characterised by significant variability in theparameters of hydrological cycle, especially rainfall and runoff. A significant fall in waterresources has been observed across the area since the 1970s. This strong variability has asignificant impact upon the ecosystem, and particularly on the availability and quality ofwater for different uses (Olivry et al., 1998; Servat et al., 1998; Amani, 2001). Improved scientificknowledge on the elements of the water cycle will lead to better planning and integratedmanagement of water resources in the sub-region.

5.2 DataThe FRIEND-AOC network has created a central database pooling climate and hydrologicaldata. Out of the 25 countries concerned with the FRIEND-AOC project, 15 have supplied newdata to the database. Some countries remain reluctant to share data; others do not have anynew data because of the economic difficulties within the region. The AGRHYMET RegionalCentre, which has hosted the FRIEND-AOC database since the Yaoundé meeting in Cameroonin December 1999, has set the following objectives:

� To make the FRIEND-AOC database more accessible using the Internet;

� To update the database as regularly as possible;

� To make data from the database available to FRIEND-AOC members for studieswhich contribute to project objectives.

During this second phase of the FRIEND-AOC project, a significant part of the funds providedthrough French cooperation, will be utilised to make the database accessible on-line on theInternet. A new database management system will be set up and harmonised with that of theHYCOS-AOC project (http://www.wmo.ch/web/homs/status.html#aoc-hycos). This willundoubtedly increase the amount of recent data available to FRIEND-AOC. AGRHYMET hasbeen studying with the member countries the possibility of updating the stations of FRIEND-AOC countries directly from its climatological and hydrological regional databases. The newFRIEND-AOC database, which will be online, also specifies provision for integratingcartographical data (e.g. soil, vegetative cover, watercourses).

5.3 Research

5.3.1 Water Resources Variability

The aim of this research is to provide a hydrological contribution, focused on surface andground water resources, to the debate within the international scientific community on climatevariability and instability. The African continent, a land of climatic contrasts, is very fragilefrom an environmental perspective with strong anthropogenic pressures on the environment,deforestation, desertification and soil degradation etc. It is therefore a very appropriate regionin which to study climate variability. In addition, a significant quantity of data has beengathered in West and Central Africa, as a result of a persistent regional drought that has lasted

http://www.wmo.ch/web/homs/status.html#aoc-hycos


AOC FRIEND

almost thirty years. This information provides an invaluable base for future research work.The focal points identified for research include:

� Analysis of the spatial and temporal consequences of climate variability on the waterresources of basins at a scale of several thousands of km², the scale used for waterresource planning and action;

� Study of the influences of this variability on the rainfall-discharge relationship;

� Investigation of the impacts of resource variability on anthropogenic activities;

� Study of the impact of human activities on the climate, its fluctuations and waterresource variability.

It is not the intention of the project to address the cause of climate variability and instability asthis is the domain and competency of other research projects.

The main results expected from this research include the standardisation of tools for analysingtime series, thematic mapping of climate variability and climate instability, development ofsimulation tools for long-term water resources planning under different climate scenarios anddeveloping a regional view of the effects of anthropogenic activity on the variability of waterresources in different basins across West Africa. Research at a regional scale (catchment areaor trans-boundary climatic area) will focus on an analysis of time series of hydroclimatic andhydrogeological data and the modelling of the rainfall-discharge relationship.

Several papers have been published in recent years concerning the deteriorating climate andits impact in West Africa (Janicot & Fontaine, 1993; Le Barbé & Lebel, 1997; Opoku-Ankomah& Amisigo, 1998; Servat et al., 1998; Olivry et al., 1998; Amani, 2001). The whole sub-region,and not just Sahelian zones, has been affected by the phenomenon of a discontinuity in therainfall series between the 1960s and 1970s. An overall tendency towards lower rainfall hasbeen observed since this discontinuity (Le Barbé & Lebel, 1997; Servat et al., 1998; Amani,2001). One of the first consequences of this fall in precipitation has been a significant reductionin discharge within the main rivers of the region. The fall in precipitation observed before andafter the discontinuity ranges from 15 to 30%. For discharges the corresponding fall variesbetween 30 and 60% (Olivry et al., 1998; Sigha-Nkamdjou et al., 1998; Amani, 2001). Thistranslates into a decline in surface water resources across the sub-region in recent years,which has consequences for the management of these resources. The other consequence,which is not negligible, is the intensification of degradation of vegetation and desertification,mainly in the Sahelian zones, which renders the Sahelian ecosystem even more fragile in theface of such predominant socioeconomic activities as agriculture and animal husbandry.

Figure 5.2 (a) and (b) illustrates this discontinuity in the temporal evolution of the annualLamb index of rainfall for two selected raingauge stations (Dakar and Bamako). Figure 5.2 (c)shows average isohyets before (1950-1967) and after (1968-1997) the discontinuity across theSahelian region. The movement of rainfall isohyets after the discontinuity south by more than100 km in some places has significant consequences for the agro-ecological division betweenagricultural and non-agricultural zones.

The same discontinuity is observed in the discharge series of the main sub-regional streams.Figure 5.3 (a), (b) and (c) shows the annual variation of the standardised module for the RiverNiger at Niamey, the Chari River at N’djaména and the Senegal River at Bakel respectively.

5.3.2 Modelling of hydrological processes

The general objective of this research is an improved understanding of the problem of scaletransfer, in relation both to the characterisation of surface processes on the performance of

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outputs of General Circulation Models (GCM) and to hydrological modelling at the largerscale. Modelling hydrological processes must include the modelling and coupling of surface(the soil-atmosphere interface) and purely hydrological processes.


The following research topics will be considered:

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� The change from GCM scales to hydrological scales. This requires putting in place anappropriate disaggregation scheme, to permit the change from atmospheric scales tohydrological scales, with particular emphasis on the impact of changing scales inspace as well as in time. Several approaches are available including statistical, fractaland hydrodynamic;

� Develop a coupled hydrological model that will help to evaluate the effects ofchanges in surface conditions on the hydrological response of a catchment.

� Characterisation of the performances of existing rainfall–discharge models fordifferent climatic situations.

The main results anticipated include the establishment of synergy in research activities by thevarious teams interested in this theme, capacity building focusing on GCM models and theissue of scale transfer (aggregation, disaggregation) between surface and hydrological processesfor hydrological modelling. In addition, a hydrological model for the upper basin of Ouéméwill be set up, in conjunction with IRD, which will enable the impact of climate change to bestudied. The performance of the rainfall – discharge models will also be studied.

For the development of a coupled hydrological model and other research activities, the followingapproach will be adopted:

� Acquisition of climatological, hydrological, hydrogeological and surface conditiondata within the catchment;

� Analysis of climatological and surface condition data at atmospheric and hydrologicalscales, permitting the development or adoption of a disaggregation method;

� Study of the sensitivity of GCM outputs in relation to surface conditions (anaggregation approach is required);

� Development of a coupled hydrological model through the development of adisaggregation approach;

� Application of the coupled hydrological model in order to evaluate the impact ofchanges in surface conditions on the catchment area response.

5.3.3 Water quality

The main objective is to improve understanding of the problem of transport and depositionof material carried in suspension or in solution by rivers towards oceans, lakes andimpoundments. The following research topics will be considered:

� Establishing geochemical balances: mineral matter in suspension or in solution (Ca2+,Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO

3–, Cl–, SO

42–, NO

3–, PO

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2) and organic matter;

� Determination of the spatial and temporal variability of mineral and organic elements;

� Differentiation of the origin of these substances.

It is expected that this will enable the characterisation of the level of sedimentation andeutrophication of impoundments and lakes, the spatial representation of erosion rates and anunderstanding of the impact of anthropogenic activities on ecosystems.

Three large geographical zones will be defined: semi-arid (dry savannah), sudano-sahelian(shrub savannah) and equatorial (forest). An inventory of work completed or in progress onthis topic in West and Central Africa will be drawn up and for each geographic zone casestudies will be completed.


5.3.4 Low flows

The main objective is a better understanding of low flows in order to improve water projectswith respect to regional management, effluent dilution, water withdrawals and hydroecology.The following research issues will be considered:

� Analysis of the natural variability of low flows in relation to soil type, hydrogeologyand climate;

� Examination of the impact of anthropogenic activities on low flows.

The main results anticipated include the development of procedures for describing andestimating low flows at a regional scale, the interactions between hydrogeology, low flowsand the impacts of anthropogenic activities and an evaluation using hydrological models ofthe impact of changes in land use on low flows.

5.4 Training and capacity buildingThe FRIEND-AOC Internet site, as an organisational tool, will make it possible to easily shareinformation on the water cycle and in turn bring network members together. The FRIEND-AOC site will include a database inventory, which could be used to formulate a request to thedatabase managers. The new Water Resource Variability group has already established anInternet forum enabling the dissemination of information of possible interest to group members.This includes announcements of events (congress, colloquium, training periods), interestingweb-site addresses, missions, publications issued or to be read, search for or proposal oftrainees, proposal of themes for training sessions as part of the DEA (Diplôme d’EtudesApprofondies - postgraduate diploma taken before completing a PhD), titles of DEA or PhDtheses, group members’ list of publications and research work, etc.

Annual coordination meetings focusing on each theme should make it possible to reviewstudies in progress, to coordinate the work of each research team and to prepare for scientificworkshops and congresses. These meetings, relevant to the scientific interests of participants,will play a key role, as they will help to fine-tune the methodologies, improve the techniques,work on the promotion of results and define deadlines.

In addition to the Internet, exchange of knowledge and information is carried out through

� Training workshops that help the teams working under FRIEND-AOC to acquire newtools and methods. A training session on geographical information systems and waterresources is planned for this year;

� Scientific workshops, which enable the development of scientific thinking throughextensive comparison and wide dissemination of results by research teams. Ascientific workshop was held in November 2001 aimed at the FRIEND 2002Conference in Cape Town;

� Short regional scientific exchanges of views enable FRIEND-AOC research teams towork better together on current issues of mutual interest.

5.5 ConclusionsThe Yaoundé Steering Committee meeting organised in December 1999 marked a turningpoint in the new dynamics of the FRIEND-AOC project. It included a high standard scientificworkshop, which marked the end of the first phase of the project. The quality of the paperspresented, as well as the number of participants, confirmed the interest of scientists workingon the hydrological issues of this region. During the Steering Committee session, an objectiveevaluation of the first phase of the project resulted in a reduced number of refocused researchthemes, with responsibilities for coordination devolved to scientific and technical institutions.

AOC FRIEND

FRIEND 2002


The first Steering Committee of the second phase of FRIEND-AOC in Niamey, Niger in June2001 was in line with this new dynamism and resulted in each coordinating institution outliningthe specific objectives, results and activities to be conducted. This enabled the group toprepare a coherent and comprehensive project strategy for FRIEND-AOC, which will makethe monitoring and evaluation of project progress easier. The new dynamism is reflected inthe large number of papers and posters (about 30 in total) to be presented at the FRIEND 2002Conference.

FRIEND-AOC is also establishing cooperation with complimentary regional and internationalinitiatives, such as the HYCOS-AOC project (West and Central Africa component of WMO’sWHYCOS). Consideration is being given to harmonising the databases of both projects. Thiswould be advantageous to FRIEND-AOC as the FRIEND database will then be updatedautomatically with data collected through the HYCOS-AOC project, which provides financialsupport for data collection to the countries’ hydrological services.

In preparation for the Third Water Forum in Japan in 2003, the coordinator of FRIEND-AOCwas asked by WATAC, the West Africa component of the Global Water Partnership (GWP), tojoin a working group to prepare a West African paper to be presented at the Forum. Thegroup has to coordinate a study on the impacts of climate variability and climate change onwater resources in West Africa.

ReferencesAmani, A. 2001. Assessment of Precipitation and Resources Variability across the Sahelian region. In: Gash,

J.H.C., Odada, E.O., Oyebande, L. & Schulz, R.E. Report of the International Workshop on Africa’s WaterResources, Nairobi, 26-30 October 1999 (BAHC), 67-72.

Janicot, S. & Fontaine, B. 1993. L’évolution des idées sur la variabilité interannuelle récentes des precipitationsen Afrique de l’Ouest. La Météorologie, 8, 1, 28-53.

Le Barbé, L. & Lebel, T. 1997. Rainfall climatology of the HAPEX-Sahel region during the years 1950-1990. J.Hydrol. 188-189, 43-73.

Olivry, J.C., Bricquet, J.P. & Mahé, G. 1998. Variability of flood strength over the great streams of intertropicalAfrica and incidence of the fall of the basic runoffs over the past two decades. In: Proc. Int. Conf. ofAbidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in 20th Century, IAHS Publ. No. 252, 189-197.

Opoku-Ankomah, Y. & Amisigo, B.A. 1998. Rainfall and runoff variability in the southwestern river system ofGhana. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century,IAHS Publ. No. 252, 307-314.

Servat, E., Patureel, I., Kouamé, B., Travaglio, Ouédraogo, Boyer, J-F., Lubès-Neil, H., Fritsh, J-M., Masson, J-M.& Marieu, B. 1998. Identification, characterisation and consequences of a hydrological variability in Westand Central Africa. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20thCentury, IAHS Publ. No. 252, 323-337.

Sigha-Nkamdjou, L., Sighomnou, D., Lienou, G., Ayissi, G., Bedimo, J.P. & Naah, E. 1998. Variability of thehydrological regimes of rivers over the southern band of southern Cameroon plateau. In: Proc. Int. Conf. atAbidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. No. 252, 215-222.


Nile FRIEND

Chapter 6 Nile basin6.1 IntroductionFRIEND/Nile Basin was initiated in March 1996, when UNESCO extended an invitation to theNational Committees of the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) and the representativesof TECCONILE of the Nile Basin countries to meet at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.Since then the project has expanded to include ten countries: Burundi, Democratic Republicof Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda (Figure 6.1).

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From 1996 to 1999, the project was coordinated by the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.In 1999 at the third Steering Committee meeting in Khartoum, Sudan, it was decided that theWater Resources Research Institute (WRRI) in Egypt would take over the coordination role.Current research components and implementing institutions are therefore as follows:

� Rainfall Runoff Modelling: University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania;

� Sediment Transport and Watershed Management: UNESCO Chair and UNITWIN onWater Resources, Sudan;

FRIEND 2002


� Flood Frequency Analysis: Water Resources Research Institute, Egypt;

� Drought and Low Flow Analysis: University of Nairobi, Kenya;

� Training and Capacity Building: Hydraulic Research Institute, Egypt.

The 1999 Steering Committee agreed to postpone a regional database component until datasharing difficulties can be resolved and added a new component for training and capacitybuilding. Recently, the project has received new impetus with the success of UNESCO insecuring major funding for the project from the Belgian Government of Flanders.

The overall objective of FRIEND/Nile Basin is “to improve international river basin managementof the Nile through improving cooperation amongst the Nile countries in the fields of waterresources management and regional-scale analysis of hydrological regimes”.

The immediate objectives of the project are:

� To improve understanding of hydrological variability and similarity across time andspace, in order to develop hydrological science and practical design methods;

� To enhance research cooperation amongst Nile Basin countries, through hydrologicalresearch projects on selected topics, conducted by researchers from all participatingcountries;

� To increase the number of trained personnel in the region, with a view to improvingthe sustainability of the present initiative and, in the longer term, to reducedependency on external support agencies.

The main hydrological issues in the region are:

� To maximise the benefits from the Nile Basin and minimise losses;

� To facilitate the preparation of harvesting projects at any feasible location for thebenefit of Nile Basin countries;

� To address the lack of experience in Nile Basin hydrology and create a newgeneration of experienced technical staff.

The project is structured and organised by the general coordinator. Each research componentalso has a coordinator, who is assisted by a focal person from each of the countries of the NileBasin. It is planned that a project manager will assist in the overall administration of theproject. Annex 3 provides contact details of the coordinators and focal persons for eachresearch component.

6.2 DataThe data required by the different research components include rainfall, river flow and levelsand sediment concentrations. Maps of geological and topographic features and atlases of Nilecountries also contribute to the project. It is particularly important that a regional databaseshould be developed as the basis for developing mathematical models of rainfall-runoffrelationships, droughts and regional frequency analysis. However, there are significant problemsin the Nile region over the sharing of data, which continue to delay the development of acommon regional database. The FRIEND/Nile Basin steering committee meets annually: fiveannual meetings have been held since 1997 (see Annex 4), plus a meeting organised by WRRIin April 2000 for the research coordinators to discuss detailed work plans and to activatemutual cooperation. These meetings have all been documented (FRIEND/Nile Basin 1997;1998; 1999; 2000a; 2000b; 2001d).


Nile FRIEND

6.3 ResearchResearch activity is focused on four main research components: the progress of each variesaccording to the availability of data and the extent of possible assistance from national resources.

6.3.1 Rainfall-runoff modelling

The objective is to develop suitable rainfall-runoff models for gauged catchments in the NileBasin that can then be applied to ungauged catchments in the region. Potential applicationsinclude flood forecasting, water resource design, estimation of missing data, extension ofshort historical records and investigation of the impacts of land-use change or climate changeon the river flow. Different rainfall-runoff models have been applied to ten catchments feedingLake Victoria, based on catchment boundaries delineated from a digital elevation model at a1 km grid resolution and five years of historic rainfall, river flow and evaporation records. Themodels can be applied after calibration and validity analysis.

6.3.2 Sediment transport and watershed management

This component aims to estimate and predict sediment load from selected catchments in theregion and to design an appropriate methodology of sediment control for watershed manage-ment and sediment deposition. The methodology used will depend to a large extent on theavailability of data, and it is not expected that sufficient data will be available in the region tosupport a comprehensive sediment modelling study. System models, such as sediment unithydrographs and sediment rating curves, will be used to estimate the sediment load. Severalexisting sediment monitoring stations have been defined and the available data have beenanalysed, validated and classified in order to establish a database. The next step will be tomodel sediment transport.

6.3.3 Flood frequency analysis

The objective of this component is to develop regional design procedures for estimating floodmagnitude for a given probability of exceedence at gauged and ungauged sites in the region.This research should lead to improvements in the design of culverts and bridges for road andrail communication, hydraulic structures for irrigation and reservoir spillways. The anticipatedrange of application is for a return period between 2 and 200 years. The methodology isbased on establishing statistically homogenous regions within the Nile Basin area and developingflood frequency curves for each region, which can then be applied to ungauged catchments.As shown in Figure 6.2, a regional flood frequency curve has been constructed for all available

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FRIEND 2002


gauged rivers feeding Lake Victoria on its eastern side. The next step will be to apply thesecurves to ungauged catchments in the region.

6.3.4 Drought and low flow analysis

The objective of this research component is to analyse daily river flow data for estimation oflow flow magnitude – duration – frequency relationships. Standard statistical techniques oflow flow analysis and software available in universities and research institutions will beapplied to daily flow data. It is intended to develop new techniques of analysis and newsoftware during the course of the project. The key stations required for this research havebeen identified and available data on rainfall and flow discharge has been collected. The nextstep will be application of suitable models.

6.4 Training and capacity buildingThis component of FRIEND/Nile Basin was initiated in 1999 with the following objectives:

� To provide on-job training courses tailored to different disciplines within the researchcomponents;

� To define the possible use of ongoing training courses in the same fields as theresearch components;

� To initiate workshops.

Training and capacity building have been given a high priority in the action plan of theFRIEND/Nile Basin project. A proposal has also been submitted to the Arab Bank for EconomicDevelopment of Africa to support training courses in hydrology for the Nile Basin countries.

6.5 ConclusionsDespite data sharing problems considerable progress has been made by the FRIEND/NileBasin project. A work plan with well-defined objectives, methodologies, research needs,expected results and relevant budget requirements has been prepared. Criteria have alsobeen adopted to assess the objectives, feasibility and applicability of each research theme anda focal person from each country has been nominated for each research component.

Future plans for FRIEND/Nile Basin will focus on providing each research team with thenecessary software and research facilities and also relevant technical support through trainingcourses and consultation. The Steering Committee of FRIEND/Nile Basin has invited interestedresearchers from any Nile Basin country to participate in the different research components ofthe project. Using the funds available from the Belgian Government of Flanders, projectcoordinators are formulating comprehensive research teams from the different Nile Basincountries.

Recent Flemish funding has given considerable impetus to the project, with five meetings,including technical workshops, held in 2001 (Annex 4), all of which have been documented(FRIEND/Nile Basin, 2001a; 2001b; 2001c; 2001d; 2001e).

Since its initiation, the FRIEND/Nile Basin project has developed links with other internationalorganisations, which have contributed their technical experience to the discussions anddeliberations of the different FRIEND/Nile Basin Steering Committees. Further links betweenFRIEND/Nile Basin, the Global Water Partnership (GWP), the HELP initiative and other RegionalFRIEND groups will be established. Furthermore, research teams will be strengthened byestablishing links with researchers and scientists from the north. Links between Nile Basin


Nile FRIEND

universities and Flemish universities will be highly encouraged, especially for research areasrelevant to FRIEND/Nile Basin. The agency responsible for implementation of each researchcomponent will also enhance its cooperation with other local research organisations anduniversities.

References

Reports of meetings and workshops:

FRIEND/Nile Basin. 1997. Report of 1st Steering Committee meeting, Cairo, 1997FRIEND/Nile Basin. 1998. Report of 2nd Steering Committee meeting, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.FRIEND/Nile Basin. 1999. Report of 3rd Third Steering Committee meeting, El Khartoum, Sudan.FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2000a. Report of Meeting for Coordinators of the project, Cairo, 2000FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2000b. Report of 4th Steering Committee meeting, Cairo, 2000FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2001a. Rainfall/Runoff Modelling Component workshop, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,

November 2001FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2001b. Flood/Drought Components workshop, Cairo, November 2001FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2001c. Sediment Transport & Watershed Management workshop, El Khartoum, Sudan,

November 2001.FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2001d. 1st Project Management Meeting, Cairo, December 2001.FRIEND/Nile Basin. 2000e. Report of 5th Steering Committee Meeting, Cairo, December 2001.


AP FRIEND

Chapter 7 Asian Pacific7.1 IntroductionAsian Pacific FRIEND, initiated in 1997, is organised by the IHP Regional Steering Committeefor Southeast Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO, 1999). Currently thirteen countries are participating:Australia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, R Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, New Zealand,Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (Figure 7.1).

A key factor in the evolution of the project has been the publication of three volumes of theCatalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, presenting detailed information for 69rivers from 13 countries, located as shown in Figure 7.1 (RSC, 1995; 1997; 2000).

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Asian Pacific FRIEND provides a framework within which research is carried out to improvethe understanding of hydrological sciences and water resources management in the region,by means of comparative studies of the similarity and variability of regional hydrologicalvariables and water resource systems. The research takes advantage of the multi-continentalscale coverage of the member countries and their diverse water resource managementexperiences. It focuses on providing solutions to individual as well as generic issues relevantto countries in the region including:

� Improved understanding and modelling of hydrological processes;

� Application of a systems approach to enhance hydrological design and waterresources management to help meet the urgent demand for water and its control;

� Investigation of the impact on catchment hydrology and water resources of naturaland human induced changes in land use and management practices;

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FRIEND 2002


� Understanding the impact of climate variability on water resource availability andmanagement;

� Analysis of the importance and effects of different spatial and temporal scales onhydrological analyses;

� Determination of the basic conditions to make water-related technology transfer andexchange possible.

Projects carried out by researchers throughout the region under the broad project headingsdefined by Asian Pacific FRIEND cover a wide range of research topics. In Phase 1 there aretwo main themes: the Asian Pacific Water Archive and Flood and Low Flow Research. Theseare being implemented through five working groups:

Working Group 1: Establishment of Asian Pacific Water Archive

Working Group 2: Rainfall-runoff Models

Working Group 3: Statistical & Stochastic Models

Working Group 4: Frequency Analysis Models

Working Group 5: Human Adjustment Models

While these individual projects all have specific objectives, the success of Asian Pacific FRIENDwill be measured by the extent to which the results of research are:

� used within the region to provide improved and up to date training of hydrology andwater resource practitioners;

� transferred to and used by hydrology and water resource practitioners to solveregional issues, and

� appreciated by the global hydrological and water resources community as scientificinputs developed from the regional findings and experiences.

7.2 Asian Pacific Water ArchiveGreat efforts have been made in this first phase of Asian Pacific FRIEND to collect and processhydrological data and to establish an Asian Pacific Water Archive. This is being achievedthrough fruitful cooperation between hydrologists from member countries. The archive presentlycontains river flow, hydrometeorological and other related water resources information, whichhas been collected for the Catalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Asian PacificFRIEND research projects, and other IHP related activities of member countries.

The archive is Internet-based and consists of three nodes linked to each other. The centralnode is at the Regional Humid Topics Hydrology and Water Resources Centre in Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia (http://htc.moa.my/apfriend/wa/), with two national nodes at Yamanashi Universityin Kofu, Japan (http://titan2.cee.yamanashi.ac.jp/FRIEND/) and the Bureau of Meteorology inCanberra, Australia (http://www.bom.gov.au/hydro/wr/unesco/friend/apfriend.shtml/) .

A Working Group is responsible for coordinating the establishment of the archive by

� documenting standards and guidelines for the provision of data and otherinformation to the Water Archive by participating countries;

� preparing guidelines for the operation of country nodes;

� assisting the Regional Humid Tropics Hydrology and Water Resources Centre with theestablishment of the Water Archive central node;

� working through the Regional Humid Tropics Hydrology and Water Resources Centreto help countries establish and operate the country nodes.

http://htc.moa.my/apfriend/wa/

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AP FRIEND

To obtain data from the central node, users have to submit a request form, available from thecentral node web site. Alternatively, individual countries can set up a country node to accessdata for national rivers. Work is in progress to upgrade the software so that it is easier to checkdata availability and provide access to the Water Archive.

The aim is to include a wide range of hydrological, hydrometeorological, geophysical andsocioeconomic information (James & Desa, 2000) in the Water Archive, including flood eventdata, annual and flood peak series and groundwater data. Initial data collection activity hasconcentrated on the primary data types of precipitation, streamflow and, where possible,temperature and evaporation. Currently, data for 106 river gauging stations, 131 precipitationstations, 21 evaporation and 11 temperature sites in 42 river basins of 11 countries is held onthe Water Archive (see Table 7.1). Daily time series are included wherever possible (e.g. NewZealand and Australian data), with data for other countries predominantly monthly time series.

The publication of three volumes of the “Catalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and thePacific” has advanced regional cooperation in hydrological sciences as well as water resourcesdevelopment and management. It provides information on 69 rivers, including general catch-ment descriptions, geography, climatology, hydrology and water resources, socioculturalcharacteristics and references. The wide hydro-climatological range of the Asian Pacific FRIENDregion is shown in Figure 7.2: specific mean annual discharge is plotted against catchmentarea for the 69 rivers in the Catalogue. The distribution is strongly affected by annualprecipitation, with a weak tendency for specific mean annual discharge to be smaller for largecatchment areas in the precipitation range 800–2400 mm/y ear. The largest mean annualdischarges (>6.0 m3s-1/100km2) appear in humid regions such as Indonesia, Japan, Laos,Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, and Vietnam. Intermediate values(3.0-5.0 m3s-1/100km2) predominate in Southern China and Korea. The lowest values occur inAustralia, the most arid country in the Asian Pacific FRIEND region. Unexpectedly, specificmean annual discharges in Thailand are also quite small (<2.0 m3s-1/100km2) and may reflectthe over-withdrawal of water from those rivers.

Complementing the Asian Pacific Water Archive is a National Rivers Water Quality Network(NRWQN), which has been in operation in New Zealand for 11 years (Ibbitt & Pearson, 1998).A copy of the complete Water Quality Database has been supplied to the Regional HumidTropics Hydrology and Water Resources Centre in Malaysia.

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7.3 ResearchSome specific examples of research in Asian Pacific FRIEND are presented in this section.

7.3.1 Water balance studies

Data from the Asian Pacific Water Archive has been used in a water balance study of MonsoonAsia (Kondoh et al., 1998), which uses the water balance to classify the hydrological region.Four water balance components have been estimated: potential evapotranspiration by thePriestley and Taylor method, actual evapotranspiration by Thornthwaite’s bookkeeping method,soil moisture, and water surplus and deficit. Figure 7.3 shows the seven hydrological regionsof Monsoon Asia based on water surplus and annual total water deficit (ATD).

7.3.2 Rainfall-runoff models

A key objective of Asian Pacific FRIEND is to reduce the uncertainty in flow prediction and toassess the impact of land use changes and climate variation on floods and low flows. Fivedifferent examples of research in this area are presented below.

Application of the 4-layer Tank Model

The 4-layer Tank Model was applied to five different catchments in Southeast Asia (Nawarathna& Kazama, 1999; Kazama et al., 2000). These include the Chu (Vietnam) basin (drainage area2105 km2), Thac Buoi (Vietnam) basin (2313 km2), Sirikit (Thailand) basin (13,130 km2),Srinagarind (Thailand) basin (10,880 km2) and Lam Dom (Thailand) basin (3,363 km2). Allbasins have both wet and dry seasons and are covered mainly with forest. Figure 7.4 relatesbasin factors to Tank parameters. Z and B are parameters representing the magnitude of therunoff from different layers of the Tank. The results of the comparison show high correlationbetween parameters of surface flow (Z11) and waste and vacant land (WVL), between surfaceinfiltration and slope length, and between the supply from soil to base flow (B3) and theconsolidated deposit area (CD) in each basin. Other combinations of variables do not alwayshave high correlation. Results obtained in some basins show that rainfall intensity stronglydepends on elevation and basin aspect in relation to the direction of monsoon wind.

Development and application of a lumped hydrological model

A lumped hydrological model has been applied in five headwater experimental catchments,namely the Sapulut (59.4 ha) and Ulu Kalumpang (22.3 ha) in Malaysia, Jaleko (17.9 ha) in


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Indonesia, Fukuroyamasawa (2.0 ha) and Shirasaka (88.5 ha) in Japan. Factors underconsideration include characteristics of the rainfall-runoff response with interception loss,transpiration, rapid discharge and baseflow, and the effects of land use change (e.g. forestconversion) on evapotranspiration and discharge. It was found that geological factors had a

FRIEND 2002


significant effect on the flow regime, whereas climatic conditions affected evapotranspiration.The conversion of natural tropical forest to degraded grass was found to increase annualdischarge by 527 mm, whereas, conversion to plantations of trees or tree crops (Kuraji, 2001)increased annual discharge by 130 mm. Discharge-duration curves after replanting did notreturn to the original pre-logging condition, unless both the discharge rate and the physicalproperties of the soil surface were returned to their original condition.

Application of a distributed hydrological model to large basins

A hydrological model was developed using a 1 km dataset resolution and was applied to theupper Chao Phraya basin of Thailand (area 100,000 km2) and the upper middle reaches of theMekong basin (area 400,000 km2). Two mathematical models — a grid-based distributedhydrological model and a hill-slope river network hydrological model — were used to modelevapotranspiration, infiltration, groundwater flow and river flow as continuous daily simulations(Jha et al., 1998; Yang et al., 1998). The major findings of the study were as follows:

� The most important factor for determining the accuracy of flow simulation was theraingauge density: best results were obtained in Japan with a raingauge density of3-8/1000 km2, compared with 0.1-1/1000 km2 in Thailand and 0.03-0.2/1000 km2 inthe Mekong basin;

� The effective resolution of regional land-use data is around 20-40 km2, which is of asimilar order to soil property information; therefore, the heterogeneity of landformscannot be adequately represented below this spatial resolution.

While river flows were modelled well by the two different simulation models, evapotranspirationestimates varied in some catchments. As groundwater and evapotranspiration losses can becomplementary it is difficult to adequately verify each estimate, as the amount of data available,especially on the spatial distribution of groundwater, is insufficient. Focusing on evapotrans-piration estimates may lead to improved quantification of the hydrological cycle.

Application of a physically based rainfall-runoff model

A physically based rainfall-runoff model BTOPMC (Block-wise use of TOPMODEL coupledwith Muskingum-Cunge method) was developed at Yamanashi University, Japan, as a commonmeasure for comparative hydrology (Takeuchi et al., 1998). This model is applicable to large,data-sparse basins, such as the upper Kali Brantas basin, Indonesia (5100 km2). In the exampleshown, only monthly precipitation data from 21 stations for 1951-1979, the GTOPO30 DEM atabout a 1 km resolution, and discharge data from 1951 to 1952 were used for model parametercalibration. Results for the validation period 1953 to 1972 show reasonable agreement withobserved data (Figure 7.5). The value of the model is particularly evident for the period after1973 where a clear discrepancy between simulated and observed flows occurs because ofconstruction and operation of the major Karaangkates Dam (Ishidaira et al., 2000). The resultshighlight the importance of incorporating the effects of dam regulation into simulation studies.

Water fluxes and pathways in river basins in New Zealand

This research has yielded significant results with the development of a theory enabling riverbasins to be characterized at an annual and seasonal time step using only six dimensionlessnumbers. A method for estimation of low flows anywhere in New Zealand has been developedusing GIS techniques. This project has also revealed that regression analysis to establish arelationship between concurrent flows at two sites can give highly variable and often unreliableresults. In an associated programme, “Linked Precipitation Runoff Modelling System forMountainous Catchments”, a model based upon the TOPMODEL concepts of Beven & Kirkby(1979) has been successfully applied to 23 catchments on both the leeward and windwardside of the Southern Alps mountains. The potential of the system in mountainous terrain hasbeen extended to include simulation of natural lakes and an operational model is currently


AP FRIEND

undergoing trials. A system has been constructed for quantitative prediction of river flow andlevel up to 48 hours in advance, by linking a catchment runoff model to a terrain-sensitiveweather forecast model. Tests against data from the Southern Alps Experiment (http://katipo.niwa.cri.nz/salpex/) and from other storms demonstrate the potential of this modelling systemfor helping emergency response officers manage the risk of local flood hazards.

7.3.3 Statistical and stochastic models

The objectives of this research are to compare regional characteristics of flow regimes throughthe assessment of long term changes and the discrimination of similar hydrological zones,and, to develop statistical and stochastic models which can be used for flood and low flowprediction and hydrological design in the region. Using comparative statistical and stochasticanalyses, the characteristics of the hydrological cycle in the region can be elucidated,enabling more effective development and management of hydrology, water resources andthe environment.

7.3.4 Frequency analysis models

The aim is to conduct comparative research and to establish a standard method of hydrologicalfrequency analysis for Southeast Asia and the Pacific region. Activities include model selectionand parameter estimation for small samples, methods for robust estimation of parameters,selection of proper extreme value frequency models, and techniques for handling outliers.

An extreme-value database HEAP (Hydrological Extremes in Asian Pacific region) has beenestablished at Kyoto University in Japan (Takara & Nakayama, 2000). The HEAP database

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Calibration (1951-1952): e=86.0% r=0.91Validation (1953-1972): e=63.5% r=0.88; (1973-1979) e=-50.7% r=0.82

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Calibration (1951-1952): e=86.0% r=0.91Validation (1953-1972): e=63.5% r=0.88; (1973-1979) e=-50.7% r=0.82

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includes extreme discharge and rainfall data presented in the three volumes of the Catalogueof Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific and some additional extreme-value data fromIndonesia and Japan. The HEAP database is part of the Water Archive and it is anticipated itwill form the basis for frequency analysis studies throughout the region. During 2001,hydrological frequency analysis methods used in the region were summarised for presentationat the International Symposium on “Achievements of IHP-V on Hydrological Research” inHa Noi, Vietnam, in November 2001.

7.3.5 Human adjustment models

This research aims to analyse and compare human adjustment processes used in differentcountries and regions for improved flood and low flow management. Possible outcomes fromthis work include damage estimates of floods and droughts, identification of the natural andsocial background to recent increases in flood and drought damage, potential damage increasesfrom floods and droughts under increasing climatic variability, and non-structural measures tomitigate flood and drought damage. The main achievement so far has been the recognition ofthe types of data required to implement this study.

7.4 Training and capacity buildingTraining and capacity building activities have been supported by Asian Pacific FRIEND throughcollaborative courses on hydrology in Nagoya University, Japan and hydrology and waterresources courses at the Regional Humid Tropics Hydrology and Water Resources Centre inKuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

7.5 ConclusionsSince the Asian Pacific Science Plan (UNESCO, 1999) was published, more than 200 researchersand practitioners in the region have been organised and their activities coordinated. Althoughprogramme implementation is still at an early stage, there have been some notable achievements.These have included the publication of three volumes of a Catalogue of Rivers for SoutheastAsia and the Pacific, covering 69 rivers from 13 countries in the region, the establishment ofthe Asian Pacific Water Archive, the organisation of annual Asian Pacific FRIEND symposiaand the publication of symposia and workshop proceedings (Desa et al. 1998; Herath &Dutta, 2000; Pho, 1999; Mosley, 2000). A fourth volume of the Catalogue of Rivers is inpreparation. Collaboration with other related organisations and programmes such as GEWEX/GAME is also being established.

In the second stage of implementation, the major challenge will be to find the necessaryfinancial support for different working groups. The Technical Sub-Committee for Asian PacificFRIEND, Working Group Coordinators, and the Regional Steering Committee are seekingfinancial support for each Working Group and are also making every effort to use as effectivelyas possible the limited research funds already available. In this regard, stronger collaborationwith the wider ranges of national, international, regional and global organisations andprogrammes will be an important aspect of Asian Pacific FRIEND.

Possible future collaboration is being sought with the Asian Development Bank (ADB), MekongRiver Commission, World Water Assessment Program (WWAP), Hydrology for Environment,Life and Policy (HELP) and WMO Hydrology and Water Resources Programs (HWRP). Theseall have research, experimental, training and capacity building components within theirobjectives. Asian Pacific FRIEND has much to share with and contribute to these organisationsand programmes and will extend cooperation to organisations including Nagoya University inJapan, Hohai University and the International Research and Training Centre on Erosion and


AP FRIEND

Sediments (IRTCES) in China, and the Regional Humid Tropics Hydrology and Water ResourcesCentre (HTC) in Malaysia, where training courses have been held. Links with the governmentsof member countries are necessary for the development of a regional database, and links withregional scientific associations such as IAHS, IAHR, IWRA, ICID are very important in organisingsymposia and workshops.

Asian Pacific FRIEND wishes to share its experience and findings with other FRIEND groups,in particular its experience in the development of the database as a network of national nodesand the publication of Catalogues of Rivers.

ReferencesBeven, K.J. & Kirkby, M.J. 1979. A physically-based variable contributing area model of basin hydrology.

Hydrol. Sci. Bull. 24, 1-3.Desa, M.M.N., Ghazali, Z. & Sinnasamy, S. (eds) 1998. Proc. 1st Asian Pacific FRIEND Workshop: Data Archive

and Scientific Methods for Comparative Hydrology and Water Resources. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Herath, S. & Dutta, D. (eds) 2000. Mekong Basin Studies. Proc. AP FRIEND Workshop, Bangkok, Thailand.Ibbitt, R.P. & Pearson, C.P. 1998. Overview of New Zealand Hydrological Network, Database and Science

Projects. In: Proc. 1st Asian Pacific FRIEND Workshop, Data Archive and Scientific Methods for ComparativeHydrology and Water Resources, 20-23 March 1998, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Ishidaira, H., Takeuchi, K. & Ao, T.Q. 2000. Hydrological simulation of large river basins in Southeast Asia. In:Proc. Fresh Perspectives on Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 21-24November 2000, Christchurch, New Zealand, 53-54.

James, R.A. & Desa M.M.N. 2000. Asian Pacific FRIEND Water Archive: Status Report. In: Proc. Fresh Perspectiveson Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 21-24 November 2000, Christchurch,New Zealand, 1-10.

Jha, R., Herath, S. & Musiake, K. 1998. Application of IIS Distributed Hydrological Model (IISDHM) in NakhonSawan, Thailand. Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 42, JSCE, 145-150.

Kazama, S., Trung, T.L., Yokoo, Y. & Sawamoto, M. 2000. Study on construction of lumped model withoutrunoff data. Proc. 12th congress APD/IAHR, Vol.3, 879-888.

Kondoh, A., Tsujimura, M. & Kuraji, K. 1998. Construction of world basin water budget data base. In: Proc. 1st

Asian Pacific FRIEND Workshop, Data Archive and Scientific Methods for Comparative Hydrology and WaterResources, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20-23 March 1998), 69-75.

Kuraji, K. 2001. Rainfall and runoff characteristics in three tropical forested headwater basins of Southeast Asia.In: Hydrology and Water Management in the Humid Tropics, Cambridge University Press (in press).

Mosley, M.P. (ed.) 2000. Proc. Fresh Perspective on Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia and thePacific, Christchurch, New Zealand. 315 pp.

Nawarathna, N.M.N.S.B. & Kazama, S. 1999. Analysis of the relationship between water balance and basincharacteristics. Water Res. J., ESCAP/UN, 202, 24-38.

Pho, N.V. (ed.) 1999. Proc. 2nd Asian Pacific FRIEND and GAME Joint Workshop on ENSO, Floods and Droughtsin the 1990s in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Hanoi, Vietnam, 330.

RSC 1995. Catalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 1, Takeuchi, K., Jayawardena, A.W. &Takahasi, Y. (eds), The UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia and the Pacific,October 1995, 291 pp. (25 rivers from 11 countries).

RSC 1997. Catalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 2, Jayawardena, A.W., Takeuchi, K. &Machbub, B. (eds), The UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia and thePacific, December 1997, 285 pp. (24 rivers from 12 countries).

RSC 2000. Catalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 3, Hidayat, P., Jayawardena, A.W.,Takeuchi, K. & Lee, S. (eds). The UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia andthe Pacific, May 2000, 268 pp (20 rivers from 9 countries).

Takara, K. & Nakayama, D. 2000. HEAP: hydrological extreme-value database for Asian Pacific FRIEND. In:Proc. Fresh Perspectives on Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 21-24November 2000, Christchurch, New Zealand, 255-262.

Takeuchi, K., Ao, T.Q. & Ishidaira, H. 1998. Introduction of block-wise use of TOPMODEL and Muskingum-Cunge method for the hydro-environmental simulation of a large ungauged basin. Hydrol. Sci. J., 44(4),633-646.

UNESCO 1999. Asian Pacific FRIEND. IHP-V Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 2., UNESCO JakartaOffice.

Yang, D., Herath, S., & Musiake, K. 1998. Development of a geomorphology-based hydrological model for largecatchments. Ann. J. Hydraul. Eng., 42, JSCE, 169-174.


HKH FRIEND

Chapter 8 Hindu Kush Himalayas

8.1 IntroductionExtending some 3500 km from Afghanistan in the west to Myanmar in the east, the HinduKush Himalayas (HKH) are home to nearly 140 million people and influence the life of morethan three times as many living in the downstream basins and plains. As the largest reservoirof freshwater in the lower latitudes, these high mountains supply water to nearly 500 millionpeople and are the source of such mighty rivers as the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra andMekong. Water is a critical resource because of the rapidly increasing demand resulting fromrural, urban and industrial development in the region. If harnessed properly, it could generateenormous power, control floods, and irrigate millions of hectares of land to improve theeconomy and thereby contribute substantially towards the reduction of poverty in the region.

Regional cooperation in hydrological sciences and studies is essential because many HKHrivers originate in one country and pass through neighbouring countries before reaching theocean (Figure 8.1). The region experiences climatic extremes and contrasts, as well as beingvery active geologically. The south-west summer monsoon, from June to September, providesthe bulk of the region’s water, although its influence decreases from east to west such that themost western part of the region receives very little monsoon precipitation. An adequateunderstanding of the flow regimes of this highly energised and fragile environment is extremelyimportant in a region of increasing development and population pressures. The hydrology ofmountainous areas is not very well developed and the combination of extremely high altitudes,steep slopes and intense monsoon precipitation, limits and even precludes the transfer ofhydrological techniques, principles and models developed in the temperate regions of Europeand America to the HKH region. It is therefore necessary to test and adapt these models anddevelop new ones, which may be more applicable to the region. Such studies must be based

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on reliable and adequate data on hydrology, meteorology and other relevant parameters.Hence, the generation and sharing of reliable data among researchers of the region is offundamental importance. The HKH mountains are difficult areas, in terms of cost, accessibilityand territorial conflicts, to establish and operate a dense network of hydrometeorologicalstations. With annual precipitation ranging from less than 100 mm to more than 10000 mm,the climatic and hydrological diversity of the region is immense and presents a formidablechallenge. Efforts to understand these complexities through a concerted, collaborative researchprogramme, sharing relevant hydrometeorological data, as initiated by HKH-FRIEND, is apositive step towards meeting such challenges (Chalise, 1997).

The evolution of HKH-FRIEND goes back to 1989, when the International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development (ICIMOD) in Kathmandu, Nepal and UNESCO/IHP jointly organiseda Workshop on Hydrology of Mountainous Areas in collaboration with the Department ofHydrology and Meteorology of His Majesty’s Government of Nepal (DHM). This led to theestablishment of a Regional Working Group (RWG) on Mountain Hydrology. HKH-FRIEND,formally launched in March 1996, evolved through a series of regional consultations andmeetings of the RWG. It has official and unofficial members from the eight countries of theHKH region: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan.The area covered by HKH-FRIEND is shown in Figure 8.2.

HKH-FRIEND has the following main objectives:

� To promote and undertake research for optimal utilisation and better management ofwater resources in the Hindu Kush - Himalayan Region, which is the key resource toenhance productivity in agriculture, hydropower generation, etc., and to contributetowards poverty reduction in the region;

� To promote free exchange of data for hydrological research in the region through theRegional Hydrological Data Centre (RHDC) located at ICIMOD, Kathmandu.


HKH FRIEND

Main hydrological issues in the HKH region

Deglaciation and glacier retreats are the most pressing and important issues affecting thehydrological behaviour of the major river systems of the region. These rely totally on thesnow and glaciers of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan mountains for their perennial flow. Studieshave shown that glaciers in this region have been in a general state of retreat since 1850(Mayewski & Jeschke, 1979; Miller & Marston, 1989; Yamada, 1991; Kadota et al., 1993),although examples of both advancing and retreating glaciers have been reported from theKarakoram and Kunlun Mountains. As a consequence, the number of glacial lakes in theeastern Himalayas, in Nepal and Bhutan is increasing with increased vulnerability to glaciallake outburst floods (Mool et al., 2001a, b). It is therefore important that the impacts of globalwarming on snow and glacier melting and hence water resources are fully understood.

Floods and droughts are other major events that dominate the headlines of newspapers in theregion every year during monsoon and dry periods. Floods can include glacial lake outburstfloods, landslide dammed flash floods, high rainfall-induced floods and floods in ephemeralrivers (which remain dry for almost eight months a year). The region has witnessed majorclimate-induced disasters in recent years, such as the consecutive catastrophic monsoon floodsin Bangladesh during 1987 and 1998, the Indus Basin floods of September 1992 in Pakistan,and the major disaster caused by floods and debris flow in south-central Nepal in July 1993(Dhital et al., 1993). It is difficult to definitely relate these events to climate change. ThePakistan flood has been linked to the changing strength and timing of summer monsoonincursions into the trans-Himalayan region in Karakoram, previously considered to be a fifty-year event, but which is now found to occur more frequently.

Water quality is another major concern, particularly during low flows, with increasing pollutionof surface and ground waters. Water scarcity is growing rapidly with the increasing demandsof a growing population, urbanisation and industrialisation. Groundwaters are being exploitedrecklessly, lowering the water table. Arsenic contamination of groundwater, particularly inBangladesh, is a major problem for which solutions have so far been elusive.

A low priority is given to investment on hydrological and meteorological research in most ofthe regional countries, except China and India. This partly reflects the level of development ofthe countries of the region, where scientific research, in general, is not considered a priority.It is therefore important to undertake projects that highlight the benefits of hydrologicalresearch, not only to develop the rich hydropower and irrigation potential, but also to savelife and property from floods, which are occurring with increasing frequency and magnitude.The population in the HKH Region is expected to double within the next 35 years, and hencethe demand for water will increase tremendously, with all countries in the region showing anaccelerated pace of development.

To what extent such demands can be met depends very largely on the ability to manage watereffectively, both within the normal variability of climate and the abnormal variability due toclimate change. Unfortunately, little is known about even the normal variability of climate,and in a region where spatial and temporal variability is the rule rather than the exception, itis difficult to make a distinction between what is normal and what is abnormal variability.

8.2 DataMost major rivers of the region, such as the Indus, Ganges, Yarlung-Tsampo-Brahmaputra,Nu-Salween and Mekong, originate in one country and traverse one or more other countriesbefore reaching the ocean. As a rule, countries in the HKH Region do not share hydrologicaldata, and in many countries hydrological data, as well as relevant spatial information and

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maps, are classified and not available even to researchers in that country. Data betweenregions may be incompatible due to differences in the types of instruments and methods ofdata collection, and varying standards and accuracies. The problem is most acute in areasunder snow and at higher elevations, where research work is difficult to carry out. Many ofthese are regions of territorial conflict. Fragmentation of information and restrictions on thefree use of information has posed serious problems for generalising hydrological processes inthe region and the lack of a long-term historical database on hydrometeorology has been amajor scientific constraint.

In response to such problems, HKH-FRIEND has set up a Database Group (ICIMOD, 1999b),whose primary goal is to create a common database to facilitate research on the hydrologicalbehaviour of representative basins located in different physiographic and climatic zones. Aregional dialogue on data sharing has been initiated and, in May 1998 (ICIMOD, 1998), aRegional Hydrological Data Centre (RHDC) was established to archive and maintain thehydrological data generated by different research groups. Guidelines for data acquisition anddissemination (Data Protocol) for HKH-FRIEND were endorsed by the Steering Committee inApril 2000 (ICIMOD, 2000). A key role of the RHDC is to apply stringent quality controlprocedures at all stages of data acquisition and archiving ensuring regional consistency, suchthat the data may be used with confidence for scientific and planning purposes. The RHDCmust also build capacity in participating institutions in preparation for a computer database atregional and country level and must be proactive in obtaining regional data. It is anticipatedthat Internet access will be established for the databases. A METADATA catalogue is currentlyunder preparation for Nepal, with other countries added in subsequent years, which willprovide information on the source, frequency and consistency of data, and on missing data.

All participating countries have committed to providing time series of river flow and precipitationdata to the RHDC, but so far only Nepal has provided data. The RHDC has received monthlyand daily river discharge data from the Global Runoff Data Centre, Koblenz, Germany (GRDC)and DHM, Nepal for selected rivers. This includes 19 stations in Pakistan, 4 in India, 1 inChina and 30 stations in Nepal from GRDC and daily discharge data for 36 stations in Nepalfrom DHM. Additional station information such as latitude, longitude, elevation, drainagearea, data quality and meteorological point data, such as rainfall and temperature, has alsobeen provided for which HKH-FRIEND is highly indebted.

8.3 ResearchThe HKH-FRIEND project consists of six research groups:

� Database

� Low flows

� Floods

� Rainfall-runoff

� River water quality

� Snow and glaciers.

A list of group members and project coordinators is provided in Annex 3. Scientific andresearch activities are initiated (HKH-FRIEND, 1999) at individual and institutional level andproposals submitted to the Steering Committee for consideration. Due to a lack of funding notall research projects have been implemented. The Database and the Low Flow group havereceived significant support for their research and capacity building activities for a three-yearperiod from 2000/1 to 2002/3.


8.3.1 Low flows

The HKH region faces dual problems of overabundance of water during the wet season andscarcity of water in the dry season. Reliable practical methods for assessing low flows arerequired for planning schemes for irrigation, small hydropower and water supply to thepoorest group of people in remote mountain areas, which will help increase economic activityand be a direct contribution to poverty reduction.

The objective of the low flow group is to develop a range of design methods for calculatinglow flows at gauged and ungauged sites in the HKH region. These should lead to moreaccurate design of a wide range of water resource schemes, including estimation of dryseason flows for river abstraction, public water supply and irrigation, preliminary estimates ofstorage yield relationships for reservoir design and estimation of the energy available for run-of-the river hydropower schemes.

DHM in Nepal have conducted low flow measurements at 92 sites on 90 rivers in the Terairegion of Nepal over the last four years, in order to assess the recession curve of the flowhydrograph to facilitate irrigation and other water use planning. A low flow study of the westRapti basin, Western Nepal, was begun in early 2001 by DHM, Nepal, and the Centre forEcology and Hydrology (CEH) at Wallingford, UK, and an MSc thesis on low flow frequencyanalysis for the Mahanadi Basin was completed in 1998.

Regional Flow Regimes Estimation for Small-scale Hydropower Assessment (REFRESHA)

This three-year research project (1998-2001) was funded by the UK Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) Knowledge and Research Programme and has made a significantcontribution to low flow research in the region. The aim of REFRESHA was to develop reliableand consistent methods for estimating the hydrological regime at ungauged sites in Nepal andHimachal Pradesh in India, in order to assess their potential for small-scale hydropowerdevelopment, up to 5 MW capacity. Two organisations in India — the Alternate Hydro EnergyCentre (AHEC) at Roorkee University and the Himachal Pradesh Energy Development Agency(Himurja) — and two in Nepal — ICIMOD and DHM — have collaborated with CEH Wallingfordin this project.

Figures 8.3 and 8.4 show modelled Q95 (flow which is equalled or exceeded 95% of the time)and annual runoff for Himachal Pradesh and Nepal respectively (Rees et al., 2002). Themodelling techniques are available as a REFRESHA software package, which allows users toassess the hydropower potential of prospective sites. The software known as HydrA-HP (forHimachal Pradesh) and HydrA-Nepal (for Nepal) was launched at two dissemination workshopsin Shimla, India and in Kathmandu, Nepal in June 2001. The method may also be used toassess low flows and water availability at ungauged sites for irrigation, water supply etc.

8.3.2 Floods

The main objectives of this group are to conduct flood studies in order to help mitigate flooddamage, and to develop regional design procedures for estimating floods at gauged andungauged sites in the HKH region. This will lead to improved design of flood mitigationschemes, drainage structures, such as culverts and bridges for road and rail communication,and hydraulic structures for irrigation and reservoir spillways. Research proposals from groupmembers in China, Nepal, and Pakistan have been submitted, although a lack of funding hasbeen a major constraint to implementation. Examples of research include a study of theshifting of the Karnali River and a flood study in Syanja District of Nepal. Group membershave also supervised a number of postgraduate projects, including “Mean annual and flooddischarge for the Karnali, Narayani, Bagmati and Sapta Koshi River Basin”, completed inSeptember 2000, and “Regionalisation of flood extremes using pattern analysis” in 1999.

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A significant development with regard to regional floods was the interest shown by somedonors in establishing a regional flood forecasting system in the HKH. This resulted fromdiscussion of the WMO WHYCOS Project during the Second HKH-FRIEND Steering CommitteeMeeting in April 2000. Subsequently, a high level Regional Consultative Meeting on “Developinga Framework for Flood Forecasting in the HKH Region” was organised in Kathmandu in May2001 by ICIMOD and WMO. The meeting, co-hosted by DHM and sponsored by the US State

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Department’s Oceans, Environment and Science Bureau, Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance(OFDA) and DANIDA, was very successful and included two papers by HKH-FRIEND. Themeeting endorsed an Action Plan, which envisages the establishment of HKH-HYCOS or asimilar flood forecasting system, a regional exchange of information on floods, and thepreparation of state-of-the-art reviews and technical papers on various aspects of floodforecasting and flood estimation. HKH-FRIEND will be actively involved in its implementation.

8.3.3 Rainfall-runoff

The main objective of this group is to develop rainfall-runoff models for the region, whichwill contribute to flood forecasting activities, design of water resource schemes, interpolationof missing data, extension of short hydrological records, and investigation of the impacts ofland-use change upon downstream river flow regimes. Although regional research has not yetstarted, individual research is conducted by participating institutions in different countries.Most of those works are undertaken as part of an academic program. For example, rainfall-runoff analyses of Dudh Koshi, Babai, West Rapti and Tamur River Basins of Nepal have beencompleted as MSc projects. Another example from Pakistan is presented below:

The calibration of a rainfall-runoff model in a small watershed of Pakistan

The ability to predict the hydrological behaviour of a watershed is an important aspect ofwatershed management. The aim of most hydrological models is to provide fairly good estimatesof the future performance of a hydrological system so that resources can be managed andused effectively. The HEC-1 model was selected for estimating volumes of runoff from observedrainfall data for Simly catchment, near Islamabad, the capital city of Pakistan. Fifteen rainstormevents for the Simly catchment were selected to estimate the model parameters, including theSnyder unit hydrograph parameter, T

P (basin lag time) and C

P (Snyder’s peaking coefficient).

The exponential loss rate function parameter STRKR (initial loss in inches/hours) and DLTKR(amount in inches of initial accumulated rain loss) were also calculated by the parameterestimation option in HEC-1 model. Performance of the model was evaluated by simulatingfifteen other rainstorm events. The simulated and observed hydrographs match very well andshow that the HEC-I model can be used effectively to estimate volumes of runoff, for example,to the Simly Dam and similar other catchments in Pakistan or elsewhere.

8.3.4 River water quality

Water quality has received little attention in the region, despite being of equal importance towater quantity. Deteriorating water quality is limiting the availability of potable water in theregion. The main objectives of the River Water Quality group are therefore to:

� Review national databases of water quality to identify critical parameters, suitablemethods and frequency of sampling, sample processing and analysis, and parameterunits;

� Identify an appropriate archiving system and an organization with the necessaryfacilities and expertise to establish a river water quality database;

� Undertake analysis and modelling.

Although data collection and some research is carried out by institutions in most HKH countries(e.g. PhD dissertation on “Use of Stochastic Models and GIS in Management of River WaterQuality” completed in 2000 and supervised by Dr B.P. Parida, New Delhi, India) the grouphas not yet had funds for a concerted research project.

8.3.5 Snow and glaciers

In the HKH region snow and glacier melt water maintains stream flow during the dry season.A sound knowledge of temporal and regional snow melt and glacier ablation is therefore veryimportant. The main aim of this group (ICIMOD, 1999a) is to develop a Snow and Glacier

HKH FRIEND

FRIEND 2002


Melt Runoff Model (SGMRM) for calculating the amount of melt water, which will help waterresources development in the region. The group will focus on:

� snow cover simulation

� glacier mass balance study

� water balance study

� snow and glacier melt study

Significant research work is being undertaken in Bhutan, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan,some examples of which are outlined below. In Nepal, DHM are conducting a number ofglacial lake outburst studies. These include several long-term scientific projects on the TshoRolpa (the largest glacier lake in Nepal) to determine the environmental impact of remedialwork to lower the lake level by three metres; monitoring of Imja Glacier Lake (anotherdangerous glacier lake); and a detailed study of Thulagi Lake, including installation of anautomatic hydro-meteorological station and hydrological, topographical, glaciological andgeological studies of the lake area. In 2000, DHM started to compile a climatological andhydrological database to bring together hydrological and meteorological data scattered acrossthe region for the proposed snow and glacier melt runoff modelling. Once additional datahave been added, this archive will be made available on CD-ROM to relevant organisations.DHM are also currently conducting a detailed analysis of hydrometeorological data from itsseveral high elevation stations in Nepal Himalaya. In 2001, data from Kyangjing, Langtang willbe analysed with other stations added in subsequent years.

In India, the Glacier Research Group at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, has beenactively engaged in conducting research on the Dokraini and Gangotri glaciers in the Bhagirathi-Ganga basin, Ganga River headwater, including glacial hydrology, glacier hydrochemistry,sediment transfer, subglacial hydrology and mass balance studies.

In 2000, ICIMOD with support from UNEP and national institutions of Bhutan and Nepal,have been engaged in a major study to prepare an Inventory of Glaciers and Glacier Lakes ofBhutan and Nepal (ICIMOD & UNEP, 2000). It is necessary to have an accurate knowledge ofthe distribution of glaciers to estimate the runoff from snow and glacier melt. According tothis inventory, there are 3252 glaciers and 2323 glacier lakes in Nepal, of which 20 glacierlakes are identified as potentially dangerous. The results of this study, based mainly onsecondary data, such as maps, satellite images, and aerial photographs, have to be verified byfirst hand field observations. Similarly, the inventory shows there to be 677 glaciers and 2674glacier lakes in Bhutan (Mool et al., 2001a & b).

A three-year research project, funded by DFID, UK and led by a team from CEH Wallingford,started in May 2001 to develop hydrological models to assess the effects of deglaciation onthe water resources of the Himalayan region. The project will also investigate the potentialimpact of deglaciation on the livelihood and way of life of people and develop strategies thatwill help local agencies adapt to a change in the availability of water resources. This study willinvolve local scientists and contribute to the work of the Snow and Glacier group.

8.4 Training and capacity building

8.4.1 Review of training provided

Training and capacity building has been the principal focus of HKH-FRIEND activities. All sixresearch groups place a high priority on training to develop their skills in modern methodsand techniques and to strengthen their capacity to undertake research. Hence, training


workshops have been organised for most groups since 1997 and, to date, a total of 39 participantsfrom Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan have benefited from such training.

The following training has been organised by different groups of HKH-FRIEND between 1998and May 2001, with financial and/or technical support provided by the German National IHP/OHP Committee, UNESCO/IHP, ICIMOD, DFID/CEH Wallingford and GRDC, Germany.

� Regional training on database management, May 1998, ICIMOD, Nepal: 12 partici-pants from HKH countries including Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan.

� Regional training on low flow measurement and analysis, April 1999, ICIMOD, Nepal:A five-day training course (ICIMOD, 1999) attended by 15 participants (includingthree females) from Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan. Thirteen resourcepersons including nine experts from participating institutions of HKH-FRIEND andfour experts (including two women) from Northern European FRIEND Low FlowGroup assisted in the training.

� HKH-FRIEND/ICSI Preparatory workshop for training on mass balance measurement,March 2001, ICIMOD, Nepal: HKH-FRIEND and the International Commission forSnow and Ice (ICSI) are engaged in a joint project to establish a monitoringprogramme of glacier mass balance measurements on certain glaciers in the HKHmountains. 21 participants attended this preparatory training workshop, includingfive members of ICSI. The main objective was to consider criteria and selectrepresentative basins for mass balance measurements, select techniques and developa manual for mass balance measurement. Further training is planned in October 2002supported by the Department of Science and Technology of the Government ofIndia, the funding agency of the Indian Glaciology Programme.

� HKH-FRIEND Surface/river water quality training workshop, May 2001, Islamabad,Pakistan: 12 participants, one of them female, from Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistanattended this course, which was organised by the Pakistan Council of Research inWater Resources (PCRWR). Two experts from Nepal contributed to the training.

There is an increasing trend for training to be held at locations other than Kathmandu, and itis expected that each group will organise their training independently in different countrieswith local support.

8.4.2 Benefits from training

Training has brought together experts from both inside and outside the region, which has ledto clear dialogue and fruitful collaboration, both within the framework of HKH-FRIEND andbeyond. This is a very positive outcome. Another positive benefit is that it enables youngresearchers and experts from different countries to come together and share their scientificexperience and knowledge. Such interactions are not normally possible between some countriesin the region for political reasons. Participants of database and low flow training have reportedthat they have benefited immensely from the training, and some university participants haveeven been encouraged to lecture on these topics and share their skills with other colleagues.

In Pakistan, database trainees are using their knowledge to develop a national database. Pakistanhas been facing drought since 1998 because of low rainfall in the Indus catchment. Theconsequences are visible in almost every field, especially in national water resources, and arefurther aggravated by deteriorating water quality. The knowledge gained during low flowtraining has therefore been very helpful in understanding the phenomena of hydrologicaldrought and in conducting low flow analyses. Similarly in Nepal, database and low flow traineesare using their knowledge for database management in the Jhiku Khola and Yarsha Kholawatersheds and for a short-term low flow study of the Jhiku Khola watershed as part of thePARDYP Project at ICIMOD. Trainees from operational hydrological departments report thattraining has helped them in their day-to-day work and in developing confidence.

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FRIEND 2002


8.5 ConclusionsOver the last four years HKH-FRIEND has made significant progress in initiating research andorganising training for capacity building through the activities of its six research groups.Member institutions have shown enthusiastic participation and a growing interest to hostvarious group activities in different countries. The recent river water quality training in Pakistanand the offer of support from the Government of India for fieldwork in India, as part of glaciermass balance measurement training to be organised by Jawahar Lal Nehru University in 2002,are encouraging trends. Similarly technical and financial support from UNESCO/IHP, CEHWallingford, UK, the German National IHP/OHP Committee/Federal Institute of Hydrology,Germany and ICIMOD have been the founding base and the most enduring factor which hasassured the continuity of HKH-FRIEND and its activities. It is upon these stable foundationsthat HKH-FRIEND has now reached a takeoff stage.

For the next few years database development and training and capacity building will be thepredominant activities of HKH-FRIEND. Support from CEH/DFID, UK (CEH, 2000) will enablethe Database Group to actively develop the regional database, provide efficient functioningof the RHDC and help immensely in developing regional capacity for low flow research.Collaboration with ICSI will provide very sound training, resulting in a manual for massbalance measurement. Flood forecasting models will also be developed with related training.

At present, HKH-FRIEND has strong links with WMO, CEH Wallingford, UK, German IHP/OHP National Committee/Federal Institute of Hydrology, Germany and GRDC, apart from itsnatural links with UNESCO/IHP and ICIMOD. The links are widening and the workingrelationships with IAHS and its various commissions, particularly ICSI, are becoming stronger.The recent Regional Consultative Meeting on Flood Forecasting helped to further widen itslinks with USGS, NOAA and Asian Disaster Prevention Centre, Thailand. HKH-FRIEND willcontribute actively to the implementation of the Action Plan on Regional Flood Forecastingendorsed by the meeting, particularly in its scientific, research and capacity building activities,for which some funds have already been assured.

The major challenge in the coming years is to orientate the programme of activities of HKH-FRIEND and its six research groups towards practical applications. The most important areaswill be sharing and exchange of hydrometeorological data, including real time data for floodforecasting models and methods for low flow estimation, snowmelt runoff and rapid assessmentand measurement of snow and glacier mass balance. It is also important to have a closerdialogue between hydrologists and meteorologists to develop practical hydrological modelsfor the region.

ReferencesChalise, S.R. 1997. Prevention and management of environmental hazards in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas – HKH-

FRIEND. In: Oberlin, G. and Desbos, E. (eds), FRIEND Third Report 1994-1997, Paris UNESCO/Gis AMHY/Cemagref.

CEH 2000. DFID Water Theme Project Submission: “The United Kingdom Contribution to the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) of UNESCO”. Proposal submitted by CEH Wallingford, UK, April 2000.

Dhital, M.R. Khanal, N. & Thapa, K.B. 1993. The role of extreme weather events, mass movements and land-usechanges in increasing natural hazards: a report of the preliminary field assessment and workshop on causesof the recent damages incurred in South-Central Nepal (July 19-20, 1993) ICIMOD, 123 pp.

HKH-FRIEND 1999. Proposal for a Regional Research Programme, revised March 1999ICIMOD 1998. Minutes of 1st Steering Committee Meeting of the HKH-FRIEND, 11-12 May 1998, Kathmandu.ICIMOD 1999a. Minutes of Inception Workshop of the Snow and Glacier Group, 8-10 March 1999, KathmanduICIMOD 1999b. Minutes of Inception Workshop of the Database Group, 3-5 March 1999, Kathmandu.ICIMOD 1999c. Report of the HKH-FRIEND: Low Flow Group Regional Training on “Low Flow Measurement

and Analysis” and Workshop, 19-24 April 1999, Kathmandu.


ICIMOD & UNEP 2000. Inventory of glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods, monitoring and earlywarning system in the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region, Bhutan.

ICIMOD 2000. Minutes of 2nd Steering Committee Meeting of the HKH-FRIEND, April 11-13, 2000 Kathmandu.Kadota, T., Seko, K. & Ageta, Y. 1993. Shrinkage of glacier AX010 since 1978, Shorong Himal, east Nepal. In:

Young, G.J. (ed.) Snow and Glacier Hydrology (Proc. Kathmandu Symp. Nov. 1992) IAHS Publ. No. 218,145-154.

Mayewski, P.A. & Jeschke, P.A. 1979. Himalayan and trans-Himalayan glacier fluctuations since AD 1812. Arcticand Alpine Research 11(3), 267-287.

Miller, M.M. & Marston, R.A. 1989. Glacial response to climate change and epeirogeny in the NepaleseHimalayas. In: Marston, R.A. (ed.) Environment and society in the Manaslu-Ganesh Region of the centralNepal Himalayas, Final Report of University of Idaho and Foundation for Glacier and EnvironmentalResearch, USA, 65-88.

Mool, P.K.; Bajracharya, S.R. & Joshi, S.P. 2001(a). Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake OutburstFloods: Nepal, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Mool, P.K.; Wangda, D., Bajracharya, S.R.; Kunzang, K.; Gurung, D.R. & Joshi, S.P. 2001(b). Inventory ofGlaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods: Bhutan, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Rees, G., Croker, K., Zaidman, M., Cole, G.A., Kansakar, S., Chalise, S.R. Kumar, A., Saraf, A., & Singhal, M.2002. Application of the regional flow estimation method in the Himalayan region. In: FRIEND 2002:Bridging the gap between research and practice, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. FRIEND, Cape Town, South Africa, 18-22 March, 2002

Yamada, T. Preliminary report on glacier lake outburst flood in the Nepal Himalayas. Report 4/1/291191/1/l Seq.No. 387, Water & Energy secretariat, HMG, Kathmandu, Nepal.

HKH FRIEND


AMIGO

Chapter 9 Mesoamerica and the Caribbean(AMIGO)

9.1 IntroductionThe FRIEND/AMIGO project for Mesoamerica and the Caribbean began in 1999 with thesupport of the Regional Office of Science and Technology of UNESCO for Latin America andthe Caribbean (ROSTLAC) and the active participation of experts from Cuba, Jamaica, Mexico,Puerto Rico and Costa Rica. Since 2000, the FRIEND/AMIGO project has become part of theScientific Program of the Water Centre for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean(CATHALAC). This project has also received financial support from the International Instituteof Tropical Forests (IITF) and the Mexican Institute of Water Technology (IMTA). Other regionaland national institutions, such as the Secretary for the Regional Council for AgriculturalCooperation in Central America, the Central American Committee of Water Resources, and theCosta Rican Institute of Electricity have also supported the development of FRIEND/AMIGOactivities. The project involves 31 countries and administrative dependencies (Figure 9.1).

The Mesoamerica and Caribbean region occupies a wide territory, approximately 3 million km2

in area, with a population of about 200 million. This region is located between latitude10° and 23° North and longitude 59° and 80° West. A humid tropical climate prevails, althoughother climate types also exist. The regional atmospheric circulation is dominated by the seasonalfluctuation of the Subtropical North Atlantic Anticyclone which determines that tropical systemsprevail during the summer, with invasions of Extratropical Systems in winter that affect mainlyMexico and the western portion of the Great Antilles. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ), a very active area that produces abundant precipitation, is associated with the beginningand end months of the rainy season. The ITCZ migrates through a series of daily advancesand retreats, but follows a seasonal path in which it moves towards the Equator betweenJanuary and March and moves north between June and July.

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FRIEND 2002


Another element that reinforces the climatic variability in the region is the “El Niño SouthernOscillation” (ENSO), a phenomenon that influences the distribution, frequency and intensityof many of the regional atmospheric phenomena. Under ENSO influences, there is an expansionof the Extratropical West Systems in winter, producing an increase in north-south superficialatmospheric transport, which in turn causes an increase in rainfall between tropical andmedium latitudes and a decrease in tropical cyclone activity in the corresponding period.

Two important influences on the behaviour of the hydrological cycle in this region are theocean and the relief. The influence of the sea through the Pacific Ocean, Caribbean Sea andGulf of Mexico and the prevalence of a very mountainous relief moderates the Mesoamericanclimate; while the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean influence theCaribbean climate.

The hydrology of Mesoamerica is distinguished by its wide and dense network of rivers withremarkable flow and some shared basins. In the Caribbean, river basins are small and theshort rivers flow quickly to the sea, while basins and aquifers have strong saltwater intrusion.Frequent torrential rains and flash floods characterise the hydrology of the countries withinthis region. Heavy rains may occur throughout the year, but the more intense are associatedwith tropical storms. During the seven months from May to November, conditions are favourablefor generating large floods. Rainfall higher than the mean annual rainfall may be registered inonly one storm, whilst in a single day precipitation can be greater than the annual total formany temperate countries. Time series of rainfall, rain intensity and discharge frequentlyreach values which do not have a good fit to the mathematical distribution functions commonlyused in hydrological studies. Warning systems based on forecasts using methods applicableto large continental basins or to phenomena with different origins are normally unsuitable forthe very small basins of this region.

The main project objectives are to:

� develop the hydrology of the region;

� promote the regional exchange between institutions and experts;

� develop national capacities;

� transfer technologies and knowledge.

To achieve these aims, FRIEND/AMIGO will concentrate on four fundamental scientific topics:

� Home page and database;

� Hydrological minima;

� Hydrological maxima;

� Ecohydrology.

By the end of the first phase of the project (2000–2006), it is expected that the main resultswill be a regional database and web page of regional hydrologic information, a detailed state-of-the-art evaluation of regional hydrological knowledge and implementation of a hydrologicalwarning system.

From an organisational point of view, the project is coordinated by a non-associate experthired by UNESCO and a Steering Committee consisting of experts proposed by the NationalCommittee of the IHP. There are also other designated experts’ groups that coordinate specifiedscientific topics (see Annex 3).


AMIGO

9.2 DataThe main objective of the homepage and database project is to develop two fundamentaladdresses:

� A web site for disseminating the main project results and to provide links with themain regional and world web sites devoted to regional hydrology and hydrologicaldata;

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FRIEND 2002


� A regional hydrological database of existing data.

The database is now in the design phase with the collaboration of ROSTLAC, CATHALAC andthe AMHY FRIEND group. The FRIEND/AMIGO Home Page and Database group met inMexico at the end of 2000 and agreed that the first version of the database will have thefollowing structure:

Informative level: general hydrological data of the region or countries.

Data level: indexed validated data.

Academic level: This level includes case studies, practical examples and monographs.

The database will be linked to LACHYCOS and R-Hydronet systems that are favoured by theOffice of the UNESCO Regional Hydrologist.

9.3 Research

9.3.1 Hydrological minima

It has been observed during recent decades that drought has had an increasing impact onmany countries of the region. Drought affects all elements of the hydrological cycle, in particularwater resources, where it is often necessary to adopt emergency solutions. The link betweendrought and human and aquatic health is another important aspect, since droughts oftenfavour the development of infectious and non-infectious illnesses transmitted by water andvectors. The hydrological minima project addresses these issues with the following objectives:

� To improve understanding of the causes of drought and its characteristics in theregion, to facilitate the analysis of drought hazard, to reduce socioeconomicvulnerability, and to decrease the potential risks for drought impact;

� To evaluate the extent of preparation of the region for reducing the impact of thedrought;

� To contribute to a change from the concept of handling the drought crisis to one ofhandling the drought risk;

� To promote the exchange of publications, methodologies and specific proceduresrelating to drought among professionals and institutions in the region;

� To implement a system for drought early warning in the region.

By the end of the first phase of the FRIEND/AMIGO project it is anticipated that a monographon hydrological minima in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean will have been produced, togetherwith a synthesis and technical manual outlining the main procedures for the evaluation andcontrol of drought in the region.

9.3.2 Hydrological maxima

Heavy rains and floods are common in the region and are responsible for very lamentablecatastrophes. This project was established to promote investigations and improve understandingof these hydrological phenomena. It has the following key objectives:

� To deepen knowledge of hydrological maxima and to strengthen conceptual andmethodological bases for the prevention and mitigation of flood damage;

� To share and contribute to the improvement of tools used to analyse hydrologicalmaxima;


AMIGO

� To contribute to the planning and organisation of flood prevention and theadministration of emergencies.

A monograph on hydrological maxima will be produced at the end of the first phase of thisproject. This will include case studies, hydrological analysis methods and recommendationsfor flood prevention and mitigation.

The University of Oslo is supporting the FRIEND/AMIGO project in the organisation of thisregional project.

9.3.3 Ecohydrology

Caribbean streams are important for water supply, hydropower, and transportation. They alsosupport both freshwater and saltwater fisheries, which provide recreation, food and incomefor local economies. Most, if not all, of these rivers are modified or regulated by some type ofhuman activities. Because of the multiple demands placed on these aquatic resources, managingthem is a complex and dynamic process. Resource managers are often called upon to estimatethe discharge required for water supply, navigation, fisheries, recreation, diluting pollution,preventing water quality problems, and protecting cultural and visual amenities. In addition,managers are often also required to develop rules of stream flow regulation and permits thatenable water extraction, while mitigating the impact on beaches and estuaries, endangeredpopulations of manatees, freshwater shrimps and fish.

Many techniques have been developed to determine river flow requirements outside theMesoamerican-Caribbean-AMIGO project region. While many of these techniques are applicablein the region, every site and situation is different. Furthermore, every technique needs to betested and calibrated to local conditions. Therefore, it is impossible to propose regionallyspecific standards. Nevertheless, a comparison of methods and case studies is a prerequisiteto developing the information necessary for complex site-specific flow objectives in the region.The primary goal of the first phase of this project is therefore to gather and synthesise existinginformation on instream flow requirements in the region. During this phase an existingbibliography on streams in the Caribbean region will be updated and posted on the FRIEND/AMIGO WWW page. Additions and modifications to this bibliography will be requested fromusers and the bibliography will be periodically updated with this information.

The second goal of Phase I will be to conduct a regional survey of relevant techniques andcase studies to determine the extent and perception of problems in the region, to evaluatewhich methods have been or are being used and to evaluate information needs. This surveywill be conducted by mail using a questionnaire that will be distributed to approximately 100resource managers in the region. A summary and synthesis of questionnaire responses will beposted on the AMIGO WWW page. These will be used to direct future research efforts and toinvite individuals and organizations to participate in the third goal of this project, a literaturereview of regionally based case studies and tested techniques.

The primary goal of Phase II is to publish a group of edited, peer-reviewed papers on riverflow issues in the region. Special emphasis will be given to providing examples of operatingrules used in the region and life history information for important species. If funding permits,a training workshop and symposium workshop on estimating instream flow requirements inthe region may accompany these publications.

The main technical reports obtained as result of the activities of the scientific projects arelisted in Table 9.1. These reports will also be available on the FRIEND/AMIGO home page.

FRIEND 2002


9.4 ConclusionsOrganisational activities have predominated during the first year of the project, but during thenext two years important meetings are planned where research results will be presented.Annex 4 presents a list of key FRIEND/AMIGO meetings that have already taken place.

Forthcoming events include a second Steering Committee meeting in La Habana, Cuba, and aworkshop on “Drought in Mesoamerica, the Caribbean and in other humid geographicalregions” to be held in Panama in November 2002.

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Conclusions

Chapter 10 Conclusions

10.1 Key achievements 1998-2001The fifth International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO (IHP-V), 1996-2001, had the title“Hydrology and Water Resources Development in a Vulnerable Environment”. It set out to“stimulate a stronger interrelation between scientific research, application and education”,with the emphasis on “environmentally sound integrated water resources planning andmanagement, supported by a scientifically proven methodology” (UNESCO, 1996). FRIENDresearch has contributed to this objective by developing an improved understanding ofhydrological variability and similarity across time and space, through the exchange of data,knowledge and techniques, and has helped to improve methods for the design and managementof water resources.

The eight FRIEND groups described in this report have been under way for periods rangingfrom two to fifteen years (Table 1.1). A key achievement of FRIEND in this phase of the IHPhas been to maintain an active programme of research for the more established FRIENDgroups, while advancing activities in new areas. For new FRIEND groups, the priority hasbeen to establish a climate for international cooperation and to formulate a clear researchagenda, before the research can be undertaken and applied. The main areas of research foreach regional FRIEND group are indicated in Table 10.1. The FRIEND network has providedthe forum for the exchange of ideas, models, data and research staff. In many cases thenetworks and individual contacts have been used to advance hydrological science and solveenvironmental problems outside the immediate objectives and scope of the FRIEND project.

FRIEND has had considerable success in fostering international collaboration and data sharingin hydrology, particularly through networking amongst participants, establishing regionaldatabases, joint research, capacity building and publications. The aim of FRIEND training andcapacity building is to encourage nations to more effectively manage their water resources,lessening reliance on outside experts, bolstering their capacity and encouraging self sufficiencyin education and training. Indeed, Asian Pacific FRIEND judges the success of its research “by

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FRIEND 2002


the ability to provide improved and up-to-date training of hydrologists and water resourcepractitioners”. Knowledge of water resources and their distribution in space and time, whichis essential to better management, is only available through the acquisition of reliablehydrological data, their processing, analysis and dissemination through an effective database.In Africa and the Hindu Kush Himalayas especially, FRIEND has facilitated a unique exchangeof hydrological data, with many administrative, technical and political hurdles having beenovercome in the process. Examples of some of the key achievements are listed below:

Database development and dissemination

� Maintaining and establishing and disseminating new international hydrological data-bases with over 5000 time series of daily flows, including trans-boundary data on 35international river basins.

Research, development and application

� Improved understanding of hydrological processes to advance hydrologicalmodelling;

� Estimating the impact on the hydrological regime of climate, land use change and de-glaciation;

� Developing techniques for estimating flow regime stability and flow interpolation;

� Regionalisation and uncertainty estimation of flood frequency and extreme rainfall;

� Regionalisation of continuous simulation models, low flow statistics and continentalscale drought analysis.

Capacity building, networking, dissemination

� About 200 participants from over 21 countries have benefited from FRIEND training;

� Numerous students have attained postgraduate qualifications through theirparticipation in FRIEND;

� An electronic drought atlas has been developed and flood design and water resourcesoftware have been disseminated.

As Annex 4 demonstrates, FRIEND disseminates its research through meetings, internationalconferences, seminars, workshops and training programmes, and by FRIEND Reports andpeer-reviewed scientific papers in journals. Annex 5 lists about 450 publications produced byFRIEND participants since 1997. These include specific FRIEND publications (FRIEND–UNESCOIHP-V, Low flows expert meeting (Vukmirovic et al., 1998); FRIEND Workshop: Data Archiveand Scientific Methods for Comparative Hydrology and Water Resources, (Desa, et al., 1999);Asian Pacific FRIEND (UNESCO, 1999); Catalogue of Rivers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific,(RSC, 1997; 2000)), as well as major client reports (e.g. Demuth & Stahl, 2001), a series ofcourse notes for training workshops, and international journals. An indication of the vigour ofcurrent FRIEND research is the widespread interest by FRIEND participants in presenting theirresults at the 2002 FRIEND Conference in Cape Town (van Lanen & Demuth, 2002). Of the131 extended abstracts submitted, 49 came from researchers in developing countries.

10.2 FRIEND initiatives in IHP-VIIn recognition of its success in previous phases of the IHP, as well as the interdisciplinarynature of its research, FRIEND has been designated a “cross cutting” theme in the sixth phaseof the International Hydrological Programme (2002-2007). This provides an opportunity forFRIEND to contribute to the majority of the core programme themes of IHP- VI and to strengthenlinks with other initiatives of the IHP, such as the “Society and Water” theme, the World WaterAssessment Programme (WWAP) and HELP (Hydrology for the Environment, Life and Policy).


Conclusions

For example, with HELP, established FRIEND networks will be able to provide local hydrologicalexpertise, basic hydrological data for basins and valuable information on the characteristics ofthe regional hydrology.

FRIEND also has the potential for motivating beneficial changes to government policies onwater. Probably the greatest policy achievements derived from FRIEND have been to illustratethe benefits of international cooperation in hydrology and to stimulate the exchange ofhydrological data between nations, where previous policy had determined that data were notexchanged or were only exchanged with too many caveats. Further advances can be made incooperation with the Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC) of WMO and the World HydrologicalCycle Observing Systems (WHYCOS). At the global level the FRIEND project operates withina number of institutional frameworks. For example, sustainable access to safe water for drinking,and water for agriculture and the environment, play an important part in achieving a numberof the key UN development targets. FRIEND contributes to meeting these targets. At theregional level the European Water Framework Directive (WFD), which has the objective ofachieving good ecological status in all surface and ground water, is the most significant pieceof European water legislation for over twenty years and provides a key policy framework forfuture FRIEND research in Europe.

The first year of IHP-VI (2002) will provide an opportunity for reviewing the objectives ofFRIEND groups and detailed planning of activities. Previous chapters of this report havepresented a number of new initiatives, including the following:

� Increase stakeholder participation in planning FRIEND and ensure that FRIENDoutputs in developing countries can contribute directly to reducing poverty, and giveincreased priority to transferring research results to operational use;

� Establish FRIEND in new regions, e.g. Mesopotamia, Central Asia and the Andes;

� Improve knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation;

� Develop procedures for joint regional estimation of flood peaks, volumes and flashfloods;

� Integrate research on hydrology, hydrogeology and ecology, including instreamflows;

� Use tracers to improve process understanding and model development;

� Advance and disseminate techniques for integrated management of water resources,low flow magnitude, duration and frequency relationships and regionalisation ofmodel parameters and regime classification;

� Investigate the impact of climate and land-use changes on hydrological regimes andwater resources;

� Establish geochemical balances and modelling sediment transport;

� Produce design guidelines, technical monographs and publish books.

To meet policy objectives, research must be directed towards problem solving. However,advancing knowledge alone is not enough to bring about change; there is a need to convertknowledge to practical tools. Furthermore, enabling individuals to use knowledge requiresplanning, training and capacity building. Universities and other higher education institutesshould ensure that recent FRIEND advances in knowledge and skills are transferred to futurepractitioners. Institutions involved in water resource management will have a primaryresponsibility for identifying research priorities, in encouraging interdisciplinary approachesto water resource management, in using and disseminating research outputs and establishing‘best practice’. These are supported by a number of international initiatives that are givingstakeholder participation and research dissemination a high priority, including the HELP

FRIEND 2002


(Hydrology for Environment, Life and Policy) programme of IHP, the HOMS (HydrologicalOperational Multipurpose System) programme of WMO and the ‘Toolbox’ of the Global WaterPartnership for advancing ‘horizontally’ and ‘vertically’ Integrated Water Resource Management.

IHP-VI will give a higher priority to transferring research results to the user community. Keyelements and impediments for transferring research to the practitioner are the institutionalframework in which this takes place, the scale (global, regional, national, local), the issue, thepropensity to accept new concepts and techniques and finally, the skill and resources of boththe researcher, trainers and practitioners. By training and culture the researcher tends to be aspecialist. Pressures on the researcher are limited data, hypothesis testing, innovation, scientificrigour, peer review, understanding, explanation and funding. In contrast, the practitioner,through experience, is risk aversive and ‘conservative’. Pressures include use of best practice,consistency, participation, transparency, understandable methodology, assessing impacts, riskanalysis and decisions that directly affect people’s lives. A challenge for FRIEND in IHP-VI isto bridge this gap.

10.3 The futureMany parts of the world face a water crisis. Countries in the Middle East and in parts of Africaand Asia currently experience considerable stress, because demand for water is outstrippingthe available resource. As the 21st Century unfolds, this situation will worsen, particularly butnot exclusively in the developing world. Fuelled by population increase, coupled with mountingpollution and exacerbated by climate-altered hydrological regimes, the stresses will intensifyand resources will become more strained over wider areas of the globe. These problemsprovide a daunting challenge to the international hydrological community and FRIEND canplay a significant role in addressing many of these issues.

ReferencesDemuth, S. & Stahl, K. (eds) 2001. ARIDE – Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe. Final

Report.Desa, M.M.N., Ghazali, Z., & Sinnasamy, S. (eds) 1999. Proc. 1st Asian Pacific FRIEND Workshop: Data Archive

and Scientific Methods for Comparative Hydrology and Water Resources. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, TechnicalDocuments in Hydrology, No. 1, UNESCO Jakarta Office.

RSC 1997. Catalogue of Rivers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 2. (Eds: A.W. Jayawardena, K. Takeuchi, K.& B. Machbub), UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

RSC 2000. Catalogue of Rivers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 3, (Eds: P. Hidayat, A.W. Jayawardena, K.Takeuchi, K. & S. Lee), UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

UNESCO 1996. Hydrology and water resources development in a vulnerable environment. Detailed plan of thefifth phase (1996–2001) of IHP, UNESCO, Paris.

UNESCO 1999. Asian Pacific FRIEND. IHP-V Technical Documents in Hydrology, No. 2, UNESCO JakartaOffice.

van Lanen, H.A.J. & Demuth, S. (eds) 2002. FRIEND 2002 - Regional Hydrology: Bridging the Gap betweenResearch and Practice, Proc. International FRIEND Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, March 2002,IAHS Publ. no. 274.

Vukmirovic V., Radic, M.Z. & Bulu, A. (eds) 1998. Low Flows Expert Meeting, FRIEND UNESCO IHP-V 1.1.Project, FRIEND-AMHY Group and Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade.


Annex 1

Annex 1 Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale (AOC)

5.1 IntroductionLe projet FRIEND-AOC a été mis en place en 1992 à Ouagadougou, à l’initiative de l’UNESCOet de l’IRD à Montpellier, France. Lors du premier comité de pilotage de la phase II, lacoordination générale du projet FRIEND-AOC est assurée par l’AGRHYMET à Niamey(correspondant Abou Amani) qui héberge également la banque de données FRIEND-AOC.

Le projet est mieux équilibré et qui s’appuie dorénavant sur:

� une vraie communauté d’hydrologues africains et africanistes;

� des thèmes de recherches recentrés et en nombre réduit;

� une animation reposant sur une implication des institutions et non plus seulementdes individus, et enfin

� des perspectives intéressantes en terme d’exploitation et de valorisation de la banquede données inter-états du projet.

Les objectifs de FRIEND-AOC sont:

� de développer une production scientifique régionale orientée vers l’opérationnel et ledéveloppement, à une échelle régionale;

� de mettre en réseau des équipes de recherche afin d’accroître la coopérationscientifique à l’échelle du continent dans le cycle de l’eau;

� de faciliter la diffusion de l’information et des résultats au continent africain.

Cette idée de réseau d’hydrologie à l’échelle régionale a donc fait son chemin, et les hydrologuesafricains et africanistes qui participent au projet sont extrêmement satisfaits de l’existence dece projet qui leur offre un cadre de travail et de réflexion unique. Les travaux présentés etvalorisés au travers des ateliers scientifiques organisés par FRIEND AOC ou des Conférencesauxquelles ses membres ont participé sont là pour en témoigner (exemple de l’atelier deYaoundé en décembre 99). La Figure 5.1 présente la zone géographique concernée par FRIEND-AOC (pays participants) et la Table 1.1 montre les seize pays concernés par le project.

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FRIEND 2002


Pour atteindre ses objectifs, FRIEND-AOC est dorénavant centré sur quatre thèmes dontl’animation est dévolue désormais à des institutions et nom à des individus comme auparavant.Les quatre thèmes et les institutions de coordination sont:

� la variabilité des ressources en eau: IRD et Ecole Inter-Etats d’Equipement Rural (EIER);

� la modélisation des processus hydrologiques (l’Université Nationale du Bénin);

� la qualité de l’eau (le Centre de Recherche en Hydrologie de Yaoundé)

� l’étiage (le Water Research Institute du Ghana);

Ces thèmes cadrent assez bien avec les principaux problèmes hydrologiques de la région. Eneffet l’hydrologie en Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale est caractérisée par la très forte variabilitédes paramètres du cycle hydrologique, principalement les précipitations et les écoulements.Cette forte variabilité (baisse de la pluviométrie et des écoulements observée sur l’ensemblede la région depuis les années 1970) a eu des impacts importants sur l’écosystème en généralet en particulier sur les disponibilités et la qualité de l’eau pour les différents usages (Olivry etal., 1998; Servat et al., 1998; Amani, 2001). L’amélioration des connaissances scientifiques surles éléments du cycle de l’eau contribuera à mieux prendre en compte les facteurs clés dansla planification et la gestion intégrée des ressources en eau dans la sous-région.

5.2 DonnéesLe réseau FRIEND-AOC dispose d’une base des données regroupant des données pluvio-métriques et hydrologiques. Sur les 25 pays concernés par le projet FRIEND/AOC, seuls 15 yont apporté de nouvelles données. Certains pays restent réticents, d’autres n’ont pas de donnéesnouvelles en raison des difficultés économiques que connaissent les pays de la région. LeCentre Régional AGRHYMET en tant que dépositaire de la banque des données du projetFRIEND-AOC depuis la réunion de Yaoundé en décembre 1999, s’est donné comme objectifs:

� de rendre visible la banque des données FRIEND-AOC à travers Internet (inventaires);

� de mettre à jour de façon régulière dans la mesure du possible la banque des données;

� de mettre à la disposition des membres du réseau les données de la banque pour desétudes contribuant aux objectifs du projet.

Dans le cadre de la deuxième phase de FRIEND-AOC qui est financée par la coopérationfrançaise, une part importante du financement sera consacrée à la mise en ligne sur Internetde la banque des données du projet. Ainsi, un nouveau système de gestion de la base dedonnées sera mis en place en remplacement de BADOIE. Aussi on cherchera à harmonisercette base de données avec celle du projet AOC-HYCOS. Cette étape permettra sans nul doutede disposer de données plus récentes très appréciables dans le cadre de FRIEND-AOC. Demême AGRHYMET étudie avec ses pays membres la possibilité d’une mise à jour des stationsdes pays déclarées FRIEND-AOC directement à partir de ses banques de données climatologiqueet hydrologiques régionales. Le cahier de charge de la nouvelle banque de données FRIEND-AOC qui sera mise online prévoit l’intégration des données cartographiques (par exemple sol,couvert végétal, cours d’eau).

5.3 Recherche5.3.1 Variabilité des ressources en eau

L’ambition de ce thème de recherche est d’apporter une contribution hydrologique, tournéevers les ressources en eaux de surface et souterraines, aux réflexions menées au sein de lacommunauté scientifique internationale en terme de variabilité et d’instabilité du climat. Lecontinent africain, terre de contraste en matière de climat, est très fragilisé du point de vueenvironnemental (forte pression anthropique sur le milieu, déforestation, désertification,


Annex 1

dégradation des sols, ... ). Il se révèle, ainsi, un objet d’étude très approprié pour traiter de lavariabilité, liée à celle du climat. En outre, pour les régions d’Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale,qui subissent depuis près de trente ans une sécheresse persistante, une importante masse dedonnées a pu être collectée depuis de nombreuses années. Cette information disponible constitueun support privilégié pour des travaux de recherche. Les axes de recherche identifiés sont:

� Etude des conséquences spatiales et temporelles d’une variabilité du climat sur lesressources en eau à l’échelle de bassins versants de plusieurs milliers de km2, échellede la planification et de l’action en matière de ressources en eau;

� Etude des influences de cette variabilité sur la relation Pluie-Débit;

� Etude des impacts d’une telle variabilité des ressources sur les activités anthropiques;

� Inversement, étude du rôle des activités humaines sur le climat et ses fluctuations etla variabilité des ressources en eau.

Il ne rentre pas dans les intentions du projet de traiter du déterminisme de cette variabilité etde cette instabilité du climat, domaine relevant d’autres compétences et d’autres projets derecherche.

Les principaux résultats attendus sont uniformisation des outils d’analyse des séries chrono-logiques, cartographie thématique de la variabilité du climat et de l’instabilité du climat,élaboration d’outils de simulation de prospectives de ressources en eau en fonction de différentsscenarii climatiques, vision régionale des effets anthropiques sur la variabilité des ressourcesen eau sur différents bassins couvrant l’ensemble de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. A une échellerégionale (bassins versants ou aires climatiques transfrontaliers), les travaux seront basés surl’analyse de séries chronologiques de données hydroclimatiques et hydrogéologiques et l’analysede la modélisation de la relation pluie-débit.

Plusieurs travaux ont été publiés ces dernières années concernant la péjoration climatique etses impacts en Afrique de l’Ouest (Janicot & Fontaine, 1993; Le Barbé & Lebel, 1997; Opuku-Ankomah & Amisigo, 1998; Servat et al., 1998; Olivry et al., 1998; Amani, 2001). Toute la sous-région et pas uniquement les zones sahéliennes a été touchée par le phénomène de rupturede série pluviométrique entre les années 60 et 70. Une tendance globale à la baisse desprécipitations a été observée après les années de rupture (Le Barbé & Lebel, 1997; Servat etal., 1998; Amani, 2001). L’une des premières conséquences de cette baisse des précipitationsest la diminution des écoulements au sein des principaux cours d’eau de la région. Celle-ci aété beaucoup plus importante. La baisse des précipitations observée avant et après cassurevarie suivant les zones entre 15 à 30%. Pour ce qui est des écoulements cette baisse varie de30 à 60% suivant le cours d’eau (Olivry et al., 1998; Sigha-Nkamdjou et al., 1998; Amani, 2001).Ceci traduit la baisse des ressources en eau de surface dans la sous-région ces dernièresannées ce qui ne va pas sans conséquence sur la gestion de ces ressources. L’autre conséquencenon négligeable est le renforcement de la dégradation du couvert végétal et de la désertificationprincipalement en zones sahéliennes, ce qui rend davantage fragile l’écosystème sahélienquand on sait la place qu’occupe l’agriculture et l’élevage comme activités socio-économiques.

Les Figures 5.2(a) et (b) permettent d’illustrer à certaines stations pluviométriques (Dakar,Ouagadougou) la cassure pluviométrique à travers l’évolution temporelle (annuelle) de l’indicede Lamb. De même sur les régions sahéliennes, la Figure 5.2(c) démontre la baisse desisohyètes entre les deux périodes avant et après la cassure pluviométrique. Cette baisse desisohyètes pluviométriques vers le sud de plus de 100 km par endroits a des conséquences surla répartition agro-écologique entre zones agricoles et non. La même cassure est observée auniveau des séries des débits des principaux cours d’eau de la sous-région. Les Figures 5.3 (a),(b) et (c) présentent l’évolution du module standardisé à Niamey sur le fleuve Niger, à Ndjaménasur le fleuve Chari et à Bakel sur le fleuve Sénégal.

FRIEND 2002


(b) Indice de pluie annuelle à Bam ako

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5.3.2 Modélisation des processus hydrologiques

L’objectif général poursuivi est de mieux appréhender la problématique de transfert d’échelled’une part par rapport à la caractérisation des processus de surface sur la performance dessorties des modèles GCM et d’autre part vis à vis de la modélisation hydrologique à grandeéchelle. Par modélisation des processus hydrologiques on entend: l’élaboration des modèlessusceptibles de prendre en compte aussi bien les processus de surface (interface sol-atmosphère)que les processus hydrologiques proprement dits. Le couplage des processus de surface ethydrologiques nécessite la prise en compte des échelles de transfert.

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Lors du développement de ce thème les axes de recherche suivants seront considérés:

� A travers la caractérisation des états de surface (interface sol-atmosphère), mieuxcomprendre les paramètres physiques qui déterminent les sorties des Modèles deCirculation Générale dans l’atmosphère (MCG): plusieurs schémas sont disponiblesde nos jours et il conviendra de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement hydro-dynamique spécifique à chacun des schémas;

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Annex 1

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FRIEND 2002


� Le passage des échelles MCG aux échelles hydrologiques. Cela nécessite la mise enplace d’un schéma de désagrégation approprié permettant de passer des échellesatmosphériques aux échelles hydrologiques en mettant un accent particulier sur le rôlede changement d’échelles aussi bien d’espace que de temps. Plusieurs approches sontdisponibles telles que les approches statistique, fractale et hydrodynamique;

� Mettre en application cette démarche pour mettre au point un modèle hydrologiquecouplé permettant d’évaluer les effets des changements des états de surface sur laréponse hydrologique du bassin versant;

� Caractérisation des performances des modèles pluie-débit existants pour différentessituations climatiques.

Les principaux résultats attendus sont la mise en synergie des actions des recherches entreprisespar les différentes équipes intéressées par le thème, le renforcement des capacités des équipesimpliquées dans ce thème en ce qui concerne les modèles MCG, la problématique du transfertd’échelle (agrégation, désagrégation) entre les processus de surface et hydrologiques à desfins de modélisation hydrologique. Aussi, avec l’équipe béninoise en collaboration avec leprojet CATCH de l’IRD, la mise en place d’un modèle hydrologique pour le haut bassin duOuémé permettant d’étudier l’impact des changements climatiques et l’étude des performancesdes modèles pluie-débit.

En ce qui concerne le volet spécifique aux activités de recherche plus particulièrement à lamise au point du modèle hydrologique couplé, la démarche suivante sera poursuivie:

� Acquisition des données climatiques, hydrologiques, hydrogéologiques et des étatsde surface au sein du bassin;

� Analyse des données climatiques et des états de surface aux échelles atmosphériqueset hydrologiques permettant la mise au point ou l’adoption d’une méthode dedésagrégation;

� Etude de sensibilité des sorties des GCM par rapport aux états de surface (nécessitéd’une approche d’agrégation);

� Mise au point du modèle hydrologique couplé par la mise au point d’une approchede désagrégation;

� Application du modèle hydrologique couplé afin d’évaluer l’impact des modificationsdes états de surface sur la réponse du bassin versant.

5.3.3 Qualité de l’eau

L’objectif général poursuivi est de mieux appréhender la problématique des régimes de matièrestransportées en suspension et en solution par les cours d’eau vers les océans, les lacs et lesretenues où ils se déposent. Lors du développement de ce thème les axes de recherchesuivants seront considérés:

� Etablissement des bilans géochimiques: matières minérales en suspension et ensolution (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO

3–, Cl–, SO

42–, NO

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43–, SiO

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organiques;

� Détermination de la variabilité spatio-temporelle des éléments minéraux etorganiques;

� Différenciation des origines de ces substances.

Les principaux résultats attendus sont caractérisés par des paramètres physico-chimiques etbiologiques le niveau du comblement et d’eutrophisation des retenues et des lacs, spatialiserles taux d’érosion, appréhender l’impact des activités anthropiques sur les écosystèmes.On définira trois grandes zones géographiques: semi-aride (savane sèche), soudano-sahélienne


(savane arbustive) et équatoriale (forêt). Un inventaire sera dressé des travaux réalisés ou encours sur le sujet dans la région Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale et on mènera, pour chacunedes zones prédéfinies, des études de cas.

5.3.4 Etiages

L’objectif général poursuivi est de mieux appréhender la problématique des basses-eaux dansune optique d’amélioration des projets hydrauliques sur le plan de l’aménagement des régions,de la dilution des effluents, des prélèvements d’eau et de l’hydro-écologie.

Lors du développement de ce thème les axes de recherche suivants seront considérés:

� Analyser la variabilité naturelle des basses-eaux en fonction de la nature des sols, del’hydrogéologie et du climat.

� Examiner les impacts anthropiques sur les étiages.

Les principaux résultats attendus sont développement de procédures de description etd’estimation des étiages à une échelle régionale, interactions entre hydrogéologie, étiages etimpacts des activités anthropiques, evaluation de l’impact des changements de l’occupationdes sols sur les basse-eaux à l’aide de modèles hydrologiques.

5.4 Formations et amélioration des moyensA travers le site Internet de FRIEND-AOC, qui sera considéré comme outil d’animation, unpartage aisé des informations dans le domaine du cycle de l’eau permettra de rapprocher lesmembres du réseau. Ils peuvent aussi disposer de l’inventaire de la banque des données, cequi leur permettra de formuler de requête auprès du gestionnaire de la base des données.D’ores et déjà, le groupe variabilité des ressources en eau a mis en place un forum Internetqui permet de faire circuler des informations pouvant intéressées les membres du groupe:annonces de manifestations diverses (congrès, colloques, stages de formation), adresses desites Internet intéressants, missions, publications produites ou à lire, recherche ou propositionde stagiaires, sujets de stage de DEA et de thèse proposés, soutenances de DEA et de thèses,liste des publications et travaux de recherche des membres du groupe, etc.

Des réunions de coordination annuelles de chacun des thèmes devront permettre de faire lepoint sur les études en cours, de coordonner les travaux de chacune des équipes de recherche,et de préparer les ateliers scientifiques et les congrès. Proches des préoccupations scientifiquesdes participants, ces réunions auront un rôle important car elles permettront d’affiner lesméthodologies, d’améliorer les techniques, de travailler sur la valorisation des résultats et dedéfinir des échéances.

En dehors de l’outil Internet, l’échange des connaissances et d’informations a lieu à travers:

� des ateliers de formation qui servent de support pour l’acquisition de nouveauxoutils et méthodes par les équipes travaillant au sein du projet FRIEND AOC. Il estprévu par cette année une formation sur le SIG et les ressources en eau.

� Les ateliers scientifiques qui permettent de faire évoluer la réflexion scientifique àtravers une large confrontation et une intéressante diffusion des résultats acquis parles équipes de chercheurs. Un atelier scientifique est prévu en courant de novembredans la perspective de FRIEND 2002.

� Les échanges scientifiques régionaux de courte durée qui permettent aux équipes derecherche du projet FRIEND AOC de mieux travailler ensemble sur desproblématiques ponctuelles et partagées.

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FRIEND 2002


5.5 ConclusionsLa réunion à Yaoundé organisée en décembre 99 marque un tournant dans la nouvelledynamique de FRIEND-AOC. En effet un atelier scientifique d’un bon niveau a marqué la finde la première phase du projet. La qualité des papiers présentés ainsi que le nombre departicipants dénote l’intérêt qu’accordent les scientifiques travaillant dans la problématiquehydrologique de la sous-région. Lors du comité de pilotage organisé à l’occasion de cetteréunion, l’évaluation sans complaisance de la première phase du projet a conduit à recentrerles thèmes tout en réduisant le nombre et aussi de responsabiliser dorénavant les institutionsscientifiques et techniques dans le cadre de la coordination des thèmes.

Le premier comité de pilotage de la seconde phase de FRIEND-AOC s’inscrit dans cettenouvelle dynamique et a conduit à la production par chacune des institutions coordinatricesd’un cahier de charge présentant les objectifs, les résultats et les activités à mener. Ceci nousa permis de préparer un document de projet cohérent et complet pour FRIEND-AOC. Ce quipermettra de suivre la progression du projet et de faire des évaluations plus facilement. Unebonne partie de ce rapport provient dudit document de projet. Dans le cadre de la préparationde l’atelier international FRIEND 2002, la sous-région Afrique de l’Ouest présentera unequinzaine de communications orales et autant de posters. Ce qui doit être un record. Cettesituation est bien la preuve de la nouvelle dynamique du projet FRIEND-AOC.

Les projets FRIEND-AOC et HYCOS-AOC (composante Afrique de l’Ouest et centrale deWHYCOS de l’OMM) sont très complémentaires. Une réflexion est en cours afin d’harmoniserles bases des données des deux projets compte tenu de leur grand recoupement. FRIEND-AOC gagnerait à voir sa base de données harmonisée avec celle de HYCOS-AOC. La mise àjour de la base de données FRIEND-AOC se fera automatiquement à partir des donnéescollectées à travers le projet HYCOS-AOC qui lui appuie financièrement les serviceshydrologiques des pays pour la collecte des données contrairement à FRIEND-AOC.

Enfin, dans le cadre de la préparation du Troisième Forum sur l’Eau qui aura lieu au Japon en2003, la coordination FRIEND-AOC a été sollicitée pour faire partie d’un groupe de travail parle WATAC qui est la composante Afrique de l’Ouest du Global Water Partenership (GWP). Lerenforcement de la coopération entre le groupe FRIEND-AOC et les autres projets et initiativesdans la sous-région portant dans des thématiques semblables est à poursuivre.

BibliographieAmani, A., 2001. Variabilité des précipitations et des ressources en région Sahélienne: Un bilan. Editeurs: Gash,

J.H.C., Odada, E.O., Oyebande, L. & Schulze, R.E. Compte rendu de l’Atelier international sur les ressourcesen eau de l’Afrique, Nairobi, 26-30 octobre 1999 (BAHC), 67-72.

Janicot, S. & Fontaine, B. 1993. L’évolution des idées sur la variabilité interannualle récentes des precipitationsen Afrique de l’Ouest. La Meteorologie 8(1), 28-53.

Le Barbé, L. & Lebel, T. 1997. Rainfall climatology of the HAPEX-Sahel region during the yearts 1950-1990. J.Hydrol. 188-189, 43-73.

Olivry J.C, Bricquet, J.P. & Mahé, G. 1998. Variabilité de la puissance des crues des grands cours d’eau d’Afriqueintertropicale et incidence de la baisse des écoulements de base au cours des deux dernières décennies.Proceeding de la Conférence internationale d’Abidjan sur la variabilité des ressources en eau en Afrique auXXe siècle, IAHS Publication no. 252, 189-197.

Opoku-Ankomah, Y. & Amisigo, B.A. 1998. Rainfall and runoff variability in the southwestern river system ofGhana. Proceeding de la Conférence internationale d’Abidjan sur la variabilité des ressources en eau enAfrique au XXe siècle, IAHS Publication no. 252, 307-314.

Servat, E., Patureel, J-E., Kouamé, B., Travaglio, M., Ouédraogo, M., Boyer, J-F., Lubès-Neil, H., Fritsh, J-M.,Masson, J-M. & Marieu, B. 1998. Identification, caractérisation et conséquences d’une variabilitéhydrologique en Afrique de l’Ouest et Centrale. Proceeding de la Conférence internationale d’Abidjan surla variabilité des ressources en eau en Afrique au XXe siècle, IAHS Publication no. 252, 323-337.

Sigha-Nkamdjou, L, Sighomnou, D., Lienou, G., Ayissi, G., Bedimo, J.P. & Naah, E. 1998. Variabilité des régimeshydrologiques des cours d’eau de la bande méridionale du plateau sud-camerounais. Proceeding de laConférence internationale d’Abidjan sur la variabilité des ressources en eau en Afrique au XXe siècle, IAHSPublication no.252, 215-222.


Annex 2 FRIEND coordinators

Northern European FRIENDDr A Gustard

Centre for Ecology & Hydrology Wallingford, Oxon,

OX10 8BB United Kingdom

Tel/Fax: +44 1491 838800 / +44 1491 692424 E-mail: [email protected]

WWW: http://www.nwl.ac.uk/ih/friend

Hindu Kush-Himalayan FRIEND Prof S R Chalise

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)

P O Box 3226 Kathmandu

Nepal

Tel/Fax: +977 1 525 313 / +977 1 524 509

Email: [email protected]

Alpine and Mediterranean FRIEND Dr E Servat

Directeur de Recherches Centre IRD, Hydrologie

B.P. 5045 34032 Montpellier Cedex

France

Tel/Fax: +33 4 67 149 020 / +33 4 67 149 010

Email: [email protected] WWW: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/amhy

West & Central Africa FRIENDDr A Amani

AGRHYMET Hydrologue, PMI/GRN

BP 11011 Niamey Niger

Tel/Fax: +227 73 31 16/ +227 73 24 35 Email: [email protected]

Southern Africa FRIENDDr S Mkhandi

University of Dar es Salaam PO Box 35131 Dar es Salaam

Tanzania

Tel/Fax: +255 22 2410029 Email: [email protected]

Asian Pacific FRIEND Prof K Takeuchi

Yamanashi University Takeda 4

Kofu 400-8511 Japan

Tel/Fax: +81 552 20 8603/ +81 552 53 4915


Nile FRIENDProf M S M Farid

Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI) NWRC Building

El Kanater El Khairiya Post Code 13621

Egypt

Tel/Fax: +202 218 8787 / +202 218 4344


Mesoamerican and Caribbean FRIEND/AMIGO

Dr E O Planos-Gutierrez Instituto de Meteorologia

Loma de Casablanca Municipio Regla

CP 11700, La Habana Cuba

Tel/Fax: +537 570711 / +537 338010 Email: [email protected]

Annex 2

http://www.nwl.ac.uk/ih/friend

http://www.mpl.ird.fr/amhy

FRIEND 2002


Annex 3 FRIEND research participants#��&��$

FRIEND Intergroup Coordination Committee (FIGCC)

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Annex 5

Annex 5 FRIEND publications 1997-2002$��-��1�$��$��. $��&�.�$�&�.��$�� $��0��$�$��U�� O��,+��!�&��$��!� ��15�-��&�$��-�$��JJ��0��,+�� $�$ �� $��$�� !"#$%�� !�&��.��&.-�/��&��&��0�1�,��+��!��V)��8��-�"��;��.��-��-�+�"��3��WO�

Northern European FRIENDAdler, M-J., Busuioc, A., Ghioca, M. & Stefan, S. 1999. Atmospheric processes leading to drought periods in

Romania. In: Hydrological Extremes: Understanding, Predicting, Mitigating (Eds: Gottschalk, L., Olivry, J-C.,Reed, D. & Rosbjerg, D.), IAHS Publ. no. 255, 29-35.

Andersson, L. & Lepistö, A. 1998. Links between runoff generation, climate and nitrate-N leaching from forestedcatchments. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 105, 227-237.

Aronica, G., Hankin, B.G. & Beven, K.J. 1998. Uncertainty and equifinality in calibrating distributed roughnesscoefficients in a flood propagation model with limited data. Advances in Water Resources 22(4), 349-365.

Aschwanden, H. & Kan, C. 1998. Status of low flow analysis in Switzerland. In: FRIEND - UNESCO IHP-V, Lowflows expert meeting, 10-12 June 1998, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, 121-132.

Aschwanden, H. & Kan, C. 1998. Auf dem Weg zu einer Niedrigwasserstatistik der Schweiz. In: BernerHydrograph, Geographisches Institut der Universität Bern, 12, 10-12.

Aschwanden, H. & Kan, C. 1999. Grundlagen zur Bestimmung der Abflussmenge Q347. In: Hydrologischer Atlasder Schweiz, Tafel 5.8, 3. Lieferung, Landeshydrologie und -geologie (Hrsgb.), Bern.

Aschwanden, H. & Kan, C. 1999. Die Abflussmenge Q347: Eine Standortbestimmung – Le débit d’étiage Q347 :Etat de la question. Hydrologische Mitteilungen Nr. 27, Landeshydrologie und-geologie, Bern, 132.

Aschwanden, H. 2000. Die Abflussmenge Q347. In: Angemessene Restwassermengen – wie können sie bestimmtwerden? Wegleitung Vollzug Umwelt, Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (BUWAL), 77-96, Bern.

Aschwanden, H. 2000. Experiences in Regionalising Q95 in Switzerland. In: Séminaire international annuel duGroupe AMHY de FRIEND (Istanbul, Octobre 1998), Rapport annuel No 6 (1997-98), Documents techniquesen hydrologie no. 29, UNESCO, Paris.

Beven, K.J. & Blazkova, S. 1999. Estimating changes in flood frequency under climate change by continuoussimulation (with uncertainty). In: RIBAMOD, River Basin Modelling, Management and Flood Mitigation(Eds: Balbanis, P., Bronstert, A., Casale, R. & Samuels, P.), EU Publication EUR 18287, 269-285.

Beven, K. J., Romanowicz, R. & Hankin, B., 2000. Mapping the probability of flood inundation (even in realtime). In: BHS Occasional Publication No. 12 (Eds: Lees, M.J. & Walsh, P.D.), 56-63, Wallingford, UK.

Blazkova, S. &. Beven, K.J. 1997. Flood frequency prediction for data limited catchments in the Czech Republicusing a stochastic rainfall model and TOPMODEL, J. Hydrol. 195, 256-279.

Blazkova, S. & Beven, K.J. 2000. Prediction limits of flood frequency curves on catchments within the ElbeRiver Basin. In: Proc. European Conference on Flood Research, Potsdam, 2000.

Blazkova, S., Beven, K. J. & Kulasova, A. 2002. On constraining TOPMODEL hydrograph simulations usingpartial saturated area information. Hydrological Processes 16, (2), 441-458.

Buchtele, J., Herrmann, A., Maraga, F. & Bajracharya, O.R. 1998. Simulation of effects of land-use changes onrunoff and evapotranspiration. In: Hydrology, Water Resources and Ecology in Headwaters, Proc.HeadWater’98 Conference, Meran, Italy, IAHS Publ. no. 248, 99-106.

Buchtele, J. & Kulasová, A., Tesar, M. & Šír, M. 2000. Long-term experimental monitoring and theoreticalmodelling of the surface runoff formation in the Šumava and Jizera Mountains (Czech Republic). In:Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (Eds: Verhoest, N.E.C., van Herpe, Y.J.P.& De Troch, F.P.), European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIENDProject 5 Conference, Ghent.

Cameron, D., Beven, K. J., Tawn, J., Blazkova, S. & Naden, P.S. 1999. Flood frequency estimation by continuoussimulation for a gauged upland catchment (with uncertainty). J. Hydrol. 219, 169-187.

Cameron, D., Beven, K.J. & Tawn, J. 2000. An evaluation of three stochastic rainfall models, J. Hydrol. 228,130-149.

Cameron, D., Beven, K J., Tawn, J. & Naden, P. 2000. Flood frequency estimation by continuous simulation(with likelihood based uncertainty estimation). Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 4 (1), 23-34.

Cameron, D., Beven, K. & Naden, P. 2000. Flood frequency estimation under climate change (with uncertainty).Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 4(3), 393-405.

Cameron, D., Beven, K J. & Tawn, J. 2001. Modelling extreme rainfalls using a modified random pulse Bartlett-Lewis stochastic rainfall model (with uncertainty). Advances in Water Resources 24, 203-211.

Clausen, B. & Biggs, B.J.F. 1998. Streamflow variability indices for riverine environmental studies. BritishHydrological Society International Symposium, Exeter, UK.

Clausen, B. 1999. Kathmandu - Low flow training course and workshop. Current (New Zealand HydrologicalSociety Newsletter) 13, 3-6.

FRIEND 2002


Clausen, B. & Biggs, B.J.F. 2000. Flow variables for ecological studies in temperate streams: groupings based oncovariance. J. Hydrol. 237, 184-197.

Clausen, B., Iversen. H.L. & Ovesen, N.B. 2000. Ecological flow variables for Danish streams. NordicHydrological Conference, Uppsala, Sweden, NHP Report No. 46, 3-10.

Colombo, A.G. & Vetere Arellano, A.L. (eds) 2001. Lessons Learnt from Storm Disasters, EUR Report 19941 EN,2001. European Commission, DG Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy.

Demuth, S. 1998. Hydrologische Extreme – Gedanken zum raum-zeitlichen Verhalten vonNiedrigwasserperioden. “Zukunft der Hydrologie in Deutschland”, Tagung vom 19.-21. Januar in Koblenz.Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde Koblenz, Mitteilung Heft 16, 141-145.

Demuth, S. 1998. FRIEND ’97 – Regionale Hydrologie. 3rd Int. Konferenz, Postojna, Slovenia, DeutscheGewässerkundliche Mitteilungen (DGM) 42(4), 164-165.

Demuth, S. 1999. ARIDE – Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe. Climate ScienceConference, Vienna City Hall, 19-23 October 1998, Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Transport 2000,CD-ROM.

Demuth, S. 2000. International Commission on Surface Water (ICSW). IAHS Newsletter 69, May 2000, 5-6.Demuth, S. 2000. FRIEND Workshop über Niedrigwasser. Zeitschrift für Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung,

HW 44, H.6, 325-326.Demuth, S. 2001. Dürre Zeiten in Europa. Freiburger Uni-Magazin. S. 5-6.Demuth, S., Lehner, B. & Stahl, K. 2000. Assessment of the vulnerability of a river system to drought. In:

Drought and Drought Mitigation in Europe (Eds: Vogt, J.V. & Somma, F.), Natural and TechnologicalHazards Series, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 209-219.

Demuth, S. & Stahl, K. (eds) 1999. ARIDE – Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe. FirstAnnual Report.

Demuth, S. & Stahl, K. 1999. ARIDE – an example of large-scale data requirements across Europe (extendedabstract). In: Int. Workshop on Desertification Convention: Data and Information Requirements forInterdisciplinary Research, Alghero, Italy, 63-64.

Demuth, S. & Stahl, K. (eds) 2000. ARIDE – Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe. SecondAnnual Report.

Demuth, S. & Stahl, K. (eds) 2001. ARIDE – Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe. FinalReport. 160.

Demuth, S. & Stahl, K. (in press) Studying Droughts at a European Scale. In: International Seminar of theFRIEND AMHY Group (to be published in UNESCO series), 2001.

Demuth, S., Bradford, R., Dijksma, R., van Lanen, H.A.J. & Peters, E. 2000. A field campaign in the Pangcatchment, 12-17 September 1999. Circulation (Newsletter of the British Hydrological Society) 64, February2000.

Dole�al, F., Kulhavý, Z., Kvitek, T., Peterková, J., Soukup, M. & Tippl, M. 2000. Influence of drained lands onwater quantity and quality in experimental agricultural catchments in foothill regions of Bohemia. In:Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (Eds: Verhoest, N.E.C., van Herpe, Y.J.P.& De Troch, F.P.), European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIENDProject 5 Conference, Ghent, Belgium.

Engeland, K., Hisdal, H. & Frigessi, A. (submitted) Extreme value modelling of hydrological floods anddroughts: a case study. Extremes, 2001.

Fendeková, M. 1999. Space analysis of groundwater runoff changes from selected Slovak catchments. SlovakGeological Magazine 5, (1-2), 37-43.

Fendeková, M. 2000. Changes in spring yield regime of selected hydrogeological units of Slovakia andprognosis of their further development. In: Proc. Conference Hydrological days 2000. (Eds: J. Bucek & M.Tesar), CHMI Prague, 219-226.

Gottschalk, L. & Krasovskaia, I. 1998. Grid estimation of runoff data. Report of the WCP-Water Project B.3:Development of grid-related estimates of hydrologic variables. WMO/TD - No 870. World MeteorologicalOrganization, Geneva.

Gottschalk, L. & Krasovskaia, I. 2001. River flow regimes in a changing climate. EGS XXVI General Assembly,Nice, Geophysical Research Abstracts Vol. 3, CD-ROM.

Grabs, W. 1999. Integrative management of data and information at the Global Runoff Data Centre. In:Extended Abstracts, Int. Conf. on Quality, Management and Availability of Data for Hydrology and WaterResources Management, Koblenz, Germany.

Güntner, A., Uhlenbrook, S., Seibert, J. & Leibundgut, Ch. 1999. Multi-criterial validation of TOPMODEL in amountainous catchment. Hydrol. Processes 13, 1603-1620.

Gustard, A. & Cole, G.A. 1997. Advances in regional hydrology through East European Cooperation. FinalReport to Commission of European Communities, CEH Wallingford, ISBN 0 948540 83 4.

Gustard, A., Croker, K.M. & Rees, H.G. 1998. Developing regional design techniques for estimating hydropowerpotential. International symposium on hydrology of ungauged streams in hilly regions for small hydro-power development.

Gustard, A., Acreman, M.C. & Rees, H.G. 1998. Key issues for the successful implementation of spatial policies inthe field of water resources. Seminar on Spatial Planning and Water Management: Droughts and Floods, 8.

Gustard, A. & Rees, H.G. 1998. Methods of Hydropower Assessment. Presentation to the Int. Energy Agency


Workshop on Hydropower Technologies and Programmes, Nice, France.Gustard, A. & Demuth, S. 2001. FRIEND – Ein globales Forschungsnetzwerk. (FRIEND - a global research

network), Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung Heft 2, 45. Jahrgang, S. 73-77.Herrmann, A. (ed.) 1999. Experimental hydrology with reference to hydrological processes in small research

basins. In: Proc. Internat. Workshop, St. Petersburg-Valdai, Russia, 2-6 June, 1997.Herrmann, A., Bahls, S., Stichler, W., Gallart, F. & Latron, J. 1999. Isotope related hydrological study of mean

transit times and related hydrogeological conditions in Pyrenean experimental basins (Vallcebre, Catalonia).In: Integrated Methods in Catchment Hydrology-Tracer, Remote Sensing and New Hydrometric Techniques(Eds: Leibundgut, Ch., McDonnell, J. & Schulz, G.), Proc. IUGG 99 Symp. HS4, Birmingham, IAHS Publ. no.258, 101-109.

Herrmann, A., Schöniger, M. & Schumann, S. 2001. Integrated approach of investigation and modelling runoffformation considering information from environmental and artificial tracers. Freiburger Schriften zurHydrologie 13, 111-120.

Heylen, J. 1999. The Hydrological Research Division (HRD) and its HRD Flood Information Centre for theMinistry of Flanders. In: Extended Abstracts, Int. Conf. on Quality, Management and Availability of Data forHydrology and Water Resources Management, Koblenz, Germany.

Hisdal, H. 2000. Tests for changes in flow regimes. In: Detecting trend and other changes in hydrological data(Eds: Kundzewicz, Z.W. & Robson, A.), World Climate Programme, Data and Monitoring, WMO, 93-99.

Hisdal, H. & Tallaksen, L. (eds) 2000. Drought Event Definition, ARIDE Technical Report No. 6, University ofOslo, Norway, 41.

Hisdal, H., Stahl, K., Tallaksen, L.M. & Demuth, S. 2001. Have streamflow droughts in Europe become moresevere or frequent? Int. J. Climatol. 21, 317-333.

Hisdal, H. & Tallaksen, L. 2001. Regional Drought Characteristics. In: ARIDE - Assessment of the Regional Impactof Droughts in Europe. Final report (Eds: Demuth, S. & Stahl, K.), EU contract ENV4-CT-97-0553, Institute ofHydrology, Freiburg, Germany, 56-68.

Hladný, J., Dole�al, F., Ricicová, P., Bla�ková, Š. & Beven, K. 1999. Hydrological aspects and implications of theJuly 1997 flood in the Odra Basin in the Czech Republic. In: Proc. European Expert Meeting on the OderFlood 1997. (Eds: Bronstert, A., Ghazi, A., Hladný, J., Kundzewicz, Z., Menzel, L.), RIBAMOD, 18 May 1998Potsdam, Germany, Environment and Climate Programme 1994-1998, Hydrological and hydrogeologicalrisks, European Communities, Luxembourg, 1999, 89-98.

Hoeg, S., Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, S. 2000. Hydrograph separation in a mountainous catchment-combininghydrochemical and isotopic tracers. Hydrol. Processes 14, 1199-1216.

Holko, L., Herrmann, A., Schöniger, M. & Schumann, S. 2000. Groundwater runoff in small mountainous basin(Lange Bramke, Germany) – Testing a separation method based on groundwater table and discharge data.In: Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (Eds: Verhoest, N.E.C., van Herpe,Y.J.P. & De Troch, F.P.), European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIENDProject 5 Conference, Ghent, September 2000.

Hunt, B., Weir, J. & Clausen, B. 2001. A stream depletion field experiment. Ground Water 39(2), 283-289.Kašpárek, L. 1998. Regional study on impact of climate change on hydrological conditions in the Czech

Republic, Prague, VÚV TGM, ISBN 80-85900-22-X.Kašpárek, L. & Novický, O. 1998. Suitability to combine stochastic and deterministic approaches in estimation

extreme hydrological events, NATO Advanced Research Workshop, Stochastic models of hydrologicalprocesses and their applications to problems of environmental preservation, Moscow, Water ProblemsInstitute, 36-31.

Kašpárek, L. & Novický, O. 1999. The present situation in methods of hydrologic drought analysis, Workshop 99Extreme hydrological events in catchments, Prague, VTS, 111-121.

Kašpárek, L. 2000. Vliv kolísání klimatu na postup výpoctu návrhových hydrologických dat, The influence ofclimate variability on hydrological design data computation. In: Hydrological Days 2000 conference,Prague, HMÚ, ISBN 80-85813-76-9, 257-263.

Kašpárek, L. & Novický, O. 2000. The analysis of hydrological drought in Metuje and Orlice basins, Workshop2000 Extreme hydrological events in catchments, Prague, VTS, 81-94.

Kasprzyk, A. & Pokojski, W. 1998. Changes of water balance and hydrological drought occurrence in Poland.Acta Universatis Carolinea, ser. Geographica, Prague, Czech Republic.

Koivusalo, H. , Karvonen, T. & Lepistö, A. 2000. A quasi-three-dimensional model for predicting rainfall-runoffprocesses in a forested catchment in Southern Finland. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 4 (1), 65-78.

Kostka, Z., Holko, L. & Kulasová, A. 2000. Snowmelt runoff in two mountain catchments. In: Monitoring andModelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (ed. Verhoest, N.E.C. & van Herpe, Y.J.P. & De Troch,F.P.), European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIEND Project 5Conference, Ghent, Belgium.

Krasovskaia, I., Gottschalk, L. & Kundzewicz, Z.W. 1999. Dimensionality of Scandinavian river flow regimes.Hydrol. Sci. J. 45 (5), 705-723.

Krasovskaia, I., Gottschalk, L., Rodriguez, A. & Laporte, S. 1999. Dependency of the frequency and magnitudeof extreme floods in Costa Rica on the Southern Oscillation Index. In: IAHS Publ. no. 255, 81-89.

Kupczyk, E., Kasprzyk, A., Sztechman, J. & Strzalkowski, K. 1998. Application of spline functions method tostreamflow recession curve analysis. In: Proc. Low Flow Expert Meeting of FRIEND- AMHY Group in

FRIEND 2002


Belgrade, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 79–88.Kupczyk, E., Kasprzyk, A., & Radczuk, L. 1998. Seasonal and spatial variability of drought occurrence in

Poland. Proc. Low Flow Expert Meeting of FRIEND- AMHY group in Belgrade, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 109-119.Kupczyk, E., Kasprzyk, A. & Pokojski, W. 1998. Hydrological drought characteristics and regionalization

attempts. In: Tech. Note for the Low Flow Group Meeting No. 9 (October 1998), Rosendal, Norway.Kupczyk, E., Kasprzyk, A., Suligowski, R., Jakubowski, W., Radczuk, L., Kasparek, L., Nowicki, O., & Kurkowa,

H. 2000. Regional studies of streamflow droughts frequency. In: Tech. Note for the Low Flow Group Meetingno. 10, May 2000, Warsaw, Poland.

Laaha, G. 2000. On methods for evaluating the accuracy of low flow data derived by the rating curve. NorthernEuropean FRIEND. Technical note for the low flow group meeting no. 10, Warsaw, Poland.

van Lanen, H.A.J. & Peters, E. 2000. Definition, effects and assessment of groundwater droughts. In: Droughtand Drought Mitigation in Europe (Eds: Vogt, J.V. & Somma, F.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, theNetherlands, 49-61.

Leblois, E. & Sauquet, E. 1999. Grid elevation models in hydrology – Part 1: Principles and literature review;Part 2: HydroDEM User’s manual. Cemagref, Technical notes 1, Lyon, France.

Sauquet, E. & Leblois, E. 2001. Discharge analysis and runoff mapping applied to the evaluation of modelperformance, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, B: Hydrology, Oceans and Atmosphere, 26 (5-6), 473-478.

Leblois, E., Gottschalk, L. & Sauquet, E. 2001. Index flood as the spatial average of local flood production –application to flood mapping. EGS XXVI General Assembly Nice, Geophysical Research Abstracts 3, CD-ROM.

Leblois, E. & Sauquet, E. 2001. Hydrological mapping. EGS XXVI General Assembly Nice, Geophysical ResearchAbstracts, Vol. 3, CD-ROM

Müller, G. & Peschke, G. 2000. Hydrological Process Studies on the Basis of Adequate Measuring Networks.Österreichische Wasser- und Abfallwirtschaft, 52, 5/6, 94-104.

Murphy, S. 1999. Investigating climate and water resources variability and predictability in Europe – activityreport. Presentation at the FRIEND NW Group Meeting at Cemagref, Lyon, France.

Peschke, G. & Seidler, C. 1999. Hydrometric approaches to gain a better understanding of saturation excessoverland flow. In: Integrated Methods in Catchment Hydrology-Tracer, Remote Sensing and NewHydrometric Techniques (Ed: Leibundgut, Ch., McDonnell, J. & Schulz, G.), Proc. IUGG 99 Symp. HS4,Birmingham, IAHS Publ. no. 258, 13-21.

Peschke, G. & Seidler, C. 2000. Changing nitrate profiles under extreme hydrometeorological conditions. In:Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (Eds: N.E.C. Verhoest, Y.J.P. van Herpe &F.P. De Troch), European Network of Experimental and Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIEND Project5 Conference, Ghent, Belgium.

Pokojski, W. 2000. Screening the lowland catchment behaviour in extreme drought conditions. In: Tech. Notefor the Low Flow Group Meeting no. 10, Warsaw, Poland.

Prudhomme, C. 1999. Simple approaches to map hydrological characteristics. Presentation at the FRIEND NWGroup Meeting at Cemagref, Lyon, 13-14 December.

Querner, E.P. 2000. The effects of human interventions in the water regime. Ground Water, 38(2), 167-171.Querner, E.P., van Acker, J.B.M. & Moens, R.P. 2000. Analysis of catchment response for regional water systems

in the Netherlands. In: River Flood Defence (Ed: Toensmann, F. & Koch, M.), Proc. Int. Symp., Kassel,Germany, 51-58.

Querner, E.P. & van Lanen, H.A.J. 2001. Impact assessment of drought mitigation measures in two adjacentDutch basins using simulation modelling. J. Hydrol. 252, 51-64.

Radic, M.Z. (ed.) 1998. Groundwater in Yugoslavia – the invisible resource (in Serbian), YU AHS and NC IHP,Novi Sad, 1-93.

Radic, M.Z. (ed.) 1999. Everyone lives downstream – do we go upstream? (in Serbian), YU AHS and NC IHP,Belgrade, 1-169.

Radic, M.Z. (ed.) 2000. Water at the end of the XX Century – state and prospective of water resources inYugoslavia, (in Serbian), YU AHS and NC IHP, Kotor, 1-150.

Radic, M.Z. (ed.) 2001. Water and health – water for life! (in Serbian), YU AHS and NC IHP, Belgrade, 1-205.Radic M.Z. et al. 2001. Water for a sane society –World Water Day in Yugoslavia 1994-2001, (CD version, in

Serbian), YU AHS and NC IHP, Belgrade.Rees, H.G. & Cole, G.A. 1998. European Water Resources. In: Europe’s Environment: The Second Assessment,

Chapter 9 Inland Waters, European Environment Agency, Elsevier Science Ltd, ISBN 0-08-043204-2.Rees, H.G. 1999. The management of the FRIEND European Water Archive. In: Extended Abstracts, Int. Conf. on

Quality, Management and Availability of Data for Hydrology and Water Resources Management, Koblenz,Germany.

Rees, H.G. 1999. Issues of hydrological database management. Keynote paper in: Extended Abstracts, Int. Conf.on Quality, Management and Availability of Data for Hydrology and Water Resources Management,Koblenz, Germany.

Rees, H.G. & Cole, G.A. 1999. The Establishment of a Regional Data Centre of the FRIEND European WaterArchive for the European Territory of the former Soviet Union. Final report to INTAS (94-4451),Wallingford, UK.

Rees, H.G., Gustard, A. & Farquharson, F.A.K. 1999. International Institutional Cooperation in Water ResourcesAssessment through FRIEND. Final report to DFID (Department for International Development) Knowledge


Generation & Research Programme, Wallingford, UK.Rees, H.G., Croker, K.M., Prudhomme, C., Gustard, A. & Zaidman, M.D. 1999. European Atlas of Small-scale

Hydropower Resources – Final Report to the European Small Hydropower Association.Rees, H.G., Croker, K.M. Prudhomme, C. & Gustard, A. 2000. The European Atlas of small-scale hydropower

resources. In: Proc. Conf. Small Hydro 2000, Lisbon.Rees, H.G. & Prudhomme, C. 2000. Applicability of Celtic data for flow regime estimation in Ireland. In: Water

in the Celtic world: managing resources for the 21st century. Proc. 2nd Inter-Celtic Colloquium on Hydrologyand Management of Water Resources, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, 29-38.

Rees, H.G. & Demuth, S. 2000. The application of modern information system technology in the EuropeanFRIEND project. Moderne Hydrologische Informationssysteme, Wasser und Boden 52(13), 9-13.

Rees, H.G., Croker, K.M. Zaidman, M.D. & Cole, G.A. 2001. REFRESHA – Regional Flow Regimes Estimation forSmall-scale Hydropower Assessment. Final Report to UK Department for International Development.

Roald, L.A. 1999. Quality control of discharge data. In: Extended Abstracts, Int. Conf. on Quality, Managementand Availability of Data for Hydrology and Water Resources Management, Koblenz, Germany.

Romanowicz, R. & Beven, K.J. 1998. Dynamic real-time prediction of flood inundation probabilities. Hydrol.Sci. J. 43(2), 181-196.

Rutenberg, E., Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, Ch. 1999. Spatial delineation of zones with the same dominatingrunoff generation processes. In: Integrated Methods in Catchment Hydrology-Tracer, Remote Sensing andNew Hydrometric Techniques (Ed: Leibundgut, Ch., McDonnell, J. & Schulz, G.), Proc. IUGG 99 Symp. HS4,Birmingham, IAHS Publ. no. 258, 281-284.

Sambale, Ch., Peschke, G., Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, S. 2000. Simulation of vertical flow and bromidetransport under temporarily very dry soil conditions. In: Tracers and Modelling in Hydrogeology (ed.Dassarguee, A.), Proc. of the TraM’2000 Conf., Liège, IAHS Publ. no. 262, 465-471.

Sauquet, E. 2000. Une cartographie des écoulement annuels et mensuels d’un grand basin versant structuréepar la topologie du réeau hydrographique. Cemagref, Lyon.

Sauquet, E., Krasovskaia, I. & Leblois, E. 2000. Mapping mean monthly runoff pattern using EOF analysis.Hydrology & Earth System Sciences 4(1), 79-94.

Sauquet, E., Gottschalk, L., & Leblois, E. 2000. Mapping average annual runoff: A hierarchical approachapplying a stochastic interpolation scheme. Hydrol. Sci. J. 45(6), 799-815.

Seuna, P. 1999. Hydrological effects of forestry treatments in Finland. Invited lecture at the Int. Symp. on FloodControl, Beijing, China.

Shorthouse, C.A. 1999. Effects of climatic variability on spatial characteristics of European river flows. PhDthesis, Department of Geography, University of Southampton, UK.

Skaugen, T. 1997. Classification of rainfall into small and large-scale events by statistical pattern recognition. J.Hydrol. 200, 40-57.

Skaugen, T. 1999. Estimating the mean areal snow water equivalent by integration in time and space. Hydrol.Processes 13, 2051-2066.

Skaugen, T. 2001. Simulation of discharge fields. In: The Extremes of the Extremes, Proc. Int. Symp., Reykjavik,Iceland, IAHS Publ. no. 271.

Solin, L. 1999. Lowflow – factors controlling its spatial variability and identification of hydrogeographicalregional types in Slovakia. Presentation at the FRIEND NW Group Meeting at Cemagref, Lyon, France.

Stahl, K. & Demuth, S. 1999. Linking streamflow drought to the occurrence of atmospheric circulation pattern.Hydrol. Sci. J. 44(3), 467-482.

Stahl, K. & Demuth, S. 1999. Investigating the influence of atmospheric circulation pattern on streamflowdrought in southern Germany. XXII IUGG General Assembly, Birmingham, UK, Symposium 1: HydrologicalExtremes: Understanding, Predicting, Mitigating. IAHS Publ. no. 255, 19-27.

Stehlík, J. 2000. Searching for chaos in rainfall and temperature records – a nonlinear analysis of time seriesfrom an experimental basin. In: Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantity and Quality (Eds:Verhoest, N.E.C., van Herpe Y.J.P. & De Troch, F.P.), European Network of Experimental andRepresentative Basins and IHP NE FRIEND Project 5 Conference, Ghent, Belgium.

Tallaksen, L.M. & Hisdal, H. (eds) 1998. Nordic Seminar on Low Flow, 19-21 November 1997, NorwegianHydrological Council Report no. 4.

Tallaksen, L.M. & Hisdal, H. 1998. Recommendations from a Nordic seminar on low flow. Vannet i Norden 31,5-6.

Tallaksen, L.M. & Hisdal, H. 1999. Methods for Regional Classification of Streamflow Drought Series: The EOFMethod & L-moments. ARIDE Technical Report No. 2, University of Oslo, Norway.

Tallaksen, L.M. 2000. Streamflow drought frequency analysis, In: Drought and Drought Mitigation in Europe(Eds: Vogt, J.V. & Somma, F.), Kluwer, the Netherlands, 103-117.

Tate, E.L. & Gustard, A. 2000. Drought definition: a hydrological perspective. In: Drought and DroughtMitigation in Europe (Eds: Vogt, J.V. & Somma, F.), Kluwer, the Netherlands, 23-48.

Tesar, M., �ír, M., Pra�ák, J., Syrovátka, O. & Eliáš, V. 2000. Soil moisture conditions in the basin as a factorcontrolling surface runoff formation: Process observation, assessment and modelling in the SumavaMountains (Southern Bohemia, Czech Republic). In: Monitoring and Modelling Catchment Water Quantityand Quality (Eds: Verhoest, N.E.C., van Herpe Y.J.P. & De Troch, F.P.), European Network of Experimentaland Representative Basins and IHP NE FRIEND Project 5 Conference, Ghent, Belgium.

FRIEND 2002


Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, S. 1999. Integration of tracer information into the development of a rainfall-runoff model. In: Integrated Methods in Catchment Hydrology-Tracer, Remote Sensing and New HydrometricTechniques (Eds: Leibundgut, Ch., McDonnell, J. & Schulz, G.), Proc. IUGG 99, Symp. HS4, Birmingham,July 1999, IAHS Publ. no. 258, 93-100.

Uhlenbrook, S., Leibundgut, S. & Maloszewski, P. 2000. Natural tracers for investigating residence times, runoffcomponents and validation of a rainfall-runoff model. In: Tracers and Modelling in Hydrogeology (Ed:Dassarguee, A.), Proc. TraM’2000 Conf., Liège, IAHS Publ. no. 262, 465-471.

Uhlenbrook, S. & Leibundgut, Ch. 2002. Process-oriented catchment modelling and multiple-responsevalidation. Hydrological Processes 16 (2), 423-440.

Vetere Arellano, A.L. Scientific Report on TMR (Marie Curie Research Training Grant), Understanding flood riskand permeable catchments. European Commission, Directorate of Science, Research & Development,Brussels, Belgium.

Vetere Arellano, A.L. & Clark, C. 2001. A 360-year historic flood record for the Avon at Salisbury, England,Presented at the International Workshop on River Runoff: Minima and Maxima, St Petersburg, Russia.

Vetere Arellano A.L., Samuels, P. & Webster, P. 2000. Runoff processes in permeable catchments. In: Proc.European Conference on Flood Research, Potsdam.

Vetere Arellano, A.L., Samuels, P. G. & Webster, P. 2000. Flood prediction in permeable catchments. In: TheExtremes of the Extremes, Proc. Int. Symp., Reykjavik, Iceland, IAHS Publ. no. 271.

Vogt, J.V., Gustard, A., Rees, H.G. & Viau, A.A. 2000. General conclusions and proposal for a EuropeanNetwork on Drought Research and mitigation (ENDRM). In: Drought and Drought Mitigation in Europe(Eds: J Vogt, J.V. & Somma, F.), Kluwer, the Netherlands, 23-48.

Vukmirovic, V., Radic, M.Z. & Bulu, A. (eds) 1998. Low flows expert meeting, FRIEND UNESCO IHP-V, FRIEND-AMHY Group and Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, 1-160.

Warmerdam, P., Torfs, P. & Mollema, P.J. 1999. Neural networks as a tool in hydrological modelling. In:Experimental hydrology with reference to hydrological processes in small research basins (Ed: Herrmann,A.), Proc. Int. Workshop, St. Petersburg-Valdai, Russia, 2-6 June 1997, 64-70.

Weir, J., Hunt, B. & Clausen, B. 2000. Stream depletion from groundwater pumping. In: New ZealandHydrological Society Conference Proceedings, Christchurch, 190-191.

Young, A.R., Gustard, A., Bullock, A.E. & Croker, K.M. 2000. A river network based hydrological model forpredicting natural and influenced flow statistics at ungauged sites: Micro LOW FLOWS. Sci. Tot. Environ.251/252, 293-304.

Young, A.R., Round, C.E. & Gustard, A. 2000. Spatial and temporal variations in the occurrence of UK low flowevents. Hydrology & Earth System Sciences 4(1), 35-45.

Zaidman, M.D., & Gustard, A. 2000. Recharge estimation using base flow separation – application to monitoringof drought in Europe. ARIDE Technical Report No.14, CEH Wallingford, UK.

Zaidman, M.D. & Rees, H.G. 2000. Spatial patterns of streamflow drought in western Europe, 1960-1995. ARIDETechnical Report No. 8, CEH Wallingford, UK.

Zaidman, M.D., Rees, H.G. & Gustard, A. 2000. An electronic atlas for visualisation of streamflow drought.ARIDE Technical Report No. 7, CEH Wallingford, UK.

Zaidman, M.D., Rees, H.G. & Young, A.R. (submitted) Characterising dynamic aspects of streamflow droughtdevelopment in Northwest Europe. Hydrology & Earth System Sciences.

Zhuravin, S.A. 1999. Special observation data for Russia and its use for monitoring of the land humidity regimechanges. In: Extended Abstracts, Int. Conf. on Quality, Management and Availability of Data for Hydrologyand Water Resources Management, Koblenz, Germany.

AMHY FRIENDAMHY FRIEND 1998. Seminaire international annual du Groupe AMHY de FRIEND (1997-1998), Istanbul,

Turkey, October 1998. UNESCO Technical Documents in Hydrology no. 29. Including:Ampleur de l’envasement dans les barrages algériens (Tidjani Abdellatif El-Bari, Yebdri Djillali, &

Cherif El-amine (Algérie))Transport des sédiments charriés par les rivières (Vojislav Vukmirovic (Yougoslavie))Sediment deposits in a reservoir. Possible methods of estimation and choice (Bessenasse M, Paquier A,

Ramez & Massart S. (France)) Stochastic modelling of monthly sediment discharges (Atil Bulu, & Tanju Akar (Turquie))Application of renewal Processes to characteristics of the Riverbed Sediment Load (Vojislav

Vukmirovic, Dragutin Pavlovic & Jasna Petrovic (Yougoslavie))Quantification de l’érosion au droit d’un barrage, à partir de stations hydrométriques, en zone semi-

aride. (Touaïbia, B., Aïdaoui A. & Achite M. (Algérie))Risque calculé associé à l’érosion (Bekkouche A. & Djeddid A. (Algérie))

Cazacioc, L. & Cazacioc, A. 1999. Variations and trends in extreme precipitation events in Romania. In: Proc.4th

International Conference, Modelling of Global Climate Change and Variability, Hamburg, Germany.Cazacioc, L. & Cazacioc, A. 2000. Changes in heavy daily rainfall in mountain area of Romania. Extended

abstract. In: Proc. 26th International Conference, Alpine Meteorology, Innsbruck, Austria, CD no 23, ISSN


1016-6254.Corbus, C. S. & Stanescu, V. A. 1999. A new method for the determination of river flow regime stability. Paper

presented at FRIEND AMHY Annual Seminar, Cosenza, Italy.Gustard, A., Blazkova, S., Brilly, M., Demuth, S., Dixon, J., van Lanen, H.A.J., Llasat, M.C., Mkhandi, S. &

Servat, E. (eds) 1997. FRIEND’97 – Regional hydrology: concepts and models for sustainable water resourcemanagement . IAHS Publ. no. 246.

Llasat, M.C., Desurosne, I., Leblois, E., Brilly, M., Ferrer Polo, J., Radic, Z.M., Iiritano, G., Ferrari, E. 1997.Heavy rains. Chap. V, FRIEND Projects H-5-5 (IHP IV) and 1.1 (IHP V), 269-276. UNESCO, France.Including:

Joint estimation of IDF curves by maximum likelihood method (F. Frances & I. Vaskova)A multifractal explanation for Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves (P. Hubert, H. Bendjoudi, D.

Schertzer & S. Lovejoy)Application of PWM method in the regional estimation of parameters for the SQRT-ET max distribution

function (J. Ferrer)Use of historical information for flood frequency studies: the example of the River Guiers (M. Lang, D.

Couer, C. Lallement & R. Naulet)Modelling of a design hyetograph as an input to hydrological models (E. Kupczyk & R. Suligowsky)Application of the rainfall-runoff models to design flood computation (U. Soczynska, B. Nowicka & U.

Somorowska)General formulation of the QdF model (P. Javelle)Stochastic characteristics of long series (Z. Radic & J. Petrovic)Recent flood disasters at north western Black Sea region of Turkey (I. Gurer )Flash-floods in the north west of the Mediterranean area: the 27-28 September 1992 event. (M.C. Llasat,

C. Ramis, & L. Lanza)Heavy rainfall intensities in small basins: the Crotone flood, Italy (Oct. 1996). (E. Ferrari & P. Versace)Flood flows in the Kolubara catchment during June 1996. (A. Vukmirovic, B. Kapor & V. Vukmirovic)Flood behaviour on a small Mediterranean basin in the French Cevennes. (C. Cosandey)

Llasat, M.C. & Barrantes, J. 1997. A typology of extreme rainfalls in the Pyrenean areas. In: Developments inHydrology of Mountainous Areas. IHP-VI Technical Documents in Hydrology. no. 8, 79-84. UNESCO, Paris.

Llasat, M.C. & Rodriguez, R. 1997. A contribution of the AMHY/FRIEND project to the knowledge of extremerainfall events in the Mediterranean area: a first regionalisation. In: INM/WMO International Symposium oncyclones and hazardous weather in the Mediterranean, Mallorca, Spain, 425-430.

Llasat, M.C. & Rodriguez, R. 1997. Towards a regionalisation of extreme rainfall events in the Mediterraneanarea. In: Friend’97, Regional Hydrology: Concepts and Models for Sustainable Water Resource ManagementIAHS Publ. no. 246, 215-22.

Llasat, M.C., Versace, P. & Ferrari, E. 1999. Heavy rains and flash floods. Proc. Joint Session of Topic IV (RareFloods) and Topic VI (Heavy rains), FRIEND, UNESCO IHP-V 1.1 Project AMHY Group. National ResearchCouncil. Group for Prevention from Hydrogeological Disasters, Pub. 2049, Cosenza, Italy.

Llasat, M.C., Ramis, C. & Lanza, L. 1999. Storm tracking and monitoring using objective synoptic diagnosis andcluster identification from infrared Meteosat imagery: a case study. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics 71,139-155. Vienna, Austria.

Capó, E., Llasat, M.C. & Quintas, L. 1999. Caracterización pluviométrica espacio temporal de españa dentro delproyecto AMHY/FRIEND. I Congreso de la Asociación española de Climatología (AEC), Barcelona, Spain.

Llasat, M.C., Quintas, L., Capó, E. (in press) Stationarity of monthly rainfall series since the middle of the XIXthcentury. Application to the case of Peninsular Spain. Natural Hazards, Dordrecht, Holland.

Servat E. & Albergel J. (scientific eds) 2002. Hydrology of the Mediterranean Regions. Proc. Int. Seminar,Montpellier, France, 11-13 October 2000. UNESCO Technical Documents in Hydrology no. 51. Including:

Sécheresse et gestion des ressources en cas de pénurie dans les pays du sud et de l’est du bassinMéditerranéen (Albergel J., Claude J. & Habaieb H).

Preliminary results of an approach in assessing the ecological status low flow in Bulgarian Rivers(Dakova, S., Uzunov Y., Vachev B. & Tzankov K.)

Methodology for regional low flow analysis and an application (Önöz B., Bayazit M. & Oguz B.)Studying droughts at a European scale (Demuth, S. & Stahl, K.)Evaluation of regional droughts in Europe (Santos, M.J., Veríssimo, R., Fernandes, S., Orlando, M. &

Rodrigues, R.)Bilan de l’erosion sur les petits bassins versants des lacs collinaires de la dorsale Tunisienne

(Albergel, J., Nasri, N., Boufaroua, M., & Pepin, Y.)Approche géochimique et isotopique des relations entre lac collinaire et aquifères: cas du Bassin de

Kamech, Tunisie. (Gay, D., Albergel, J., Grunberger, O., Nasri, S., Michelot, J.L. & Montoroi, J.P. )Chemical erosion of a gully head: rainfall simulation experiment on a gypsic Mediterranean soil (Fidh

Ali watershed, central Tunisia). (Grünberger O., Reyes Gomez V., Montoroi J.P, Dridi B. & Agrebaoui A.)Composition of eroded soil under various grazing intensities in Mediterranean grassland (Hellali, H. &

Nastis, A.S.)Fractal theory to simulate unsaturated transport properties (Persson, M., Olsson, J., Albergel J., Zante P.,

Nasri S., Yasuda H., Berndtsson R. & Ohrström P.)

FRIEND 2002


Stratégies traditionnelles de conservation de l’eau et des sols en zone Méditerranéenne (Roose E. &Sabir M.)

Mise en evidence de la contribution des deux composantes de l’ecoulement a la production desediments transportes en suspension dans les zones semi arides: cas de l’oued Mouilah (nord ouestAfricain). (Megnounif, A., Terfous, A. & Bouanani, A.)

Analyse multivariee de la variable «erosion specifique» : cas du bassin versant de l’oued mina (wilayade relizane – Algérie). (Achite, M. & Touaibia, B.)

Application d’un modèle géomorphologique pour la simulation d’une crue exceptionnelle arrivantdans un petit barrage. (Nasri, S., Albergel, J. & Duchesne, J.)

Investigation hydro-chimique des systèmes karstiques nord-Montpellierains. Modélisation inverse desrelations pluie-débit et des variations temporelles des concentrations. (Pinault, J.L., Ladouche, B.,Petit, M.V., Doerfliger, N. & Bakalowicz, M.).

Hydromed Model and its application to semi-arid Mediterranean catchments with hill reservoirs 1 – therainfall-runoff model (Ragab, R.).

Hydromed Model and its application to semi-arid Mediterranean catchments with hill reservoirs 2 –reservoir storage capacity & probability of model failure (Ragab, R).

Les Petits Barrages dans la zone semi-aride Méditerranéenne. (Albergel J., Selmi S. & Balieu O.)Environnement Institutionnel et réalités physiques pour une gestion intégrée de L’eau dans le milieu

semi-aride Méditerranéen: le cas Tunisien. (Bachta M.S., Le Goulven P., Le Grusse Ph, & Luc Jean-Paul)

Vers une gestion optimale des ressources en eau: exemple de la Tunisie. (Habaieb, H., & Albergel J.)Optimisation des règles de gestion des barrages collinaires dans les pays semi-arides. (Lebdi F., Le

Goulven P. & Pabiot F.)Integrated management of water resources in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Mediterranean

Basin (Khouri J.)Modélisation du fonctionnement hydrologique d’un hydrosystème côtier Méditerranéen fortement

anthropisé: L’ile de Camargue. (Chauvelon P., Tournoud M.G., Sandoz A., Berceaux A. & Heurteaux V.)Modélisation hydrologique spatialisée de petits bassins versants en contexte semi-aride Méditerranéen

(Mansouri T., Albergel J. & Séguis L.)Hydrological modelling of flood events in a farmed Mediterranean catchment (Moussa R., Voltz M. &

Andrieux, P.)Analyse du fonctionnement hydrologique d’un bassin versant Libanais par une modélisation

conceptuelle adaptée au climat Méditerranéen. (Najem W., Bocquillon C., Jabbour H. & Hreiche A.)Simulation et optimisation de la gestion stratégique – cas d’aménagements a buts multiples du sud de

la France (Pouget J.C., Astier J., Le Goulven P. & Rocquelain G.)Integrated Water Resources Management in the West Bank and Gaza (Rabi, A. & Karmi, N.).Impact des aménagements sur la ressource en eau dans le bassin du Merguellil (Tunisie) (Dridi B.,

Bourges J., Auzet A.V., Collinet J., Kallel R. & Garreta Ph.)Paramétrisation du fonctionnement d’un karst dans un modèle global : exemple de la Vène (Hérault,

France) (Tournoud M. G., Dezetter A & Salles C.)Modélisation des lâchers de barrage et recharge de la nappe de Kairouan (Tunisie) (Nazoumou Y. &

Besbes M.)Measurement of soil moisture in small catchments: a new tool (Ramadan R., & Job J.O.)Un modèle d’exploration des dynamiques ressource-usages pour la gestion intégrée d’une nappe

surexploitée. application a la nappe de Kairouan, Tunisie (Feuillette S., Garin P., Le Goulven P. &Bousquet F.)

Analyse couplée du fonctionnement technique et social d’un réseau d’irrigation: le cas desgroupements d’intérêt collectif sur la nappe de Kairouan en Tunisie. (Faysse N., Lardilleux S., & LeGoulven P.)

Gestion conservatoire de l’eau de la retenue collinaire Saboun (Tangerois): bilan hydrologique etstrategie communautaire (Mejjati Alami, M., Merzouk, A. & Berkat, O.)

Quelles données hydrologiques pertinentes pour evaluer les ressources en eau des pays Méditerranéens? (Margat, J.)

Outstanding floods in Romania – a comparison with those that occurred in the Mediterranean Regions(Stanescu, V. A.)

Contribution a l’analyse de la variabilité pluviométrique du bassin Méditerranéen (Bidi F., Servat E. &Niel H.)

Etude de l’évolution des séries pluviométriques de la Tunisie Centrale. (Kingumbi A., Bergaoui Z.,Bourges J., Hubert P. & Kallel R.)

Etude spatiale de l’alea pluvieux en region Mediterraneenne. Application à l’épisode pluvieux des 12et 13 novembre 1999 dans l’Aude, France (Neppel L. & Desbordes M.)

Prédetermination régionale des débits de crue. Exemple d’application à la Corse. (Lavabre J., Folton N.,Arnaud P. & Pasquier C.)

Floods over the Calabria Region (Italy) and its comparison with meteorological aspects of heavyrainfalls in Catalonia (Spain) (Rigo, T., Llasat, M.C., Ferrari, E & Mancuso, P.)


Inundation of flooded areas in the Western Black Sea Region in Turkey using RS/GIS techniques(Sorman A.U., Akyürek Z. & Doganoglu V.I.)

Joint regional flood peak and volume frequency estimation with canonical correlation analysis (TahaB.M.J. Ouarda, Haché M., Bruneau P. & Bobée B.)

Shannon, C.E. & Weaver, W. 1941. The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press,Urbana, USA.

Stanescu, V. & Ungureanu, V. 1997. European Regimes; diversity and features. In: Third FRIEND ConferenceReport 1993 – 1997 (Eds: Oberlin, G. & Desbos, E.), Cemagref Editions, France.

Southern Africa FRIENDBashar, K.E., Kachroo, R.K. & Mngodo, R.J. 1999. Estimation of expected annual runoff and expected annual

evaporation. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).Fry, M.J., Tate, E.L., Meigh, J.R. & Folwell, S.S. 2001. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II: Spatial Data CD-ROM.

Operation manual and description of data. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.Houghton-Carr, H.A., Fry, M.J. & Folwell, S.S. 2001. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II: Low Flows Workshop,

Lilongwe, Malawi, 29 January - 2 February 2001. Report to DFID, UK.Houghton-Carr, H.A. & Fry, M.J. 2001. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II: Drought Analysis Workshop course

notes. Gaborone, Botswana, 26-30 November 2001. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.Houghton-Carr, H.A., Fry, M.J. & Folwell, S.S. 2001. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II: Low Flows Workshop

course notes, Lilongwe, Malawi, 29 January – 2 February 2001. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology,Wallingford, UK.

Ibrahim, Y.A. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Development of a physically-based distributed runoff/sediment routingmodel. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Kabede, A.S., Berhanu, F.A. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Use of daily precipitation model for tropical Africa. EastAfrica Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Kachroo, R.K., Badaza, M. & Gadain, H.M. 1999. Simulation of back water in the Kiwira River in the Lake NyasaBasin. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Kachroo, R.K., Mkhandi, S.H. & Parida, B.P. 2000. Flood frequency analysis of Southern Africa: I. Delineation ofhomogeneous regions. Hydrol. Sci. J. 45(3), 437-447.

McCartney, M.P., Fry, M.J., Folwell, S.S. & Houghton-Carr, H.A. 2001. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II: DroughtAnalysis Workshop. Gaborone, Botswana, 26-30 November 2001. Report to DFID, UK.

Meigh, J.R., McKenzie, A.A. & Sene, K.J., 1999. A grid-based approach to water scarcity estimates for easternand southern Africa. Water Resources Management, 13, 85-115.

Meigh, J.R. & Mkhandi, S.H. 2000. Southern Africa FRIEND Phase II – Internal strategic appraisal of the activitiesand outputs of the project. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

Mkhandi, S.H. & Kachroo, R.K. 1997. Modelling of flood flows in Tanzania. In: Conference Proceedings, XISAMSA Symposium on the potential of mathematical modelling of problems from the SAMSA region,Arusha, Tanzania.

Mkhandi, S.H. & Kachroo, R.K. 1997. Regional flood frequency analysis for Southern Africa. In: TechnicalDocuments in Hydrology, No. 15, UNESCO, Paris.

Mkhandi, S.H. 1998. Management of catchment areas and water resources with reference to Tanzania. In: Proc.British Hydrological Society International Conference, Exeter, UK.

Mkhandi, S.H. & Kachroo, R.K. 1998. Selection of an underlying statistical distribution of flood flows inTanzania. In: Proc. 2nd International Conference on Climate and Water. Espoo, Finland, August 1998.

Mkhandi, S.H. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Modelling of flood flows in Tanzania. East Africa Journal for Engineering,2(3).

Mkhandi, S.H., Maloba, K.Y., Parida, B.P. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Suitability of combination model for at- siteflood frequency analysis in Tanzania. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Mkhandi, S.H., Kachroo, R.K. & Gunasekara, T.A.G. 2000. Flood frequency analysis of Southern Africa: II.Delineation of homogeneous regions. Hydrol. Sci. J. 45(3), 449-466.

Mngodo, R.J., Johnson, O.D.O., Parida, B.P. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. An investigation into the use of GEV-4distribution in low flow frequency analysis in Tanzania. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Othiambo, F.N., Kimaro, T.A., & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Application of the neural network technique in theestimation of inflow into the Mtera and Kidatu reservoirs. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Schulze, R., Meigh, J.R. & Horan, M. 2001. Present and potential future vulnerability of eastern and southernAfrica’s hydrology and water resources. South African J. of Science, 97, 150-160.

Semu, A.M., Berhanu, F.A. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Development of a distributed hydrological model for LakeVictoria Basin. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

Tate, E.L., Meigh, J.R., Prudhomme, C. & McCartney, M.P. 2000. Drought assessment in southern Africa usingriver flow data. DFID report 00/4, Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

UNESCO 1997. Southern African FRIEND, Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 15, UNESCO, Paris.Wellington, B.I.J., Kachroo, R.K., Parida, B.P. & Mkhandi, S.H. 1999. Use of rainfall runoff models in flow peak

generation for site specific flood frequency analysis. East Africa Journal for Engineering, 2(3).

FRIEND 2002


West & Central Africa (AOC) FRIENDAmani, A., 1999. Dynamics and regionalization of the floods: case of the Niger and Chari rivers. Presented at

FRIEND-AOC meeting in Yaounde, 30 November - 3 December, 1999.Amani, A. 2001. Assessment of precipitation and resource variability across the Sahelian region. In: Report of the

BAHC International Workshop on Africa’s Water Resources (Eds: J.H.C. Gash, E.O. Odada, L. Oyebande, &R.E. Schulze), Nairobi, 26-30 October 1999, 67-72.

Amani, A., Lebel, T. & Somé, B. 1999. Spatial variability of rainfall across the Sahel relative to various timesteps. Presented at FRIEND-AOC meeting in Yaounde, 30 November - 3 December, 1999.

Bigot, S., Morin, V., Melice, J-L, Servat, E. & Paturel, I. 1998. Rainfall fluctuations and frequency analyses ofrainfall in Central Africa. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 71-78.

Desetter, A., Traoré, S. & Bicaba, K. 1998. Integrated management and variability of the water resources insouth-western Burkina Faso. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa inthe 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 387-394.

Diouf, M., Nonguierma, A., Amani, A., Royer, A. & Somé, B. 2001. Drought across the Sahel. Progress in theKnowledge of the Phenomenon and its Effects, AGRHYMET, Niger.

Favreau, G. & Leduc, C. 1998. Long-term fluctuations of the water table of the Continental Terminal close toNiamey (Niger). In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20thCentury, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 253-258.

Le Barbé, L. & Lebel, T. 1997. Rainfall climatology of the HAPEX-Sahel region during the years 1950-1990. J.Hydrol. 188-189, 43-73.

Lebel, T., Amani, A. & Taupin, J.D. 1998. Spatial variability of rainfall across the Sahel: an issue of scales In:Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ.no. 252, 153-158.

Leduc, C., Salifou, O. &. Leblanc, 1998. Evolution of water resources in the department of Diffa, Niger (LakeChad Basin south-eastern of Niger). In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources inAfrica in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 281-288.

Mahé, G., Dessouassi, R., Cissoko, B. & Olivry, J.C. 1998. Comparison of the interannual fluctuations ofpiezometry, precipitation and runoff over the catchment area of Bani at Douna in Mali. In: Proc. Int. Conf.at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 289-295.

Maiga, H.A, 1998. Effects of drought and low water levels over the middle basin of the Niger River in Mali. In:Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ.no. 252, 437-443.

Olivry J.C., Bricquet, J.P. & Mahé, G. 1998. Variability of flood strength over the great streams of intertropicalAfrica and incidence of the fall of the basic runoffs over the past two decades. In: Proc. Int. Conf. atAbidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 189-197.

Opoku-Ankomah, Y. & Amisigo, B.A. 1998. Rainfall and runoff variability in the southwestern river system ofGhana. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century,IAHS Publ. no. 252, 307-314.

Ouédraogo M., Servat, E., Paturel, I., Lubèse-Niel, H. & Masson, J.M. 1998. Characterisation of possiblemodification of the relation rain-discharge around the 70s in non-Sahelian West and Central Africa. In: Proc.Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252,315-321.

Sambou, S. & Thirriot, C. 1998. Study of hydrological regime variability of the Senegal River in the prediction offloods: application of Calman’s filter. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources inAfrica in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 207-214.

Servat, E., Patureel, I., Kouamé, B., Travaglio, Ouédraogo, Boyer, J-F., Lubès-Neil, H., Fritsh, J-M., Masson, J-M.& Marieu, B. 1998. Identification, characterisation and consequences of hydrological variability in West andCentral Africa. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20thCentury, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 323-337.

Sigha-Nkamdjou, L., Sighomnou, D., Lienou, G., Ayissi, G., Bedimo, J.P.& Naah, E. 1998. Variability of thehydrological regimes of rivers over the southern band of southern Cameroon plateau. In: Proc. Int. Conf. atAbidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century, IAHS Publ. no. 252, 215-222.

Taupin, J.D., Amani, A. & Lebel, T. 1998. Spatial variability of rainfall across the Sahel: an issue of scales. In:Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century. IAHS Publ.no. 252, 143-151.

Yao B., Servat, E. & Paturel, I. 1998. Human activities and climate variability: case of Ivory Coast southernforest. In: Proc. Int. Conf. at Abidjan on the Variability of Water Resources in Africa in the 20th Century,IAHS Publ. no. 252, 365-373.


Asian Pacific FRIENDAdams, K.N. 1999. Streamflow response to vegetation change in large catchments: investigations using

computer modelling. Proc. NZ Hydrological Society Annual Symposium, Napier, New Zealand.Ao, T.Q., Ishidaira, H. & Takeuchi, K. 1999. Study of distributed runoff simulation model based on block type

TOPMODEL and Muskingum-Cunge method. Ann. J. Hydraul. Eng. (in Japanese) 43, 7-12.Bormann, N. & Marks, C.J. 1999. Rainfall forecasts over the New Zealand Southern Alps for SALPEX’96:

characterisation and the importance of ice-species. In: Proc. XXII IUGG General Assembly, Birmingham, UK.Bowden, W.B. 2000. Hillslope and wetland hydrodynamics in a tussock grassland, South Island, New Zealand.

In: Proc. US–Japan Joint Seminar on Hydrology and Biogeochemistry of Headwater Catchments, Honolulu,Hawaii, February 2000.

Copeland, J.H., Henderson, R.D., Ibbitt, R.P., Marks, C. & Wratt, D.S. 1998. Linking atmospheric andhydrological models. In: Proc. Conference Meteorological Society of New Zealand and the HydrologicalSociety of New Zealand, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Henderson, R.D. 1998. Estimation of low flows in New Zealand river basins. Presented at the New ZealandHydrological and Meteorological Societies Joint Symposium, Dunedin.

Henderson, R.D., Copeland, J.H., Ibbitt, R.P. & Wratt, D.S. 1999. Flow forecasting using mesoscale precipitationpredictions. Presented at IUGG99, XXII General Assembly, Birmingham, UK.

Henderson, R.C., Ibbitt, R.P., & McKerchar, A.I. 2000. Reliability of low flow estimation by linear regression insmall ungauged basins. In: Proc. Fresh Perspectives Symposium, a joint UNESCO IHP meeting with theMeteorological Society of New Zealand, New Zealand Hydrological Society & New Zealand LimnologicalSociety, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Hudson, H.R., McMillan, D.A. & Pearson, C.P. 1999. Quality assurance in hydrological measurement. Hydrol.Sci. J. 44(5), 825-834.

Ibbitt, R.P. 1998. Building a hydrological archive of Vietnamese data. In: Proc. Int. Symp. on Hydrology andWater Resources for Research and Development in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 16-19 December, 1998 ,Nong Khai, Thailand, 269-281.

Ibbitt, R.P. & Henderson, R.D. 1998. Filling in Missing Data in Flow Records. In: Proc. Int. Symp. on Hydrology,Water Resources and Environmental Development and Management in Southeast Asia and the Pacific,Yeungnam University, Republic of Korea.

Ibbitt, R.P. & Pearson, C.P. 1998. Overview of New Zealand Hydrological Network, Database, and ScienceProjects. In: Proc. 1st Asian/Pacific FRIEND Workshop: Data Archive and Scientific Methods for ComparativeHydrology and Water Resources, 20-23 March 1998, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Ibbitt, R.P., Henderson, R.D., Copeland, J., & Wratt, D.S. 1999. Rainfall-runoff modelling forecasts based onsuccessive meso-scale weather model forecasts: performance results along a 500-km range of mountains.In: Proc. Int. Symp. on Floods and Droughts, Nanjing, China, October 1999; Also in: Asian Pacific FRIEND.UNESCO, 1999. IHP-V Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 4, UNESCO Jakarta Office, 431–444.

Ibbitt, R.P., Henderson, R.D., Copeland, J.H., & Wratt, D.S. 1999. The potential of meso-scale weather modelrain forecasts for enhancing flood warnings. Presented at the New Zealand Hydrological SocietySymposium, Napier, New Zealand.

Ibbitt, R P., Henderson, R.D., Copeland, J.H., & Wratt, D.S. 1999. Flood forecasting using meso-scale rainfallforecasts. In: Proc. Int. Workshop on Flood Forecasting for Tropical Regions, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Ibbitt, R.P. 2000. Modelling the Nam Gnouang Catchment, Lao PDR. In: Proc. Mekong Simulation StudyWorkshop, 24-25 January 2000, Bangkok, Thailand.

Ibbitt, R.P. & Al-Soufi, R. 2000. Assessing trans-border data for use in synthesising flow data in CambodianRivers. In: Proc. Workshop on Hydrologic and Environmental Modelling in the Mekong Basin, 11-12September 2000, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Ibbitt, R.P., Henderson, R.D., Copeland, J. & Wratt, D.S. 2000. Simulating mountain runoff with meso-scaleweather model rainfall estimates: a New Zealand experience. J. Hydrol. 239 (1-4), 19-32.

Ibbitt, R. P., Henderson, R. D., Woods, R.A., Copeland, J.C., & Lew D. 2000. Operational use of a combinedmeso-scale precipitation model and rainfall-to runoff model for flood forecasting. In: Proc. FreshPerspectives Symposium, a joint UNESCO IHP meeting with the Meteorological Society of New Zealand,New Zealand Hydrological Society and New Zealand Limnological Society, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Ishidaira, H., Takeuchi, K., & Ao, T.Q. 2000. Hydrological simulation of large river basins in South-east Asia. In:Proc. Fresh Perspectives on Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 21-24November 2000, Christchurch, New Zealand, 53-54.

Liang, Z.M. 1998. Design flood hydrograph for small basins. J. of Hohai Univ. (in Chinese), 26(2), 100-105.McBride, G.B. 1999. The NRWQN and its findings. Presentations to (i) the US National Water Quality Monitoring

Council meeting at Reston, Virginia, June 1999, and (ii) 20th annual Short Course on Design of WaterQuality Monitoring Networks, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA .

McKerchar, A.I. 1999. ENSO: impact on the hydrological regime in New Zealand. Paper presented to the APFRIEND joint GAME workshop, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Mosley, M.P. 2000. Regional differences in the effects of El Niño and La Niña on low flows and floods. Hydrol.Sci. J. 45 (2), 249-267.

FRIEND 2002


Pearson, C. P. 1998. Changes to New Zealand’s national hydrometric network in the 1990s. J. Hydrol. (NZ),37(1), 1-17.

Pearson, C.P. 1999. Workshop on data transfer standards for hydrological database software. Workshopconvened at the New Zealand Hydrological Society’s Annual Symposium, Napier, NZ.

Pearson, C.P. 2000. Hydrological data issues. In: Fresh Perspectives Symposium, a joint UNESCO IHP meetingwith the Meteorological Society of New Zealand, New Zealand Hydrological Society and New ZealandLimnological Society, Christchurch, New Zealand.

RSC 1997. Catalogue of Rivers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 2. (Eds: Jayawardena, A.W., Takeuchi, K. &Machbub, B.), UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

RSC 2000. Catalogue of Rivers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 3, (Eds: Hidayat, P., Jayawardena, A.W.,Takeuchi, K. & Lee, S.), UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee (RSC) for Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

UNESCO 1999. Asian Pacific FRIEND. IHP-V Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 2, UNESCO Jakarta Office.Walter, K.M. 2000. Index to hydrological sites in New Zealand. NIWA Technical Report 73, 216 pp.Woods, R.A. 1999. Scaling in landscapes. Presented at Workshop on Scaling in Hydrology, Cooperative

Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Melbourne, Australia.Woods, R.A. & Sivapalan, M. 1999. A synthesis of space–time variability in storm response: rainfall, runoff

generation, and routing. Water Resources Research 35, 2469–2485.Woods, R., Biggs, B., Snelder, T., Duncan, M., & Weatherhead, M. 1999. River habitat classification: what is the

hydrological signature of a ‘source of flow? Presented at the New Zealand Hydrological Society AnnualSymposium, Napier, November 1999 and to Sustainable Freshwater Ecosystems: the New Millennium, NewZealand Limnological Society and Australian Society of Limnology Joint Annual Conference, Wairakei,Taupo, New Zealand.

Woods, R. & Duncan, M. 1999. Modelling the cumulative effects of patchy, intermittent landuse change onwater yield and low flows at many locations in a river basin. Presented at the New Zealand HydrologicalSociety Annual Symposium, Napier, New Zealand.

Woods, R.A. 2000. Annual and seasonal water balance: 6 dimensionless numbers to quantify the roles ofclimate, soil, vegetation and topography. In: Proc. Fresh Perspectives Symposium, a joint UNESCO IHPmeeting with the Meteorological Society of New Zealand, New Zealand Hydrological Society & NewZealand Limnological Society, November 2000, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Woods, R.A. The relative roles of spatial variations in climate, soil, vegetation and topography in determiningthe spatial variability of catchment water balance and seasonality. Adv. in Water Resources (submitted).

Zhu, Y. S. 1997. Robust estimation in flood frequency analysis. Adv. in Wat. Sci. (in Chinese), 8(2), 154-160.

Proceedings:

Desa, M.M.N., Ghazali, Z., & Sinnasamy, S. (eds) 1999. Proc. 1st Asian Pacific FRIEND Workshop: Data Archiveand Scientific Methods for Comparative Hydrology and Water Resources. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, TechnicalDocuments in Hydrology, No. 1, UNESCO Jakarta Office, 1999, 242. Includes:

A. F. Embi: Hydrological data and information in Malaysia: Challenges to improve on quantity, qualityand dissemination, 1-7.

K. Takeuchi: Asian Pacific Friend Project – TSC Proposal, TSC proposals for scientific methods forAsian Pacific Friend Project, 9-28.

R. James: Catalogue of Rivers – Directory of River Basins, 29-33.R.P. Ibbitt & C.P. Pearson: Overview of New Zealand Hydrological network, database and science

projects, 35-43.S. P. Abano: Establishment of water data archive in the Philippines, 45-55.K. Chunkao: Establishment of water archive in Thailand, 57-60.R. James: Asian Pacific Friend Database – Australian Node, 61-68.A. Kondoh, M. Tsujimura & K. Kuraji: Construction of world basin water budget database, 69-75.K.H. Phuah & M.A. Jafri: Establishment of Malaysian Hydrological information system for water

resources planning, development and management, 77-83.T. Navuth: Hydrological Data Archive in Cambodia, 85-97.J. Loebis: Hydrological Data Archives of Indonesia, 99-107.K. Soukhathamma Vong: Flood and Low Flow in Central Plain of Lao P.D.R, 109-122.K. Takara & S. Ikebuchi: Frequency analysis of floods and droughts in the framework of Asian Pacific

FRIEND, 123-129.S.T. Lee & S. Lee: Water information system and scientific programme for Asian Pacific friend in the

Republic of Korea, 131-139.T. Thuc: Monthly streamflow estimation for ungauged stations, 141-151.L. Heng & T. Haixing: Comparative analysis of hydrological characteristics in Lancang – Mekong river

basis, 153-161.K.Takeuchi, T. Ao & H. Ishidaira: Modified TOPMODEL application to large basins in south-east Asia:

Preliminary results, 163-172.T. Ismail, A.H.M. Kassim & A.A. Mamun: Simulation of runoff for an ungauged catchment in Peninsular

Malaysia, 173-183.


Y. Ujihashi: Features prediction model in ten days hydrologic data analysis, 185-198.A.W. Jayawardena & D.A.K. Femando: Rainfall anaomalies associated with El-Niño southern oscillation,

199-207.D.R. Pangestiz, Rahardianto & J. Loebis: Flood and low flow characteristics of the Solo River, Java

Indonesia, 209-220.R.K. Geroia: Operational hydrology activities in Papua New Guinea, 221-230.

Herath, S. & Dutta, D. (eds) 2000. Mekong Basin studies. Proc. AP FRIEND Workshop, Bangkok, Thailand. 164 pp.Liu, H., Zhu, X.Y., Xing, Y.G., & Ye, T. (eds) 1999. Proc. International Symposium on Floods and Droughts.

Nanjing, P.R. China, 817 pp.Mosley, M. P. (ed.) 2000. Proc. Fresh Perspective on Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia and the

Pacific, Christchurch, New Zealand, 20-24 November, 2000, 315pp.Pho, N. V. (ed.) 1999. Proc. 2nd Asian Pacific FRIEND and GAME Joint Workshop on ENSO, Floods and Droughts

in the 1990s in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Hanoi, Vietnam, 23-26 March 1999, Technical Documents inHydrology, No. 3, UNESCO Jakarta Office. Includes:

ENSO impact on climate and hydrological regimeA. McKerchar: ENSO impact on hydrological regime of New Zealand, I-1-8.A. Jamalludin bin Shaaban, Z. binti Zaiton Ibrahim, H. Kcc An & J. bin Kardi: 1998 Langat Valley

drought and telecommunication to ENSO, I-9-18.Dang Tran Duy: Statistical indices for determining El Niño and La Niña events, relation of which with

annual amount of cyclone impacting on Vietnam, I-19-23.Bui Minh Tang: Relation of El Niño Southern Oscillation with tropical cyclones in Vietnam, I-24-27.Hidayat Pawitan: ENSO impact on Indonesia rainfall, I-28-37.I. Kuhnelivan and L. Coates: Risk assessment of ENSO related flood and drought fatalities in Eastern

Australia, I-38-49.James Ross: An overview of the potential use of ENSO based streamflow forecasts to manage Australian

Water Resources Systems, I-50.Jayawardena. A.W.: Prediction of ENSO indices by non-linear time series approach, I-51Jun Matsumoto, Xueshun Shen, Atsushi Numaguti, Hiroaki Ueda and Kuranoshin Kato: Large-scale

features during the GAME IOP after the largest El Niño of this century, I-52-62.Kang Bom Jin: El Niño and its effect on the drought in Korea. I-63.Kazutoshi Kan: The relationship between precipitation and El Niño phenomenon, I-64-69.Khamthong Soukhathammavong: River flow variation in the Lao PDR during ENSO event, I-70.Kim Tok Gil: Correlation of El Niño with summer weather of Korea, I-71.Le Dinh Quang: Low latitude atmospheric Circulation and ocean – Atmospheric interaction with ENSO,

I-72-77.M.P. Mosley: Regional differences in the effects of El Niño/La Niña and low streamflows and floods, I-78.Manabu D. Yamanaka: El Niño impact over the maritime continent and Indonesian forest fines, I-79.Muntana Brikshavana: Impacts of ENSO phenomena in 1997/1999 on Thailand’s climate, I-80-92.Nguyen Dinh Ninh: ENSO and drought in 1997, 1998 and 1999 in Vietnam, I-94-104.Nguyen Trong Hieu & Le Nguyen Tuong: Possibility of application of RAINFALL software to study the

relation between El Niño and rainfall in Vietnam, I-105-109.Taikan Oki & Katumi Musiake: Global and regional impact of ENSO on hydrological cycles and water

resources, I-110.Thaw San Hla: Impact of ENSO on climate and hydrological regime in Myanmar, I-111.Tran Thanh Xuan: Preliminary analysis of the influence of ENSO on river flow in Vietnam, I-112-117.Tran Viet Lien: Relationship between ENSO and Tropical Cyclone activity in the Northwest Pacific and

Vietnam, I-118.

Floods, droughts and mitigation measuresAkihiko Kondo, Juren Li, Kengo Sunada, Yasuyuki Ujihashi, Sheng Ping Zhang & Huxia Yao: Analyses

on flood of 1998 Changjiang River in China, II-1-10.Akira Watanabe, Yoshihiro Tachibana, Yoshiaki Shibagaki, Sinya Ogino, Teruo Ohsawa, Kinji

Furukawa, Yukinori Nakajima, Akimasa Sumi and Katsumi Mushiake: The characteristics of atmos-pheric structure in Northern Thailand before and after the onset of a South West monsoon, II-11-19.

Dwikosita Karnawati, Sudarmanto, Suharyadi, H. Hendrayana & D.R. Pangesti: Development of GISof Water Archive System in Merapi – Yogyakarta basin, II-20-23.

Kong Xiangguang: Improving the Xinanjiang model, II-24.Kuniyoshi Takeuchi: World floods in the 1990s, II-25-29.Le Trung Tuan & So Kazama: Evaluation of lumped model parameters using GIS, II-30-38.Michiharu Shiba & Xavier Laurenson: Real time stochastic dynamic stage and discharge estimates for a

channel network, II-39-50.Nguyen Viet Thi: The impact of ENSO phenomenon on annual flood peaks of the Red River and the

Cuu Long River, II-51-56.Roslan Bin Zainal Abidin & Tew Kia Hui: Rainfall energy production in relation to soil erosion, II-57-63.Shidawara Masatoshi: A preliminary report on disaster by Hurricane Mitch in Honduras, II-64-68.

FRIEND 2002


Shie Yui Liong, Wee-Han Lim, Toshiharu Kojiri and Khadananda Lamsal: Infilling missing datastrategies in flood-stricken Bangladesh, I-69-100.

Srikantha Herath: Flood forecasting with distributed hydrologic models using WWW, II-101.Van-Nguyen-Van Thanh & Ganesh Raj Pandey: New statistical approaches to regional estimation of

floods, II-102-113.Vu Van Tuan: The influence of climate change on river runoff in humid tropical zone. A case study in

Vietnam, II-114-118.Cao Dang Du: Flood and flash flood in Vietnam, II-119-125.Zhang LiPing & Xia Jun: The international variability of SCSSM and its influence on climate in China,

II-126.

Asian Pacific FRIEND research plan proposalsDaud M.Zalina, Nguyen V.T.V, Kassim M.A.H. and Desa M.M.N.: Statistical modelling of extreme

rainfall process, III- 1-10.Fumio Yoshino: Comparison of long term annual run-off in world rivers and its critical discussion, III-

11-19.Hua Jiapeng & Liang Zhongmin: A new method in determining design flood hydrograph for small

basins, III-20-27.Joerson Loebis: Lake Toba water level drawdown and ENSO, III-28-37.Kaoru Takara: New methods in frequency analysis, III-38.Kimchul: Analysis on flood damaged areas using remote sensing data, III-39.Li Jian: A semi-self adoptive updating model for complicated channel flood routing and forecasting, III-

40-46.Liang Zhongmin & Hua Jiapeng: A robust method in flood forecasting analysis, III-47-54.Maino Virobo: Static low flow Hydrology of uncontrolled catchments: A case study on Ewogoro and

Eilogo catchments, III-55.Sae-Chew Winal: Flood warning system for Sadas Hatyai region, III-56-65.So Kazama: Comparison of water balance in some tropical basin, III-66-73.Xia Jun & Zhang LiPing: The research on the method of long term forecast on the heaviest flood in

China, III-74.Nguyen Kien Dzung: Applicability of sedimentation models to simulate deposited sediment in

reservoirs in Vietnam, III-75-79.

Hindu Kush Himalayan FRIENDAhmad, S., Khan, I.H. & Parida, B.P. 1999. River water quality management using techniques of trend analysis

and geographic information systems. In: Proc. Int. Conf. Environmental Challenges for the New Millennium(ECNM), 565-572.

Ahmad S., Khan, I.H. & Parida, B.P. 2001. Performance of stochastic approaches for forecasting river waterquality, Water Research 35 (18), 4261-4266.

Bhaskar, N.R., Parida, B.P. & Nayak, A.K. 1997. Flood estimation for ungauged catchments usingGeomorphological Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (GIUH), J. Water Resources Planning and Management,American Soc. of Civil Engrs. (ASCE) 123(4), 1-11.

Chalise, S.R. 1997. High Mountain Hydrology in Changing Climates: Perspectives from the Hindu Kush-Himalaya. In: Developments in Hydrology of Mountainous Areas (Eds: Molnar, L., Miklanek P. & Meszaros,I.), UNESCO IHP-IV Projects H-5-5/H-5-6, Paris, 23-31.

Chalise, S. R. 1998. Headwaters in Changing Climates: A Review of Hydrological and Related Issues in theHindu Kush-Himalaya. In: Ecological Techniques and Approaches to Vulnerable Environment: Hydrosphere-Geosphere Interaction (Ed: Singh, R.B.), Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 177-197.

Chalise, S.R., Herrmann, A., Khanal, N.R., Lang, H., Molnar, L. & Pokhrel, A.P. (eds) 1998. Proc. Int. Conf. onEcohydrology of Mountain Areas, Kathmandu, ICIMOD.

Chalise, S.R., Herrmann, A., Khanal, N.R., Lang, H. & Pokhrel, A.P. (eds) 1998. Ecohydrology of High MountainAreas, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal, 680. Review in: Hydrological Sciences Journal 44 (6), 997-998.

Chalise, S.R., Kansakar, S.R., Rees, H.G., Croker, K.M. & Zaidman, M.D. 2001. Low Flow Estimation for theHimalayan Basins. Presented at Workshop 4: High Mountain Regions, 6th Scientific Assembly of IAHS,Maastricht, the Netherlands.

Datta, M. Parida, B.P., Guha, B.K. & Shreekrishan, T.R. 1999. Industrial Solid Waste Management and LandfillingPractices, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, and London, ISBN 81-7319-317-7, 204.

Gustard, A., Croker, K.M. & Rees, H.G. 1998. Developing regional design techniques for estimating hydropowerpotential. In: Proc. Int. Symp. on Hydrology of Ungauged Streams in Hilly Regions for Small HydropowerDevelopment, March 9-10 1998, New Delhi, India.

Hasnain, S.I. 1998. Hydrological Processes in Ganga headwaters. In: Ecological Techniques and Approaches toVulnerable Environment (Ed: Singh, R.B.), Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 215-222.

Hasnain, S.I. 1999. Himalayan glaciers: hydrology and hydrochemistry. Allied Publishers, New Delhi, India, 245.


Hasnain, S.I. 1999 Runoff characteristics of a glacierised catchment, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Hydrol. Sci. J. 44 (6).Hasnain, S.I. & Thayyen, R.J. 1999. Controls on the major-ion Chemistry of the Dokraini glacier meltwaters,

Ganga basin, Garhwal Himalaya, India. J. Glaciology 45(149), 87-92.Hasnain, S.I. & Thayyen R.J. 1999. Discharge and suspended sediment concentration of meltwaters, draining

from the Dokraini glacier, Garhwal Himalaya, India. J. Hydrol. 218(3-4), 191-198.Hasnain, S.I., Jose P.G., Ahmad, S. & Negi, D.C. 2001. Character of the subglacial drainage system in the

ablation area of Dokraini glacier, India, as revealed by dye-tracer studies. J. Hydrol. 248(1-4), 216-223.HKH FRIEND 1999. Age and population structure of freshwater mussel in the lowland rivers of Nepal, a group

poster presentation and abstract. In: 3rd National Conference on Science and Technology, RONAST, Nepal.HKH-FRIEND 1999. Proposal for a Regional Research Programme, Revised March 1999Holmes, M.G.R. & Houghton-Carr, H.A. 2001. Hindu Kush-Himalayan FRIEND: Low Flows Workshop. Roorkee,

India, 9 - 13 October 2001. Report to DFID, UK.Holmes, M.G.R., Houghton-Carr, H.A. & Rees, H.G. 2001. Hindu Kush-Himalayan FRIEND: Low Flows

Workshop course notes, Roorkee, India, 9 - 13 October 2001. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology,Wallingford, UK.

ICIMOD 1998. Minutes of 1st Steering Committee Meeting of the HKH-FRIEND, May 11-12, 1998, Kathmandu,Nepal.

ICIMOD 1999. Minutes of Inception Workshop of the Snow and Glacier Group, March 8-10, Kathmandu, Nepal.ICIMOD 1999. Minutes of Inception Workshop of the Database Group, March 3-5, Kathmandu, Nepal.ICIMOD 1999. Report of the HKH-FRIEND: Low Flow Group Regional Training on Low Flow Measurement and

Analysis and Workshop, 19-24 April, Kathmandu, NepalICIMOD & UNEP 2000. Inventory of glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods, monitoring and early

warning system in the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region, Bhutan.ICIMOD 2000. Minutes of 2nd Steering Committee Meeting of the HKH-FRIEND, April 11-13, Kathmandu, NepalKachroo, R.K., Mkhandi, S.H. & Parida, B.P. 2000. Flood Frequency Analysis of Southern Africa – Delineation of

Homogeneous Regions, Hydrol. Sci. J. 45(3), 437-447.Kaul, M.K. (ed.) 1999. Inventory of the Himalayan glaciers. Geological Survey of India. Review in: J. Geol. Soc.

India 5(6), 663-664.Khanal, N.R. 1997. Floods in Nepal, In: River Flood Disaster a report of ICSU SC/IDNDR Workshop, 1996.

Koblenz. German IHP/OHP – National Committee, 33-46.Khanal, N.R., Chalise, S. R. & Pokhrel, A. P. 1998. Ecohydrology of River Basins of Nepal. In: Proc. Int. Conf. on

Ecohydrology of Mountain Areas. Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD (Eds: S. R. Chalise et al.), 49-61.Khanal, N.R. 1999. Study of Landslides and Flood Affected Area in Syangja and Rupandehi Districts of Nepal. A

report submitted to Mountain Natural Resources Division, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.Mhkandi, S.H., Parida, B.P., & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. Suitability of a combination model for at-site flood frequency

analysis, East Africa Journal of Engineering, Tanzania 3(2), 92-101.Mngodo, R.J., Johnson, O.D.O., Parida, B.P. & Kachroo, R.K. 1999. An investigation into the use of GEV-4

distribution in low flow frequency analysis, East Africa Journal of Engineering, Tanzania 3(2), 1-10.Pandey, S.K, Sinha, A.K. & Hasnain, S.I. 1999. Weathering and geochemical processes controlling solute acqui-

sition in Ganga Headwater-Bhagirathi River, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Aquatic Geochemistry 5(4), 1-25.Parida, B.P. 1998. Prediction of Groundwater Quality Using Geostatistical Methods, National Workshop on

Groundwater modelling and Assessment, Delhi, India, 14 –26.Parida, B.P. 1998. Snowmelt Runoff Estimation from a Himalayan Catchment Using the Snow Melt Runoff Model

(SRM), In: Proc. Int. Conf. on Ecohydrology of High Mountain Areas, Kathmandu, Nepal, 381-391.Parida, B.P., Kachroo, R.K. & Srestha, D.B. 1998. Regional Flood Frequency Analysis of Mahi-Sabarmati Basin

(Sub zone 3-a) Using Index Flood Procedure with L-Moments, Int. J. Water Resources Management,Netherlands 12 (1), 1-12.

Parida, B.P. 1999. Modelling of Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall using a Four-Parameter Kappa Distribution,Int. J. Climatology 19, 1389-1398.

Parida, B.P. 2000. Worth of Extreme Flood Events in Site Specific Flood Frequency Analysis, In: Proc.International Conference on Integrated Water Resources Management for Sustainable Development, NewDelhi, India, 823-832.

Parida, B.P. & Moharram, S.H. 2000. Choice of Generalised Pareto Distribution as a potential candidate forFlood Frequency Analysis, Hydrol. Journal, India 22(1-4), 1-14.

Rees, H.G. & Croker, K.M. 1998. Software for small scale hydropower estimation. In: Proc. Int. Symp. onHydrology of Ungauged Streams in Hilly Regions for Small Hydropower Development, March 9-10, NewDelhi, India.

Rees, H.G. 2000. Developing Himalayan Hydropower. Research Focus no. 41, May.Sarfraz A. & Hasnain, S.I. 2001. Snow and stream-water chemistry of the Ganga headwater basin, Garhwal

Himalaya, India. Hydrol. Sci. J. 46(1), 103-112.Singh, A.B. & Hasnain, S.I. 1998. Major ion chemistry and weathering control in a high altitude basin:

Alaknanda River, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Hydrol. Sci. J. 43(6), 825-844.Wellington, B.I.J., Kachroo, R.K., Parida, B.P. & Mhkandi, S.H. 1999. Use of a Rainfall-Runoff model in Flow

Peak Generation for Site Specific Flood Frequency Analysis, East Africa Journal of Engineering, Tanzania3(2), 20-27.

FRIEND 2002


Newspaper articles:Khane paniko samasya ra samadhan ka kehi upayaharu (Drinking water problem and some solutions), article

published in local newspaper, Kavre Times Weekly, Vol. 5(5), Tuesday, 13 February, 2001.Restoring the Bagmati River, article published in national newspaper, The Kathmandu Post, Vol. VIII, No. 104,

Thursday, 1 June, 2000.

Theses supervised by group members:

PhD theses supervised by Dr Bhagabat Prasad Parida:1. Regionalisation of flood extremes using pattern analysis, 1999.2. Use of stochastic models and GIS in management of river water quality, 2000

MSc thesis supervised by Prof. Khadga B. Thapa:1. Low flow frequency analysis of the Mahanadi Basin, 1998.

FRIEND/AMIGO for Mesoamerica & the Caribbean

The following FRIEND/AMIGO publications are available on http://www.friend-amigo.org/:

Planos-Gutierrez, E. & Scatena, F. Insular Caribbean hydrogeological data and information.Scatena, F. Bibliography of instream flows and ecological uses of freshwater resources in the Caribbean region.Bujan, C. Cuban Rivers Catalogue: Geomorphology of Cuban Rivers.Bujan, C. Inventory of Cuban Water Resources.Scatena, F. Instrean flows and ecological uses of freshwater resources in Caribbean Region.Lapinel, B. & Planos-Gutierrez, E. Visión de la Sequía en Meso América y el Caribe: Causas, Impactos y

Mitigación. 1ra Feria del Agua en Centroamérica y el Caribe. CATHALAC.

http://www.friend-amigo.org/: