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Framing the news: ‘bad’ mothers and the ‘Medea’ news frame

Nicola Goc

AbstractSince three-year-old Madeleine McCann went missing from a Portu-guese resort in May 2007, the world’s news services have carried paral-lel news discourses about this event: one focusing on the search for the child and hypothesising about the identity of the “evil” predator who allegedly kidnapped her; and the other focusing on the “bad” parents who left their children home alone. Since Madeleine’s disappearance there have been many twists and turns in the police investigation, and even more twists and turns in the ongoing news coverage, with both feeding into a strident public discourse which positions the event within confl icting moral frames. The dominant frame centres on the behav-iour of the McCanns, and in particular on the mother, Kate. The media framing of the event adopts a style reminiscent of that used in the pre-digital era, in speculation about Lindy Chamberlain’s role in the disap-pearance of her daughter Azaria in outback Australia in 1980. Kate McCann has become the central fi gure in the public discourse about the missing toddler. She has been judged as either guilty or innocent of her child’s disappearance, and depicted in ways which suggest she is a “bad” mother. This paper maps the news coverage and public discourse on the disappearance of Madeleine McCann and draws parallels with the 1980 disappearance of Azaria Chamberlain in outback Australia. In doing so, it uncovers a recurrent and disturbing meta-narrative that places both mothers in a deviant “Medea” frame.

Introduction When three-year-old English girl Madeleine McCann went missing from a holiday villa

inPortugal inMay2007,herdisappearance immediatelyattractedmediaattentionaround theworld.Thiswasthestoryofeveryparent’sworstnightmare:thedisappearanceofachildwhileonholidayinaforeigncountry.Witheachpassingweekandnofirmleadsonwhathappenedtothetoddler,themediacoveragereliedonspeculationandrumour;eventuallythemediaturnedonthemother.ByJulyofthatyearIwasstruckbythedisturbingsimilaritiesbetweenthereportingofthiscaseandthemedia’scoverage,adecadeearlier,ofthedisappearanceofsix-year-oldJon-

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BenétRamseyfromherhomeinColoradoin1996.EvenmorestrikingsimilaritieswereapparentwhenthereportageoftheMcCanncasewascomparedwiththecoverageofthedisappearanceof10-week-oldAzariaChamberlainintheAustralianoutbackin1980.Ineachofthesecases,thejournalistsinvolvedweresupposedlyengagedinthesimplereflectionofrealityintheirnewsaccounts,inaccordancewiththewidelyheldnotion“thateverynewsstoryspringsanewfromthefactsoftheeventbeingrecorded”(Bird&Dardenne,1988,p.66).However,theevidencesuggeststheywereinfactcreatingdamningnewsstoriesbasednotonhardfacts,butonrumourandspeculation.AsFursichargues,inacknowledgingthatjournalismhashada“privilegedposi-tionasacentralinstitutionforestablishingwhatistobeconsideredasobjectiveandtrue,andevencommonsense”,itisimportantforjournalismscholarstoanalyse“whichspectrumoffactsispermittedbythismediatedrealityandwhatissilenced”(Fursich,2009,p.246).Byapplyingnarrativeanalysistonewstextsfromthreecasestudies,thisstudyexposesadisturbingpatterninthecreationofnews,raisingthequestion:Whyarejournalists,andweasasociety,compelledtocreatebinaryoppositionalframeworksof“good”and“bad”mothersasawayofunderstandingthesuddenandmysteriousdisappearanceofyoungchildrenfromtheir“homes”?

Journalistsaresocialisedintocreatingformulaicnewsnarrativesand,asGamsonandModi-gliani(1989)andothers(Bateson,1972;Goffman,1974;McNair,1998;Johnson-Cartee,2005)have argued, journalists createnews stories fromparticular organisational story structures, ornewsframes.“Mediaframes”,Gitlintellsus,are“largelyunspokenandunacknowledged”,and“organisetheworldbothforjournalistswhoreportit,and,insomedegree,foruswhorelyontheirreports”(1980,p.7).AcrossthreecontinentsandthreedecadesmedianarrativeshaveplacedinnocentmotherswithinwhatIcalla“Medeanewsframe”,aframewhichallowsforthecre-ationofblamingnewsdiscoursesthatarenotonlyprejudicialtowardstheseparticularmothers,butalsoassistintheconstructionofprejudicedrepresentationsconcerningmaternityingeneral.“Medea”referstothearchetypalmurderingmotherofancientGreekliterature.In430BC,GreekplaywrightEuripidestransformedtheMedeaofGreeklegendintothearchetypal“bad”motherwhenheplacedadaggerinherhandandhadhermurderherchildreninafitofjealousrage.Thismythicalstoryofamothersoenragedbyjealousythatshekilledherchildrentospitetheirfather,hasenduredformorethan2000years.Inmoderntimes,Iwillargue,Medeasymbolisesmotherswhostepoutsideoftheboundariesdefiningacceptablematernalbehaviour.

Myths,whethercommunicatedthroughfiction,dramaornewsdiscourse,playa“criticalso-cialroleinreinforcingexistingideas,values,andbeliefs”(Lule,2001,p.15).TheMedeanewsframepowerfully reinforces theevilmother trope.Butaswithallmyths, the“actual truthorfalsityofthestoryisirrelevant,whatisimportantisthatthestoryandtheideasitembodiesareacceptedandbelievedtobetrue”(Sykes,1970,p.17).TheresilienceoftheMedeamyth,anditsuseinframingnewsdiscoursesaboutmotherswhosechildrengomissinginunexplainedcircum-stances,isofcentralinterestinthispaper.

Justashumanshavealways“passedontheirculturalhistories,values,andnormsthroughnarratives”(Johnson-Cartee,2005,p.149),sincetheadventofthenewspaperjournalistshavecreatednewsthathas“playedasignificantroleintheformationofpublicknowledge,contribut-inginnosmallwaytothewidelysharedbeliefsaboutpublicevents,places,actors”(Schudson,1995,p.3).Journalistshavethecapacityeithertouncriticallyreinforcesocialvaluesthroughtheperpetuationofmyths,ortochallengethesevalues.Inthecasestudiespresentedhere,journalistsoverwhelminglychosetouncriticallyreinforcetheMedeamythandinsodoingcreatedhighlyprejudicialnewsdiscourses thatframedKateMcCann,PatsyRamseyandLindyChamberlain(nowLindyChamberlain-Creighton)asmurderingmothers–despitealackofevidence.

Inthefirstinstance,thesethreemotherswerecondemnedbythemediaandthepublicfornotfulfillingtheirmaternaldutytokeeptheirchildrensafewhileintheircare,andthentheywerefurthercondemnedbecausetheydidnotbehave“appropriately”intheglareofthemediaspot-

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light.Theywereattackedbecausetheyfailedtoconformtosociety’sexpectationsofwhatitistobea“good”mother.KateMcCannandLindyChamberlainwerecriticallyidentifiedasbeing“toohard”becausetheycontrolledtheiremotionsinfrontofthecamerasandrefusedtocry;PatsyRamsey,ontheotherhand,wascondemnedbecauseofherovertdisplaysofemotionbeforethecameras.Thesewomenwere“damnediftheydidanddamnediftheydidn’t”,byamediaandpubliceagertoblamethemother.

TheMcCann,RamseyandChamberlainstoriestellofeveryparent’shiddenanxiety:ismychildsafewhileshe/heissleeping?Fromthefirstnewsreportsthesestoriescaptivatedthepub-lic,andtheycontinuetocapturethepublic’simagination.Barnettsuggestseventsbecomenewswhenthey“shatter thefairy-talenotionswehaveabout love,home,andthefamily”(Barnett,2006,p.419).Thesestoriesalsoworkforthemediabecausetheyhavetheingredientsofoneofthemostpowerfularchetypalnarratives,thefairytale,withthesinisterdisappearanceofasleep-ingbeauty,anevilstranger,awickedwitch,and,inthecaseofAzariaChamberlain,amonstrouswolf.Likemythsandfolkstories,fairytaleshavehugeappealbecausetheyspeaktoourcollec-tiveunconscious,reinforcingculturalbeliefsthathavebeenpassedonfromgenerationtogenera-tion.Fairytales,likemyths,helptomaintainculturalcustomsthatsubordinatewomenandsup-portthedominantpatriarchy.The“good”womeninfairystoriesarethosewhoaresilent,passiveandbeautiful.Womenwhohavegoalsoutsidethehousehold,whoaredominantandoutspoken,areinvariably“bad”women.Thesethreewomenwereframedas“bad”womenand“bad”moth-ers,inpartbecausetheyrefusedtobesilentandpassive,andbecausetheirpresenceinthepublicsphere,beforetheglareofthecameras,wasunsettling.

WhilethemediacoverageofthedisappearancesofthechildrenofKateMcCannandLindyChamberlaindemonstratesparticularlystrikingsimilarities,Ialsowanttodrawattentiontosimi-laritiesinthecoverageofthedeathofPatsyRamsey’sdaughtertoarguethatthereisapatterninthecreationofmaternalnewsnarratives.Thisrepetitivepatternnotonlyaffectsthewaysocietyandthemediaunderstandmotherswhosechildrendisappearordieinunexplainedcircumstances,but also reinforces the stereotypical characteristicsofmaternal identity ingeneral.Thereareseveralkeysimilaritiesinthethreecasesconsideredhere:

Achildtakenfromitsbedinthenight;Anadditional“exotic”twist(thedingo;theforeigncountry;thebeautypageant);Abungledpoliceinquiryinthedaysandweeksafterthedisappearance/murderandnofirmleadsmonthsaftertheinquirybegan;Parentswhotryto“manage”themedia;Parentswhotryto“manage”thepoliceinquiry;Parentswithastrongreligiousfaith;Parents,particularlythemother,behavinginamannerconsideredunacceptable;Femalechildren.

Lindy Chamberlain and AzariaWhen10-week-oldAzariaChamberlaindisappearedfromatentatacampinggroundatUluru

(thenknownasAyersRock)inoutbackAustraliainAugust1980,thestoryimmediatelycapti-vatedmediaandpublicattention.WhenLindyChamberlainclaimedadingohadtakenherbaby,there was widespread public support for the Chamberlains and the Northern Territory policecameunderincreasingpressuretofindthemissingbaby(justasPortuguesepolicecameunderpressuretofindMadeleine,andadecadeagoBoulderpolicewerepressuredtofindJonBenét’skiller).Azaria’sbloodstainedjumpsuit,singlet,bootiesandanappywerefoundnearadingolairaweekaftershedisappeared.AninquestinFebruary1981concludedthatadingohadindeed

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attackedthebaby.However,withnobodyfound,lingeringdoubtsabouttheidentityofthekillerremained,withsomecomplainingthattheunemotionaldemeanourofthemotherimmediatelyafterherdaughterwentmissingwassuspicious.Indeed,thesuspicionsoftheNTpoliceledtoasecondinquestatwhichanEnglishpathologist,DrJamesCameron,gaveevidencethatanultra-violetphotographhehadtakenofthejumpsuitshowedAzaria’sneckhadbeenslashedandonthebackofherjumpsuithehadfoundtheimprintofanadultfemalehand.Healsoarguedthatthebabyhadbeenburiedinthejumpsuit(Bryson,1985).Withthisdamningforensicevidence,publicandmediaopinionturnedagainstLindyovernight,justasitwoulddoforKateMcCannwhenrevelationsofforensicevidenceemergedin2007.

LindyChamberlainwaschargedwiththemurderofherdaughter.TheCrownattestedthatshehadcutthebaby’sthroatwhileseatedinthecar,hadhiddenthebodyinthecarandlaterburiedit,andlaterstillhaddugthebabyup,takenofftheclothingandreburiedthebody,plantingtheclothingelsewhere.HerhusbandMichaelwasaccusedofbeinganaccessoryinthedisposalofthebody.LindyChamberlainwasconvictedofAzaria’smurderandsentencedtolifeimprison-mentwithhardlabourinoneofAustralia’stoughestprisons,Darwin’sBerrimahJail.Herseconddaughter was born in prison and taken from her immediately after birth. Lindy Chamberlainservedfouryearsofalifesentenceinjail,andthenin1986Azaria’smissingmatineejacketwasfoundinadingo’slair,providingnewevidencewhicheventuallyledtoheracquittal.

Patsy Ramsey and JonBenétIn1996 thereweredisturbing resonances in themediacoverageandpublicdiscoursesur-

roundingPatsyRamsey,themotherofJonBenét.PatsyRamseyisstillconsideredbymanytobethemajorsuspectinherdaughter’sdeath.SteveThomas,akeyBouldercitydetectiveinthecase,wroteabest-sellingbook,JonBenét: inside the Ramsey murder investigation,namingPatsyRamseyasthemurderer,andclaimingJohnRamseywasprotectinghiswife:

Inmyhypothesis,anapproaching fortiethbirthday, thebusyholidayseason,anexhaustingChristmasDay,acoupleofglassesofwine,andanargumentwithJon-BenéthadleftPatsyfrazzled.Herbeautifuldaughter,whomshefrequentlydressedalmostasatwin,hadrebelledagainstwearingthesameoutfitashermother[totheWhites’ChristmasDayparty].(Thomas,2000,p.12)

ThetragicstoryofJonBenétRamseybeganonChristmasnight1996,whenPatsyRamseyfoundaransomnoteonthestairsleadingfromJonBenét’sbedroom.Hourslater,JohnRamseyfoundthebodyofhisdaughterinthebasementwinecellaroftheirsprawlingBoulderhome.Accordingtothepolicereport,JonBenétwascoveredwithablanket,herwristsweretiedaboveherhead,hermouthwascoveredwithtape,andanyloncordwaswrappedaroundherneck.Theautopsy report revealed shehadbeen sexuallyassaultedandhad sufferedablow toherheadwhichleftaneight-and-a-halfinchfracture(Schiller,1998).

Reflectingonhowthestory“gainedlegs”asamajornewsstory,CNN’sBrianCabellsaid:

Itwas the sortof storyyou’dquicklydismiss—itdidn’thaveanational feel toit.Butwhenitemergedthatthechildhadbeenabeautypageantqueen,thestorybecamesexier.That’swhatweplayedup.[…]Iknewthatthestoryhadsometitil-latingelements.(Cabell,citedinSchiller,1998,p.78).

Withinaweek,Cabellhadsecuredanexclusive interview,andonNewYear’sDay1997, theRamseyinterviewtookuphalfofthatnight’snewsbulletinandcreatednationalinterest.Cabelllatersaidhehadfelt“uneasy”aboutPatsyRamsey’scommentduringtheinterview:“Keepyourbabiesclosetoyou.There’ssomeoneoutthere.”Hesaid,“‘itseemeddramatic,ifnotmelodra-matic.Iwastakenaback,butasaTVcorrespondent,Ithought,‘Boy,thereisasoundbite’”(in

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Schiller,1998,p.76).The interviewwasamajor scoop forCNN,buthadunforeseenconse-quencesfortheRamseys.TheBouldermediawereoffendedbytheexclusivethathadshutthemout of the story.They had previously been scathing of the Ramseys and had reported highlyprejudicial speculation insinuating that theyhadbeen involved in their daughter’sdeath.TheBoulderpolicewerelikewiseunhappyabouttheinterview.Atthetime,thepolicehadbeenun-abletore-interviewtheRamseysbecausetheirlawyerssaidtheywere“grievingandunavailable”(Schiller,1998,p.79).Followingtheinterview,thecallwentoutfromnewsroomsaroundthecountrytoobtainmorepageantfootageofJonBenét.AdirectorofAllStarPageantssuppliedtheABC’sDenveraffiliatewithJonBenét’sDecember17AllStarPageantvideo.OtherpageantsandorganisationsalsoprovidedfootageofJonBenét.Oncethesevideoswereairedacrosstheworld,they“addedasexualelementtothestory”(Schiller,1998,p.80)whichtransfixedthepublic.Atthesametime,thefocusandattentionturnedonPatsyRamsey.Anymotherwhoexploitedherchildinsuchawaymustbeabadmother,andsowaslikelyinvolvedinherdaughter’sdeath.

OverthenextweektheinvestigationbytheBoulderpolicestalled,promptingthemtoissueapress release asking themedia for information: “If anyofyouhaveuncovered informationthatmaybeofvalue to thiscase,wewouldappreciateyouforwarding the information to theinvestigatorsat theBoulderPoliceDepartment.”(BoulderPoliceDepartment,1997).LiketheMcCanns,theRamseyswerefrustratedbytheslowpoliceprogressandhiredtheirownprivateinvestigatorandanexpertincriminalprofiling.Theyalsohiredex-FBIprofilerJohnDouglastoconstructapsychologicalportraitofthekillerand,againliketheMcCanns,putinplaceanexpen-sivepublicrelationscampaign,setupawebsite,andofferedasubstantialrewardforinformation.Underthedirectiveoftheirmanager,theyheldvariousinterviewsandnewsconferences.Thesewereallmovesthatimmediatelyturnedthemediaagainstthem.

Mediaire,especiallyontabloidtelevisionandtalkbackradioshows,wasfuelledbyclaimsthepoliceweretreatingtheparents–theprimesuspects–withkidglovesbyacquiescingtotheirrefusaltobeinterviewedatpoliceheadquarters.MediareportsmademuchofPatsyRamsey’sob-sessionwithherdaughterasabeautyqueen,condemningherforherparentingchoices.RumoursreportedbythemediaoutletsincludedspeculationbypolicedetectiveSteveThomasthat:

therewassomesortofexplosiveencounterinthechild’sbathroomsometimepriortooneo’clockinthemorningwhenJonBenétwaspushedagainstahardsurfaceinflictingamortalheadwound.Shewasunconscious,butherheartwasstillbeat-ing.PatsywouldnothaveknownthatJonBenétwasstillalive,becausethechildalreadyappearedtobedead.Shepanickedandstagedaransomnoteandshovedherchild’sbodyintothetinyunusedbasementroom.(Thomas,2000,p.12)

ThomasalsoconjecturedthatPatsyRamseyhadcausedherdaughtertosufferinjurieswhichhadtheappearanceofsexualassault.TheRamseysenduredthisspeculationforyears,untilfinal-lyonAugust31,2000,PatsyRamseychallengedtheBoulderpolicetochargeher:“IfyouthinkIdidit,let’shaveatrialandgetitoverwith.”(Johnson,2000,p.1)ShetoldUSA TodayreporterKevinJohnsonthat“beingthefocusofamurdermysterythatstillgetsworldwideattention”had“drainedtheirfinancesandledthemandtheirson,Burke,13,intoacocoon-likeexistence,with-outTVornewspapersintheirhome”(Johnson,2000,p.1).

In2006,adecadeafterherdaughter’sdeath,PatsyRamseydiedofarecurrenceofovariancancer.Atthetimeshewasstillundertheshadowofsuspicionofinvolvementinthemurderofherdaughter.InJuly2008,afternewDNAevidenceindicatedamaleperpetratorunrelatedtothefamilywasresponsibleforJonBenét’sdeath,theBoulderCountyDistrictAttorneyofficiallyexoneratedPatsyRamseyof anywrongdoing.Anews release from theofficeof theBoulderCountyDistrictAttorneyannouncedthatPatsyandherfamilyhadbeencompletelyvindicatedinthemurder(BoulderCountyColoradoDistrictAttorney,2008).

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Kate McCann and MadeleineFromthemomentthree-year-oldMadeleineMcCannwasreportedmissingfromthefamily’s

holidayvillainPortugalonMay4,2007,herdisappearancebecameamediasensationaroundtheworld.TwodaysafterMadeleine’sdisappearance,theUKtabloidTheDaily Telegraphre-ported:

Itisastorythatchillstheheartofeveryparent;somethingthatwillhavestoppedeachoneofusdeadyesterdaywhenweheardaboutMadeleine’sdisappearance.“Therebutforthegraceof...”wasthesinglethoughtthatwouldhaveunitedus.(Jardin,2007)

Lessthan48hoursafterMadeleine’sdisappearancepeoplewereasking:Howcouldamotherleaveherchildalonewhileshewentouttodinner?TheSunday Timestoldreaders:“Britishlawdoesnotsetouttheminimumagewhenparentscanleavechildrenalone,butitdoesstipulatethatitisanoffenceifdoingsomightputthematrisk.”(Childwatch,2007)Byfocusingonthe“howcouldthey?”andsolabellingKateandGerryMcCannasbadparents,adistancewascre-atedbetweentheMcCannsandtherestofus,betweentheunimaginablehorrorandourownsafelives,reassuringusthatitwasallrighttobecaptivatedbytheirstory,itwasallrighttohungrilysurfthewebforthelatestnews,becauseitcouldnothappentous.

From thebeginning, thenewsdiscoursewasbifurcated intodichotomousnewsnarratives–oneportrayingKateMcCannasthetragicvictimofaterriblecrime,theotherrepresentingherasthekillerofherchild.When,inSeptember2007,thePortuguesepoliceofficiallynamedKateasanarguidi(suspect)andGerryasanaccessory,theMedeatropewasunleashedinnewshead-lines:“Maddy’smumtobecomeasuspect”,The Times reported(2007).Thetabloidpresswerelessrestrained:“Suspects!”wastheheadlineonthefront-pageoftheDaily Mirror(2007).The Sunposedthequestiondirectly:“KateMcCann:DidyousedateMaddie?”(2007).Uponhearingthenews,LindyChamberlaintoldNewsweek:“Herewehaveamotherandthere’stalkaboutherbeingchargedformurderandonceagaintheyhaven’tgotabody,they’vegotnofacts.”(Bulletin,October26,2007)

Kate McCann and Lindy ChamberlainKateMcCann,likeLindyChamberlain,hasbeenpubliclyjudgedonthebasisofhighlypreju-

dicial,luridandspeculativenewsreports.WhenKateMcCannwasnamedasanofficialsuspectbythePortuguesepolice,thetoneofthenewscoveragechangeddramatically,promptingLindyChamberlaintoappearonnational televisioninAustraliadefendingtheMcCanns(Cazzulino,2007,p.6). “IampossiblytheonlywomanintheworldwhoknowswhattheMcCannsarego-ingthroughinthecourtofpublicopinion,”shesaid,appealingforpeoplenottopre-judgetheMcCannsinthewayshehadbeenjudgedinthe1980s.ShesaidshefeltparticularlysorryforKateMcCannafterhearingreportsthatthePortuguesepolicewerepressuringhertoadmitherguilt.“Thatsoundslikeamirrorimage,doesn’tit?Lieandtellusthatyoudidit,andyoucangofree,tellusthetruthandyoucan’t.”(Cazzulino,2007,p.6)SheurgedpeoplenottojudgetheMcCannsonthebasisofcontroversialorflimsyforensicevidence,recallingtheinjusticeshehadenduredbecauseofincorrectforensicreports.

InthemanufactureofnewsaboutthedisappearanceofMadeleineMcCann,themediaonceagaincreatednewsreportsfromrumourandspeculation.Atbothtabloidandbroadsheetnewsoutlets, journalistswrotenewsnarrativeswithin theMedeaframe,usingunprovenallegationsand salacious speculation, as had the journalists writing salacious media reports about LindyChamberlain,depictingasfactmereconjecturesaboutbloodyhandprints,slitthroats,religioussacrifices,andarterialbloodspraysunderthedashboardofthefamilycar.

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AsinthecaseofAzariaChamberlain,theabsenceofabodycausedpoliceandmediatofocusonforensicsfromothersources.FromAugust2007,claimsemergeddailyofnewforensicevi-dencebeingfound,andthesegenerallyimpliedtheguiltoftheMcCanns.TheFrenchnewspaperFrance Soir speculatedthat“Maddie”hadbeendruggedbyhermother,citing“hardevidence”inthehandsofthePortuguesepolice,andleadingthewayforothernewsoutletsaroundtheglobetoreportthisnewdevelopment(Daily Mirror,September14,2007,p.1).TheDaily Mirror’scover-ageofthis“newdevelopment”illustrateshowthemediaboldlyandsimultaneouslyemployedthetwoframesof“guilt”and“innocence”.Thetophalfofitsfrontpagewasdevotedtoan“exclu-sive”softprofileoftheMcCanns,whilethebottomhalfwasgivenovertoastoryontheallega-tionsthatKateMcCanndruggedherdaughter,undertheheadline:“Maddypillsoverdose”.

Drawinguponunconfirmed,unsourcedpolicereports, themediaspeculated thatKateMc-CannhaddruggedMadeleine,whoaccidentallydiedfromanoverdose,andlaterhidherbodyforalmostamonthbeforedisposingofitatanunknownsite.AccordingtotheDaily Mail,thistheory, sourced fromallegedpolice leaks,was supportedby thefindingofbloodspattered inthe resort apartment rented by the McCanns.The misleading headline: “Blood clue found inMaddie’sroom”(Daily Mail,citedinThe Mercury,August8,2007)fuelledpublicsuspicions.Noattemptatbalancedreportingwasincludedwiththesespeculativemediareportsaboutbloodandbodyfluids.EventuallyDNAtestsshowedthatthetinyspecksofbloodfoundintheapartmentwerenotMadeleine’s,althoughnewsreportscarriedtheriderthat“theDNAresultswereonly72percentaccuratebecausethebloodsamplewasnotfresh”(Hudson,2007).Therumourwasfoundtobefalse,but,asintheLindyChamberlaincase,thedamagewasalreadydone.

LindyChamberlainhadbeenaccusedof slittingherdaughter’s throatwhile shesat in thefrontseatofthefamilycar–nowthemediaspeculatedthatMadeleine’sbloodandbodyfluidshadbeenfoundintheMcCann’shirecar.ThepressreportsofOctober16,2007,wereexplicit:“CorpseinMcCanncar”(Evening Standard);“Itwasherbloodinparents’hirecar:newDNAtestsreport”(Daily Express).Thesesensationalmediareportsdidnotincludequalificationsthattheunsubstantiatedforensicevidencemightbewrong.AssociatedPressjournalistCharlesMi-randawroteof twosnifferdogs,EddieandKeela,attachedtotheSouthYorkshirePoliceDe-partment,whohaddetectedhumanbloodinthehirecar.ThedogsbroughttoPortugaltohuntforclueswere“consideredEurope’sbestandwerehiredout for$1,200adayplusexpenses”(Miranda,2007a).

Mediareportsalsoclaimedthecadaver-seekingdogshaddetectedthe“smellofdeath”onKate McCann’s bible.Australia’s News Limited newspapers published Miranda’sAssociatedPressstoriesthroughout2007,withtheMercurynewspaperinHobartheadliningoneMirandastory:“Thescentofacorpse:dogssmelldeathonMcCannbible”(September10,2007).Thisheadline,andMiranda’sstory,eerilyparallelstherumourfromthe1980sthatthedeeplyreligiousChamberlains(MichaelwasaSeventh-DayAdventistpastor)hadkilledtheirdaughteraspartofareligioussacrifice.Atthetime,newsreportsclaimedthatLindyChamberlainhadunderlinedinredastoryinherfamilybibleinwhichawomankillsamanbydrivingatentpolethroughhishead.NowthemediaspeculatedthatthedevotedCatholicMcCannshadkilledtheirdaughterinabizarrereligiousritual.Mirandareportedthatthe“PortuguesedetectivesconfirmedthatMrsMcCann’sbiblewasakeypieceofevidenceinthecase”(Miranda,2007a).Mirandatoldreadersthata“BiblewiththescentofdeathandanEnglishspringerspanielcalledEddieholdthecluestothecaseofmissingMadeleineMcCann–Europe’smosttalked-aboutnewsstory”.Hisreportcontinued:

IthasbeenreportedthebiblewasfoundopenatthestoryofhowDavidkilledhisson.PolicesaytheimputationisMrsMcCann,astaunchCatholic,killedherchildafterreadingthepassageorreferredtothestorytotakesolaceforMadeleine’sac-cidentaldeath.(Miranda,2007a)

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Itwasalsoreportedthata“substantial”amountofMadeleine’shairhadbeenfoundinthebootofthehirecar.Undertheheadline“Hairfindstingsparents”,theDaily Mailtoldreadersthatdetectivessaidtherewas“somuchthatitcouldnotbefromDNAsecondarytransfer–onlyfromMadeleine’sbodybeingintheboot”(Greenhill&Seamark,2007).

LondonTimesjournalistJaniceTurnerwasoneofthefirstjournalists–andremainsoneofthefew–towriteofheruneasinessatthemedia’streatmentofKateMcCann.Inanopinionpiece,“Faceit:weneedtheMcCannstobeguilty”(2007),shetoldreadersamagazineeditorhadtoldhershewasrestrainingherselffromrunningaspreadon“MrsMcCann’sseeminglyinfinitesup-plyofsummertops:herheartbreakwardrobe”.Turneraskedwhysomanynewspapermailbaginternetforumswerebrimmingwithbile:

Whythissuddenoutburstofdark jokes inPrivate Eye and internetquipsabouthowmanychildrencanbecarriedinanewvehiclecalledthe“RenaultMcCann”?IsitreallyfuryatwhatKateandGerryMcCannmighthavedone?Orisitthatthepossibilityoftheirguilthasgivenmanypermissiontovent,atlast,emotionstheyhavebottledupallsummerlong?(Turner,2007)

MargaretteDriscolloftheSunday TimeswaslikewisedisturbedatthepackmentalityoftheBrit-ishnewsmedia.Inastoryheadlined“Toosereneforsympathy”(2007)sheputforwardapossibleexplanationastowhypeoplewerenotsympathetictowardsKateMcCann:“Intheageof‘miserymemoirs’andrealityTV,ifyoudoshowstoicismandcoolnessinthefaceoftrauma,youarede-spisedforit.”KateMcCann’smother,SusanHealy,toldtheLiverpool Echo thatherdaughterfeltthemediawaspersecutingherbecauseshedidnotlooksuitably“maternal”.Shetoldhermotherthatifshe“weighedanothertwostone,hadabiggerbosomandlookedmorematernal,peoplewouldbemoresympathetic”(Brown,2007).

Bymid-September,withtheallegationsmountingagainstKateMcCann,thepresspackwasbayingforherblood,with17,000peoplehavingsignedanonlinepetitioncallingforsocialser-vicestoremovetheMcCanntwinsfromtheirparents’care.Theanti-Katesentimentwasbol-steredwhenthe2007ManBookerprize-winningnovelist,AnneEnright,enteredthepublicde-bateinOctoberwithascathingarticleintheLondon Review of Books(2007).ByspeculatingthatKateMcCannhaddruggedMadeleine,EnrightgaveliteraryandintellectualweighttotheabusethatKatehadalreadyendured,andthenexposedthecoreofherannoyanceatKateMcCannandthemedia:“Weareobligedtolayeyesonherallthetime,”shewrote,admittingthatthis“makesharridans of us all” (Enright, 2007).Enright talked ofKateMcCann’s “flat sadness” and the“veryoccasionalglimpseofawoundednarcissismthatflecksherpublicappearances,”addingthatsheherselfhas“neverobjectedtogood-lookingwomen”.Shealsowroteaboutherhusband’sspeculationthatthe“Tapas9”hadbeeninvolvedinwife-swapping,andsheevenconsideredhowthebodyofadeadchildcouldfitintothebootofherowncar.SheadmittedthatinAugust,“thesuddenconvictionthattheMcCanns‘didit’”sweptoverherownfamilyholidayina“peculiarhallelujah”.Shecuttinglywrote:“Wedonotforgivethemthestupidstuff,likewearingribbons,orgoingjoggingnextday,orholdinghandsonthewayintomass.”Enrighttoldreadersshe“dis-likedtheMcCannsearlierthanmostpeople”andwasangrywiththemfortheirfailuretoacceptthattheirdaughterwasprobablydead:“Iwantedthemtogrieve,whichistosaytogoaway.”AndyetsheadmittedtoanobsessionwiththecaseandtosearchingforinterviewswiththeMcCanns“lateatnight,onYouTube”.ManyhavequestionedhowawriterassensitiveasEnrightcouldbesweptupinthisviciousblamingdiscourse,andwhyshefeltsocompelledtowriteapersonalreflectionandcritiqueofthedisappearanceofthree-year-oldMadeleinethatissodevoidofem-pathyforthegrievingparents.HowcouldEnright,whosenovel(The gathering)isregardedasa“hauntingportrayal”ofafictionalfamily’sgriefandloss,sobrutallyholdforthaboutanother,real-lifemother’sgriefandloss?PerhapsEnright’sintemperateandill-timedopinionsreaffirm

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thepotentpleasureweallfindinmakingjudgmentsaboutthemotherthrustintothepublicgazethroughtheunexplainedorsuspiciousdisappearanceofherchild.

LindyChamberlainsaysKateMcCannhasbeenthroughtheworstthingthatcaneverhappentoaparent–thelossofabelovedchildandthe“gutwrenchingincomparableagonyofnotknow-ingexactlywhat’shappened”.Shesaid:

Whatarewedoingbeingapublicjuryagain?Howcanyouapologisetomeanddothisagaintosomeoneelse?LifeisnotaTVshow.Youcan’thavetheanswersnicelypackagedinanhour.Sometimestherearenoeasyanswers.ThelifeoftheMcCannfamilyisnotarealityTVshowforyoutolivevicarioushorrorandtraumathrough.Theyarearealfamilyjustlikemyfamilywas.(Chamberlain-Creighton,2007)

LindyChamberlain remembered thepressure shehadbeenunderandsaid sheexpectedKateMcCannwouldbefeelingsimilarstrain.“Nothingcanmakeanyoneelseunderstand.It’simpos-sible,likelearningtoswimwhiledrowning.There’snotextbooktosay,‘thisishowtohandleit,thisiswhat’sgoingtohappennext,thisisthewayyoucangothroughit’.Itdoesn’thappen.”(Chamberlain-Creighton,2007)

Inearly2008, theMcCannsbegan legalproceedingsagainstBritishnewspapers theDaily ExpressandDaily Star,andtheirSundayeditions,fortheirhighlyprejudicialnewscoverage.InMarch2008,thenewsgroupcapitulated,offeringapublicapologytotheMcCannsandpayingout£550,000indamages.Allofthegroup’snewspaperscarriedunprecedentedfront-pageapolo-giestoKateandGerryMcCannforpublishingmorethan100articlesonthedisappearanceofMadeleinesuggestingtheyhadplayedapartinthedisappearanceoftheirdaughter.TheDaily Star embeddedtheirapologyintotheirbannerwiththeheading:“Kate&GerryMcCann:Sorry”,whiletheDaily Express ranwithalargerstoryunderneaththebannerwhichcarriedthesameheadline.TheDaily Expressapologyreadinpart:

TheDaily Expresstodaytakestheunprecedentedstepofmakingafront-pageapol-ogy toKateandGerryMcCann.Wedosobecauseweaccept thatanumberofarticlesinthenewspaperhavesuggestedthatthecouplecausedthedeathoftheirmissingdaughterMadeleineandthencovereditup.WeacknowledgethatthereisnoevidencewhatsoevertosupportthistheoryandthatKateandGerryarecom-pletely innocentof any involvement in theirdaughter’sdisappearance.We trustthatthesuspicionthathascloudedtheirlivesformanymonthswillsoonbelifted.(KateandGerryMcCann:wearesorry,2008)

Fivedaysbeforethisverypublicmeaculpa,theExpressgroupremovedallMcCannstoriesfromitswebsites,apracticewhich,intheworldofelectronicarchivingbycompaniesandinsti-tutions,willhavesignificantrepercussionsforscholarsinthefuture.MediacommentatorRoyGreensladesaidthefactthatthenewsgrouphadcapitulatedwithoutafightsuggestedtheirlegaladvisershadtoldthem“theyhadnochanceofwinningif thecasewenttotrial”(Greenslade,2008).Greensladewroteinhismediablogthatthe“apologiesfromtheDaily Express andtheDaily Starbroughtalljournalismintodisrepute”.Hearguedthatthenewsgroup’spracticewas:

nojournalisticaccident,butasustainedcampaignofvitriolagainstagrief-strickenfamily.Thestorieswerenotmerelyspeculative,but lacedwith innuendowhichcontinually made accusations against the McCanns on the basis of anonymoussourcesandwithoutanyhardevidence.(Greenslade,2008)

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DiscussionThesethreecasestudiesdemonstratethree“Medea”newsnarratives,showinghowthenews

mediacreatesmonstersoutofmotherswhotransgresswhatisconsideredappropriatematernalbehaviour,andhowinthemosthorrificcircumstancessocietycanturnonthemotherwhodoesnotfitintostandardperceptionsofwhatitistobea“good”mother.

Almost30yearsafterLindyChamberlain’svilificationbytheAustralianmediaandpublic,andadecadeafterPatsyRamsey’svilificationbytheAmericanandglobalmedia,itseemsnoth-ingmuchhaschanged.Why is this so?Whydo journalistscontinue tocreateprejudicialandjudgmentalnewsnarrativesaboutmaternity?Severalthingsappeartobegoingonhere:theblur-ringoftheboundariesbetweentheprivateandpublicspheres;society’s“voyeuristicthirstfordetailsofothers’privatelives”(Easton,1997,p.1,citedinCalvert,2004,p.6),whichisbeingfulfilled by a proliferation of reality television, prime-time infotainment shows, celebrity and“trueconfession”magazines;theseepageof“softnews”andinfotainmentintonewsbulletinsandthehardnewspagesofeventhemost“serious”newsoutlets;thecommercialisationofnews;andagrowingconcernattheperceivedbreakdownoffamilyandcommunityvalues,oftenexpressedintermsoftheconcomitantlinkbetweenmotherhoodandsocialdisorder.

Inconsideringthisproblematicdemonisingbythemediaof“deviant”formsofmaternity,oneusefulentrypointisprovidedbyHartley’sthesisthattheconceptofreadershipismoreimportantinthehistoryofjournalismthanthatofpower(Hartley,1998,p.50).Theroleofthenewsmedia,Hartleyargues,istogatherandinformandalsotoinfluencereadershipthroughteachingratherthanthroughpower.Hartleyarguesthatthegiantmoderninstitutionsofmedia,governmentandeducationareinfactconvergingaroundadesiretoinfluencereadershipsviacross-demographiccommunication,andtheir inter-connectionsincludethesamequest toinfluencetheheartsandmindsofreaders.Hearguesthatthe“feminisation,sexualisationandsuburbanisationofthe‘pub-licsphere’ofcriticaldebate”hasbeenofcrucialpoliticalimportance:“Itisfromtheso-calledprivatesphereofpersonalidentity,domesticlifeandeverydayculturethatsomeofthemostim-portantcontemporarypoliticalmovementshavearisen:thewomen’smovement,environmentalandpeacemovements,forinstance.”(Hartley,1998,p.51;seealso1992a;1992b;1996).Overthepastfourdecades,thisprocesshasseenthenewsmediadevelopanews-valueparadigmthatallowsforagreaterinclusionofprivatespheretopicsandissueswithinhardnewsdiscourse.Be-ginninginthe1960sand1970swiththeadventofthesecondwaveoffeminism,therapidshiftofwomenintotheworkforce,includingintonewsjournalism,hascontinuedunabatedinthe21st

century.Hartleyarguesthat“the‘classic’publicdomainhastakenonmoreandmoreoftheissuesthatwereonceregardedasprivate,ordinaryorunworthy,sothatnowthefrontpagesofeventhemostconservativenewspapersofrecordaresuffusedwithfeminisedimagesandprivatisednews”(Hartley,1998,p.51).Whilethisshiftinto“softnews”,orassomehavetermedit,the“tabloidi-sation”ofnews(seeGitlin,1997;Saltzman,1999;Carey,2002),hasbeenseeninmanywaysaspositive(Hartley,1996;Shattuc,1997;Turner,2004)andhasledtoademocratisationofnewsdiscourse,theshiftingofpowerfromthenewseliteto“ordinary”peoplehasalsoallowedfordisproportionatescrutinyofwomenwithinthedomesticsphere,comparedwiththescrutinyofmenwithinthedomesticsphere.Theopeningupoftheprivatespheretonewsdiscoursecameatatimewhenthereweregrowinganxietiesoverthefutureofthefamily,inthecontextofwhatsomecommentatorssawasarapiddecayofcommunityandfamilyvalues,commonlyexpressingtheseconcernsinawaythatallowedforalinktobemadebetweensocialdisorderandmotherhood.

Theshifttowardsincreasedreportageof“softnews”isalsointerconnectedwiththe“hyper-commercialism”ofthemedia,andthefailuretocommunicatenewsundertheumbrellaoftheFourthEstateasaprimarypublicduty,asthepublic’srighttoknow.Newshasbeentakenoutof its “publicduty” frameandwithincommercialorganisations it isnowseenasaprofitablecommoditytobeboughtandsold;asacommodity,itisencumberedwithallofthecommercial

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imperativesofthemarketplace.Hyper-commercialisation,accordingtoVavrus(2007),“worksintandemwithpost-feminism”,andisa“consumer-friendlyideologyfeaturedinsomuchnewsre-portingonwomen”(Vavrus,2007,p.47).However,thiscommercialisationofnewsandtheblur-ringoftheprivate/publicspheresoftenoperatestothedetrimentofwomen’sdiscursivecontrolandagency.The“badmother”newsstoryhasgainedincreasingpopularityinrecenttimes.Inaquesttocreatesoughtafternewsinahighlycompetitiveworld,journalistsfindthemselvesvyingforthelatestscoopandtheexclusiveinterview;whenthepublic’sinterestcontinuesunabated,asitdidinthethreecasestudiesdiscussedinthispaper,journalistsfindthemselvescaughtonanewsmanufacturingtreadmill,facedwiththeimperativetochurnoutevenmoresensationalstories.Thefranticquestforthescoopleadstotheproductionofnewsobtainedfromdubioussources,basedonrumourandinnuendo.Thistypeofjournalisticpracticedoesnotcreatewell-researched,measured,ethicalorcrediblejournalism.Anditseldomworkstowomen’sbenefit.

Whenjournalistscombinethiscompetitivejournalismwiththeage-oldpracticeofdrawinguponknownstereotypesandmythstomakesenseoftheinexplicable,areportingenvironmentiscreatedinwhichinnocentmotherscanfindtheirtragicexperiencerepresentedintermsoftheMedeaframe.Whencreatingnewsstoriesaboutchildrenwhogomissingoraremurderedonthestreets,journalistscreatestoriesthatreflectsociety’sfearoftheevilunknownmale;butwhenchildrengomissingfromtheirownhomes,oraremurderedinthem,itisthemother,thewickedwitchoffairytales,theMedeaofmyth,whoisquicklyappropriatedforthenewsframe.Themes-sageremainsclear:thegenderedpublic/privatesphereremainsintact,andwhenachilddiesordisappearsfromthesafetyofitsbedatnightitisthemotherwhoisprimarilytoblame.DouglasandMichaelsarguethatinAmericainthe1990s“thebig,nationalnewsstoriesfocusedincreas-inglyonamother’sprivate,subjectiveterrain”(2004,p.170),andthatthesestoriescontributedsignificantlytoa“vigilantecultureinwhichmothershadtobecarefullypolicedbecausetheyare,potentially,theirownchildren’sworstenemy”(Douglas&Michaels,2004,p.170).AccordingtoDouglasandMichaels,therewasalsosomethingmoretothesenewsnarratives:

Thethree-hundred-poundgorillaoffearlurkinginthesestories,theoneneverspo-kenaboutbut always there,was this:Were feminists right, thatwomendidnothavesomebuilt-inmaternalinstinct?Ifso,whatdidthatmeanforthefutureofthesociety?(Douglas&Michaels,2004,p.170)

Whilewomenhaveincreasinglytakenonrolesinthepublicsphere,therehasbeennoaccom-panyingdramaticshiftofresponsibilitiesforchildcareandhousekeeping.Womenhavesuddenlyfoundthemselvesinaworldwhereenjoyingequalitymeanstheyarerequiredtobeallthings,allthetime:theperfectwife,theperfecthomemaker,theperfectmother,andtheperfectemployee.AsFornahasarguedinher1999bookMothers of all myths,womenarestillseenastheprimarycaregiversandmotherhood, like religion,continues tobe“inextricably linkedwith themesofsacrificeanddedication,andthusthegoodmotherisonewhoendures”(Forna,1999,p.105).KateMcCannwascaughtupinthatwhichFornacallsthe“doublestandardofmotheringwhichtellswealthywomenthattheyaregoodmothersiftheygiveupworktostayathomewiththeirchildrenbutencouragespoorwomentowork”(Forna,1999,p.113).

Fromthe1980snewsorganisationsbecameinterestedinthedeviantmaternalsubject,fuelledbystories suchas theultimatematernaldelinquent, themurderingmother,exemplified in theglobalnewscoverageofLindyChamberlain’sconvictionforthemurderofherbabydaughter.Suddenly deviant mothers were of high news value. Children deprived of maternal nurturingbecame“latch-key”children,and“deviant”mothersbecamethefocusofmeta-newsnarratives:“crackcocainemothers”,“singlemothers”,“teenagemothers”,“careermothers”,andsoon.Themessagewasclear:“tofail tobeutterlyself-sacrificingall the timewasdeviant”(Douglas&Michaels,2004,p.171).Thebinary“good”versus“bad”mother framebecameacommonlyemployednewsparadigm.

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Thefeminisationofnewsmediainthepast40years,includingtheembeddingof“soft”newsstoriesabout“private”or“domestic”issuesintothe“hard”newspagesofnewspapersandintonewsbroadcasts,hasironicallyallowedforthecreationofnewsnarrativesthatcontinuetocon-strainmothersinaccordancewithTennyson’s19thcenturyidealof:“manforthefieldandwomanforthehearth”(Tennyson,1847,line437).Fornacontendsthatimagesofmothersare“createdbypopularculturetoreflectandsometimestomanipulateasetofvaluesaboutwhatconstitutesex-emplarymothers”(Forna,1999,p.118).Today,withthefocusoncelebrityculture,itiscelebritymotherswhofindthemselvesframedas“good”or“bad”mothersinfront-pagenews.DouglasandMereditharguethatthe“culturaltreacle”ofthe“celebritymomprofile”,withitskeyfeatures“refined,reinforcedandromanticized”wasthemostinfluentialmediaformusedtosellthe“newmomism”inthe1980s(2004,p.110,113):

Rising out of the ashes of feminism, and repudiating its critique of the narrowconfinesofmiddle-classmotherhood,thecelebritymomprofilewasanabsolutelycrucialtoolinthemediaconstructionofmaternalguiltandinsecurity,aswellastheromanticizingofmotherhood,inthe1980sandbeyond.(Douglas&Michaels,2004,p.113)

In recent times, theexcessivenewscoverageofcelebritymotherssuchasBritneySpears,Madonna,AngelinaJolieandNicoleKidmanhasnotonlycontinuedtoreinforceawoman’spri-maryroleasamaternalsubject,butalsoconstrainedhertothe“good”or“bad”motherparadigm.Andwhenthingsgowrongwithintheprivatesphere,asinthecasesofLindyChamberlain,PatsyRamseyandKateMcCann,newsnarrativescontinuetoframemothersaccordingto19thcenturyidealsandtousethemotherasascapegoatforsociety’sconcernsovertheperceivedcollapseof“familyvalues”.Themediatriedthesewomeninthecourtofpublicopinion,notbecausetherewasclearevidencelinkingthemtothedisappearanceanddeathsoftheirchildren,butbecausethesewomendidnotreflectthemotherhoodidealsofsacrificeanddedicationexpectedbythemediaandsociety.ThisstudydemonstratestheenduringnatureoftheMedeamythovertime,andsignalsitseffectivenessinthereinforcementofapervasiveclusterofvaluesassociatedwithWesternmaternity.InVictorianterminology,a“good”motherisonewhoendures,whoacceptsthatitisherlotto“sufferandbestill”(Ellis,1845,citedVicinus,1972,titlepage).

LindyChamberlainleftherbabyaloneinatentwhileshesocialisedwithfriends;shewasa“strange,emotionallydetachedwoman”(Burnett,2007);shedidnotreflecttheidealsofsacrificeanddedication:shewasa“deviant”mother.PatsyRamseylivedherformerbeautyqueenlifethroughheryoungdaughter;sheexploitedherdaughterforherowngratification;shewasahys-terical,over-emotionalwoman;shedidnotreflecttheidealsofsacrificeanddedication:shewasa“deviant”mother.The“composed”,“beautiful”,“rail-thin”KateMcCannleftherchildrenaloneinaPortuguesevillawhileshedinedwithfriends;shewas“unnaturallycoldanddistant”(Bur-nett,2007):shewastheantithesisofthemotherhoodidealofself-sacrifice.WhileKateMcCannisthemedia’slatestMedea,shefollowsinthefootstepsofLindyChamberlain,PatsyRamsey,and others including Sally Clark, DonnaAnthony andTrupti Patel (see Goc, 2007; 2009). Ifjournalismistocontinuetohavea“privilegedpositionasacentralinstitutionforestablishingwhatistobeconsideredasobjectiveortrueandevencommonsense”(Fursich,2009,p.246),itisimportantfornewsjournaliststoaccepttheresponsibilitiesthatcomewiththeirprivilegedposition.TheformereditoroftheManchesterGuardian,C.P.Scott,oncesaidthatnewspapershavea“moralaswellasamaterialexistence”(1921,cited inSinger&Ashman,2009,p.4).Journalistsindeedhaveamoraldutytothepublictoreportfairly,butwhilejournalistscontinuetocreatehighlyprejudicialnewsnarrativeswhichplaceinnocentmotherswithinaMedeanewsframe,journalismwillfailinitspublicduty.

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AuthorNicolaGocisalecturerinjournalism,mediaandcommunicationsattheUniversityofTasma-niainHobart.