Framework and Tools for Environmental Management in Africa

Framework and Tools for EnvironmentalManagement in Africa

Godwell_Ekpe_last2_prelim.pmd 07/03/2011, 14:161

Authors

Godwell Nhamo is a Programme Manager for the Exxaro Resources Ltd sponsoredChair in Business and Climate Change hosted by the Institute for Corporate Citizenship(ICC) at the University of South Africa (Unisa). Dr Nhamo holds a PhD from RhodesUniversity and did his postdoctoral work with the University of Witwatersrand. Dr

Nhamo has great interests in business and climate change as well as environmentalmanagement and policy. Some of Dr Nhamo’s current responsibilities are in teaching,research and training in corporate citizenship, sustainability sciences as well as businessand climate change.

Ekpe Inyang holds an MSc degree in Environmental Studies obtained from the Univer-sity of Strathclyde, UK. Mr Inyang’s early childhood experiences with the Korup rainforestcommunities seemed to have influenced his educational ambition and orientation and

spurred him to become a powerful advocate of conservation. Mr Inyang has many yearsof experience, having worked in different capacities with the World Wide Fund for Na-ture (WWF-UK), Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS-US) and the Pan African Institutefor Development West Africa (PAID-WA) in Cameroon. Mr Inyang has special interestsin environmental and development issues, gender equality, good governance and research.He is author of eight full-length plays, a collection of poems, a number of scientificarticles and a few textbooks. His other textbooks include The Forest: An African TraditionalDefinition; Environmental Education in Theory and Practice; Doing Academic Research; RedefiningAfrican Development (co-authored by Nana Célestin) and Environmental Problems in theBakossi Landscape.


Framework and Tools for EnvironmentalManagement in Africa

Godwell Nhamo & Ekpe Inyang

Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa

DAKAR


© CODESRIA 2011Council for the Development of Social Science Research in AfricaAvenue Cheikh Anta Diop, Angle Canal IV — P.O. Box 3304 Dakar, 18524, SenegalWebsite: www.codesria.org

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or anyinformation storage or retrieval system without prior permission from CODESRIA.

ISBN: 978-2-86978-321-8

Layout: Hadijatou SyCover Design: Ibrahima FofanaPrinted by : Imprimerie Graphi plus, Dakar, SenegalDistributed in Africa by CODESRIA

Distributed elsewhere by the African Books Collective, Oxford, UK.Website: www.africanbookscollective.com

The Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) is anindependent organisation whose principal objectives are to facilitate research, promoteresearch-based publishing and create multiple forums geared towards the exchange ofviews and information among African researchers. All these are aimed at reducing thefragmentation of research in the continent through the creation of thematic researchnetworks that cut across linguistic and regional boundaries.

CODESRIA publishes a quarterly journal, Africa Development, the longest standing Africa-based social science journal; Afrika Zamani, a journal of history; the African SociologicalReview; the African Journal of International Affairs; Africa Review of Books and the Journal ofHigher Education in Africa. The Council also co-publishes the Africa Media Review; Identity,Culture and Politics: An Afro-Asian Dialogue; The African Anthropologist and the Afro-ArabSelections for Social Sciences. The results of its research and other activities are alsodisseminated through its Working Paper Series, Green Book Series, Monograph Series,Book Series, Policy Briefs and the CODESRIA Bulletin. Select CODESRIA publicationsare also accessible online at www.codesria.org.

CODESRIA would like to express its gratitude to the Swedish International Develop-ment Cooperation Agency (SIDA/SAREC), the International Development ResearchCentre (IDRC), the Ford Foundation, the MacArthur Foundation, the Carnegie Corpo-ration, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), the DanishAgency for International Development (DANIDA), the French Ministry of Coopera-tion, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Netherlands Ministryof Foreign Affairs, the Rockefeller Foundation, FINIDA, the Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency (CIDA), the Open Society Initiative for West Africa (OSIWA),TrustAfrica, UN/UNICEF, the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF) and theGovernment of Senegal for supporting its research, training and publication programmes.


Contents

Acronyms ................................................................................................................................ v

Preface .................................................................................................................................... xi

Chapter 1Introduction and Overview ............................................................................... 1The Concept of Environment ............................................................................................................. 1African Environments and Colonial Histories ................................................................................. 2A Struggle for Environmental Management Space ......................................................................... 2The Challenge .......................................................................................................................................... 3

Book Outline .......................................................................................................................................... 4

PART I: FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Chapter 2Global Landmarks for Environmental Governance .......................................... 9

The Stockholm Declaration of 1972 ................................................................................................. 8The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development ........................................................... 13Millennium Development Goals ....................................................................................................... 18State of Environment Reporting ..................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 3International Environmental Law: Sources and Fundamentals ....................... 27

Sources of International Environmental Law ............................................................................... 28International Customs ......................................................................................................................... 29General Principles of Law ................................................................................................................. 30Written Texts ........................................................................................................................................ 30Multilateral Environmental Agreements ......................................................................................... 31Convention on Biodiversity ............................................................................................................... 32Convention on Wetlands of International Importance ................................................................ 33Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ......................................................... 34Convention to Combat Desertification ........................................................................................... 34Convention on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer .......................................................... 35Convention on Climate Change ......................................................................................................... 36United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ..................................................... 37The Kyoto Protocol ............................................................................................................................ 38The Basel and Bamako Conventions ................................................................................................ 38Implementation Constraints and Achievements for Africa .......................................................... 40


Chapter 4Environmental Management on African Agenda ............................................ 47

Environmental Concerns in Africa ................................................................................................... 47UNEP’s Role in Shaping Africa’s Environmental Agenda ........................................................... 48Donors and the African Environmental Agenda ........................................................................... 49New Partnership for Africa’s Development ................................................................................... 60Sub-regional Environmental Sustainability Initiatives ................................................................. 60Controversy on Hazardous Waste Management ............................................................................. 61

Chapter 5Uncertainties and Environmental Threats in Africa ........................................ 69

Deforestation ........................................................................................................................................ 69Logging ................................................................................................................................................... 73Harvesting Fuelwood .......................................................................................................................... 74Pastoralism ............................................................................................................................................ 77Land Degradation and Soil Impoverishment .................................................................................. 78Droughts, Desiccation and Desertification ..................................................................................... 80Wildlife De-population and Extinction .......................................................................................... 82Extinction ............................................................................................................................................. 84Water Pollution and Shortages .......................................................................................................... 85

Chapter 6Africa and Global Environmental Problems ................................................... 91

Air Pollution ......................................................................................................................................... 91Ozone Layer Depletion ....................................................................................................................... 95Acid Deposition ................................................................................................................................... 95Nuclear Wastes ..................................................................................................................................... 96Chemical Pollutants ............................................................................................................................. 97

PART II: SELECTED TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT

Chapter 7Conservation and Natural Resource Management ........................................ 103

Definitions .......................................................................................................................................... 103Classification of Natural Resources .............................................................................................. 105Arguments for Conservation ........................................................................................................... 108Ecological Perspective ..................................................................................................................... 108Conservation Strategies .................................................................................................................... 110Gender Considerations in Natural Resource Management ....................................................... 112

Chapter 8Environmental Impact Assessment and Public Participation ....................... 119

What is Environmental Impact Assessment? ............................................................................... 120Stages in the Environmental Impact Assessment Process ......................................................... 121


Interface Between the Project and EIA Assessment Cycles ..................................................... 123Stakeholders in the Environmental Assessment Impact Process ............................................. 131Public Participation: the Case of the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Project ........................... 137Emerging Issues of Concern ........................................................................................................... 140Public Participation .......................................................................................................................... 140

Chapter 9Understanding Environmental Education .................................................... 145

Ancient Landscapes Towards Modern Environmentalism ........................................................ 145Defining Environmental Education .............................................................................................. 149Education about the Environment ............................................................................................... 150Objectives of Environmental Education ..................................................................................... 151Organisational and Institutional Arrangements for Environmental AssessmentEducation for Sustainability ........................................................................................................... 159

Chapter 10Sustainability Reporting ............................................................................... 163

Global and National Sustainability Reporting Initiatives ......................................................... 163Sustainability in Business: A Historical Perspective ................................................................... 169Company Level Sustainability Reporting Guidelines ................................................................. 170Sustainability Reporting: A Global Overview ............................................................................ 173The Sustainability Reporting Nexus .............................................................................................. 175Understanding the ‘Triple Bottom Line’ Metaphor .................................................................... 176Sustainability Banking in Africa ..................................................................................................... 183

Chapter 11Promotion of Formal and Non-formal Environmental Education .............. 187

Some Paradigms of Environmental Education .......................................................................... 187Eco-centricism ................................................................................................................................... 188Formal Environmental Education Programmes ......................................................................... 189Methods for the Promotion of Formal Environmental Education ........................................ 195The Use of Mobile Education Units ............................................................................................ 200Monitoring and Evaluation of Environmental Education Programmes ............................... 202Literature Review ............................................................................................................................. 202

PART III: EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Chapter 12Conclusion: Emerging Issues and the Way Forward ............................................. 211



Acronyms

ACCA Association of Chartered Certified AccountantsAICC African Institute of Corporate CitizenshipAKASA Awareness, Knowledge, Attitude, Skills, ActionAR Afforestation and ReforestationBCSD Business Council for Sustainable DevelopmentBEE Black Economic Empowerment

BOD Biological Oxygen DemandCBOs Community Based OrganisationsCDM Clean Development MechanismCFC ChlorofluorocarbonsCH

4Methane

CIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCITES Convention in International Trade in Endangered SpeciesCO Carbon MonoxideCoP Conference of the PartiesCSR Corporate Social ResponsibilityDANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDDT DichlorodiphenyltrichloroethaneDEAT Department of Environment and Tourism

DESD Decade of Education for Sustainable DevelopmentDNA Designated National AuthorityDOE Designated Operational EntityEA Environmental AppraisalEA Environmental Assessment – or – Environmental AuditingEB Executive BoardECA Economic Commission for AfricaECR Excellence in Corporate ReportingEE Environmental EducationEEASA Environmental Education Association of Southern AfricaEIA Ecological Impact Assessment – or – Environmental Impact Analysis

– or – Environmental Impact Assessment

EMP Environmental Management Plan


x Framework and Tools for Environmental

ENDA Environment and Development ActivitiesEPI Environmental Performance IndexESI Environmental Sustainability IndexFAO Food and Agricultural OrganisationFTSE Financial Times Stock ExchangeGDP Gross Domestic ProductGEF Global Environmental FacilityGIS Geographic Information SystemsGRI Global Reporting Initiative

HFCs HydrofluorocarbonsHIA Health Impact AssessmentHIV-AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus - Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeIDSA Institute of Directors of South AfricaIET International Emissions TradingIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeISR Integrated Sustainability ReportingIUCN World Conservation UnionIWMI International Water Management InstituteJI Joint ImplementationJSE Johannesburg Stock ExchangeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsMEAs Multilateral Environmental Agreements

MoMET Ministry of Environment and TourismN

2O Nitrogen Oxide

NEAPs National Environmental Action PlansNEPAD New Economic Partnership for Africa’s DevelopmentNGO Non-governmental OrganisationNRM Natural Resource ManagementNTFP Non-timber Forest ProductsOAU Organisation for African UnityODSs Ozone-depleting SubstancesPb LeadPDD Project Design DocumentPFCs Perfluorocarbons

RISDP Regional Indicative Strategic Development PlanRSA Republic of South AfricaSADC Southern African Development CommunitySAICM Strategic Approach to International Chemicals ManagementSAIEA Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment


Acronyms xi

SF6

Sulphur HexafluorideSIA Social Impact AssessmentSIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation AgencySoER State of Environment ReportingSRG Sustainability Eeporting GuidelinesSRI Socially Responsible InvestmentTBL Triple Bottom LineToR Terms of ReferenceUN United NationsUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUS United States of AmericaWCED World Commission on Environment and DevelopmentWMO World Meteorological OrganisationWRI World Research InstituteWSSD World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentWWF World Wide Fund for Nature



Preface

For a long time, Africa’s environmental problems have been addressed out of context.This context can be split into two: the colonial and postcolonial periods. Although bothof these contexts are worthy of equal attention, it is in the postcolonial era that wellcalculated strategies to prolong enslavement have been used deliberately by our formermasters, leading to the continent’s impoverishment. In addition, many studies on theenvironment have concentrated on science: evidence of environmental decay, resultingin an information gap in the frameworks and tools for good environmental stewardship.

This book, therefore, does not dwell much on repeating and re-presenting thescience and the uncontested facts of environmental decay in the continent. Rather, weassume and maintain that enough facts on environmental degradation have alreadybeen documented. What is lacking is the need to understand how relevant policyframeworks and tools, available both at global and continental levels, can be utilised toreverse the current and possible prolonged decay in our environment. Discussions offrameworks and tools for environmental management in Africa cannot evade the role ofinternational multilateral environmental agreements, nor other global landmarks, suchas the Earth Summit and the Millennium Development Goals.

First, the conceptual framework for environmental management in Africa is presented.Selected historical landmarks and donor and aid agency narratives are outlined. Thebook then sets out selected key environmental tools, such as environmental impactassessment, public participation, environmental education, corporate governance and

sustainability.This textbook has been written against the background of short supply of effective

and up-to-date educational material on environmental management available to Africanscholars, industry, educators, government officials and NGOs. Not only are thesestakeholders disempowered by the shortage of environmental management material,they are critically short of African-oriented environmental management textbooks.

Godwell Nhamo

& Ekpe Inyang



Chapter 1

Introduction and Overview

African governments have laid their hands on most international proposals made inresponse to the need to address environmental decay. But, unlike the sequential andharmonious progression witnessed from the developed countries, starting from theStockholm Declaration on Human Environment in 1972, through the Rio de Ja-neiro Earth Summit on Environment and Development in 1992, to the Johannes-burg World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, Africa has been forcedinto a discrete progression in addressing the requirements of such global landmarks.Evidently, a number of factors have forced the continent into such positions, andthey can be listed, among which are the need to be part of the global village, thequest for rapid economic development and attached donor strings that firmly estab-lished, and are prolonging, the master-slave relationship between Africa and its formercolonial masters. Clearly, we have for a long time been beggars of resources fromour former colonial and other masters. Through such set-ups, some African govern-ments have been held to ransom and arm-twisted for the love of development aidthat has done little to eradicate extreme poverty and environment damage.

The Concept of Environment

The issues pertaining to the framework and tools for good environmental steward-ship in Africa may not be fully understood without analysing the concept of envi-ronment. In this book, the term environment is conceptualised as being constitutedby both the following dimensions: biophysical (natural) and human (socio-economicand political) dimensions. The biophysical dimension is made up of elements such asclimate (temperature, rainfall, wind and evaporation), air, topography, geology, soils,vegetation (flora), fauna (animals), groundwater (hydrogeology), and surface water(hydrology). On the other hand, the human dimension constitutes element such aspeople, land tenure and use, archaeological, social, cultural, political and economicaspects. However, both the biophysical and human environments should be viewedas constantly interacting in a dynamic nature that supports all forms of life on earth.

This kind of conceptualisation of the environment helps us understand issuessurrounding the uncertainty of environmental stewardship in Africa. We are in aposition to engage holistically with some of the discourses that ground and shape

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2 Framework and Tools for Environmental Management in Africa

narratives pertaining to environmental threats, particularly those of non-Africanorigin, and the motives behind them.

African Environments and Colonial Histories

It may be wrong to assume that the current environmental problems stem fromAfrican origin, neglect or lack of civilisation. Much of the current environmentaldecay is a manifestation of Africa’s colonial histories. Such histories testify to thefact that the partitioning of the continent and its resources, including the brutaldissection of cultural arrangements and physical boundaries, have contributed im-mensely to the wounded terrain we see and experience today.

Populations were re-grouped into squashed, infertile and fragile ecological zonesacross the face of the continent, resulting in the collapse of ecosystems and theemergence of the cycle of poverty – environment degradation. With the aid offorced, near-slave labour, mineral wealth was exploited and exported with muchgreed. Scores of huge open pits and scary underground mine shafts are still visibletoday. Africans had to make ends meet, and sacrifice their lives to regain dignity andland through many liberation wars. Fertile soils and healthy ecological zones werereserved for the privileged few colonial masters who, even today, have vast tracts ofland (including under-utilised land) which they refuse to release for equitable redis-tribution. Hence, the fact remains that Africa’s environmental problems mirror itspast. It is only when all stakeholders acknowledge these anomalies that a sustainablesolution to the current continued environmental damage can be holistically under-stood and found. Yet, many of our former colonial masters wish to conceal thiscritical pillar of understanding that shapes our future. Instead, they portray a pictureof failing African governments, ineffective governance structures, corruption, pov-erty, the HIV/AIDS scourge, and so on. Therefore, in this text, the environment isas much understood a political and social question as it is an environmental ques-tion. However, many donor agencies present different narratives.

A Struggle for Environmental Management Space

The manner in which various Northern donors and countries have placed the envi-ronment on African governments’ agenda is best seen as a struggle for environmen-tal management space in Africa; and similarly, as a contest and battle for political,social and economic realisation by the foreign entities involved. The possible results(giving the benefit of the doubt) are the unintended consequences of the re-parti-tioning of Africa through the so-called environmental strategies and the associatedfinance mechanisms originating outside the continent. Some of the key financiersand aid agencies are the World Bank, the Canadian International Development Agency(CIDA), Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and the Danish Inter-national Development Agency (DANIDA). These, along with other aid agencies anddonors, have come up with a number of environment related strategies that include:CIDA’s Policy for Environmental Sustainability in 1992; Strategy for Denmark’sEnvironmental Assistance to Developing Countries 2004-8, SIDA’s 2002 Country


3Introduction and Overview

Strategies: Guidelines for Strategic Environmental and Sustainability Analysis; andthe World Bank’s Environment Strategy. More recently, the Africa Union, AfricanDevelopment Bank and other sub-regional groupings have developed ‘home grown’strategies for good environmental stewardship. The key provisions of some of theseenvironmental strategies are revisited in Chapter Four. A number of internationalNGOs, such as Greenpeace, have also propelled various agenda for environmentalmanagement in Africa.

The Challenge

This book outlines a framework for environmental management in Africa. It syn-thesises tools available to address environmental decay on the continent. It aims tobring to our attention the discourses surrounding who shapes and decides the conti-nent’s environmental policies. It answers questions such as: In what contexts aresuch policies and tools designed and implemented? How are these policies and toolsapplied and addressed to solve the crucial environmental concerns and problems weface? Why are these environmental policies and tools failing, or why are they notproducing the desired results, in and for Africa?

The text reveals that part of the problem has been the fact that in recent years,the development field in Africa has witnessed a proliferation of global discoursesand a flurry of ideas and activities promising to tackle perennial problems, amongthem inequality, environmental degradation and underdevelopment. Whilst the glo-bal development community and the African continent are grappling with theconceptualisation and implementation of one discourse, another discourse is sud-denly unveiled and thrown into the mix. This means that the development commu-nity, particularly in Africa, has to literally and immediately pursue the new idea,almost always restructuring existing research and policy programmes to fit new con-cepts. It then becomes an aspect of the ‘old’ versus the ‘new’ environment agenda,rather than governments giving themselves time to harmonise new ideas with oldideas, and finding a way forward. Many environmental policies and tools have suf-fered this dilemma, and environmental concerns and problems have been only par-tially addressed.

Until recently, modernisation theories emanating from the developed world havedominated development thought and environmental policies, leading to researchand development interventions that ignore the indigenous and local knowledge basesand skills that Africa can offer. The marginalisation and the neglect of indigenousenvironmental knowledge, due to its perceived inferiority, has led to growing popu-larity and dominance of Western science, characterised by its so-called 'universalism'.Where appropriate, this text will provide insights with regard to the manner in whichAfrican governments can use the tools available to address environmental concernsand problems ‘the African way’.



Book Outline

This book comes in two major parts: framework for environmental management(Part I) and selected tools for environmental management (Part II). The sub-themesaddressed in the various chapters are summarised in the following paragraphs.

Chapter Two focuses on global landmarks for environmental management, in-cluding The Brundtland Report of 1987, the United Nations Summit on Environ-ment and Development that took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 14–17 June 1992,leading to the adoption of Agenda 21 as the global action plan on sustainable devel-opment, the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the Millennium Develop-ment Goals and the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

Sources and fundamentals of international environmental law are discussed inChapter Three, which presents law-making treaties, and how the procedures aroundnegotiation, adoption, authentication and ratification are conducted. Internationalcustoms and the general principles of environmental laws are considered. However,the larger part of the chapter is dedicated to the fundamentals of selected multilat-eral environmental agreements (MEAs), which are of significance to Africa, and notdiscussed elsewhere in the book. Some of the MEAs highlighted include the Con-vention on Biological Diversity, the Ramsar Convention, the Convention on Inter-national Trade of Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna, Convention to CombatDesertification, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, andthe Kyoto Protocol. The last part of the chapter dwells on addressing implementa-tion gaps faced when domesticating these MEAs.

Chapter Four interrogates how environmental problems are put on the Africanagenda. The role of key donors such as SIDA, DANIDA and CIDA, and how theirvarious environmental management strategies have pursued specific enviro-politicalagendas, are outlined. The chapter also traces how new Afro-centric enviro-politicalagendas are emerging with the coming into effect of the Africa Union’s New Eco-nomic Partnership for Africa’s development (NEPAD) Environment Strategy, andthe African Development Bank Group’s Policy on the Environment. The abovechapters make up Part I.

Chapter Five is dedicated to addressing key environmental problems in the con-tinent with an emphasis on common resources. Among the issues addressed aredeforestation, wildlife de-population and extinction, land degradation, drought,desertification, soil impoverishment, air and water pollution, global warming, andgender and the environment.

Aspects relating to Africa and global environmental problems are addressed inChapter Six. Some of the major global environmental problems discussed in muchdepth include air pollution, global warming and climate change, ozone-layer deple-tion and acid deposition. The chapter also addresses issues of nuclear waste andwaste treatment in general.

Chapter Seven considers natural resources, and definitions and objectives ofconservation and natural resource management. From the definition, it is estab-lished that conservation and natural resource management are synonymous. The


5Introduction and Overview

chapter highlights some of the causes and effects of the mismanagement of naturalresources. It analyses the distinction and link between conservation and sustainabledevelopment, advancing arguments and suggesting strategies for conservation. Itends by emphasising the need to seek the active participation of women in conser-vation and natural resource management, given their various levels of interactionwith environmental resources.

Issues concerning environmental impact assessment (EIA) and public participa-tion are considered in Chapter Eight. The chapter addresses these aspects in a uniquefashion, looking at both the typical project and EIA cycles simultaneously. The valueof this approach is the benefit that stakeholders using this resource will have whenaddressing sustainability issues at various project stages, especially with regard to theinvolvement of the public in practical set-ups.

Environmental education, as one of the key environmental management tools,is reviewed in Chapter Nine. The chapter starts with a historical account of thedevelopment of environmental education, highlighting the various movements andkey actors. It proceeds to a discussion of the conferences that led to the formula-tion of its definition and objectives, ratification and internationalisation. Adequateattention is given to the definition, scope, forms and objectives of the subject. Aclear distinction is made between awareness raising and sensitisation, in order toinform policy and practice. A discussion of organisational structures and institutionsthat provide excellent environments and programmes is aimed at schools, local com-munities and the general public. Some prerequisite activities, prior to the implemen-tation of an environmental education programme, are also proposed.

Chapter Ten introduces the relatively new concept of sustainability reporting.This tool has been effective in making businesses conscious of their environmental,social and community responsibilities. Through various voluntary and quasi-manda-tory initiatives, sustainability reporting has resulted in companies doing more for theenvironment in Africa than before. Instead of reporting and accounting only onfinancial matters, corporate entities are now able to report on ways in which the‘triple bottom line’ of the economic, environmental and social aspects of sustain-able development is being effectively addressed both within and outside companypremises.

Chapter Eleven deals with presentations around non-formal and formal envi-ronmental education programmes, approaches for their implementation and meth-ods, as well as monitoring and evaluation tools. These issues are usually given littlespace, or are neglected in some of the literature dealing with tools of good environ-mental management, especially in Africa.

The single-chapter contained in Part III, Chapter Twelve presents emerging en-vironmental concerns and tools, and concluding remarks. Emphasis is on the needto consider climate change and the loss of biodiversity as the key environmentalmanagement challenges. To minimise the impacts of climate change and loss of



biodiversity, including human security, African governments and individual commu-nities are encouraged to take strong positions to work together to address the prob-lems in an ‘African way’.

This chapter re-introduces the key elements covered in this book. The term‘environment’ captures both human and non-human facets. The term ‘environ-ment’ embraces a holistic picture. It is not used in a limited context to cover conser-vation or ecology alone. The chapter explains the fact that it is wrong to attributeAfrican environmental ills to political, social and economic neglect by African gov-ernments. But rather, it needs to be acknowledged that colonial histories still remainembedded in the terrain of the continent. This kind of acknowledgement is neces-sary to give those in positions of influence, power and authority a holistic overview,putting in place strategies to address environmental decay in the continent.


PART I

FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT



Chapter 2

Global Landmarks for EnvironmentalGovernance

Introduction

The ‘environment’ became a global policy issue in the mid-1960s (Carter 2001). Bythat time, many governments had adopted a techno-centric approach that consid-ered environmental problems to be the unfortunate side-effects of economic growthand development. Therefore, the main assumption was that governments wouldeventually find a way of addressing such problems (Howlett and Ramesh 1995).The standard approach to dealing with such environmental problems was re-activerather than pro-active (UNEP 2002; UNEP 2003b; UNEP 2003a). This approachcould not, however, stem the ever-increasing and complex environmental problems,such as resource depletion, waste, pollution and global warming.

A number of global landmarks in environmental management and policy areworth mentioning: The World Commission on Environment and Development(WCED), which produced the now famous document Our Common Future (or TheBrundtland Report) (WCED 1987), the United Nations Summit on Environmentand Development that took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 14–17 June 1992, lead-ing to the adoption of Agenda 21 as the global action plan on sustainable develop-ment (UNCED 1992), the World Summit on Sustainable Development (UN 2002),the Millennium Development Goals (UNDP 2003) and the Decade of Educationfor sustainable Development (UNESCO 2004). These and other relevant land-marks are discussed in the following sections.

The Stockholm Declaration of 1972

The Stockholm Declaration was made in Stockholm, Sweden in June 1972. Thisfollowed an invitation by Sweden, as it had just experienced ‘severe damage tothousands’ of its lakes from acid rain following critical air pollution in WesternEurope (UNEP 2003a:4). Twenty-six principles and an Action Plan of 109 recom-mendations guide the Stockholm Declaration (UNEP 2003a; Sands 2003; Leeson1995). The general principles from the Stockholm Declaration are presented inBox 2.1.


Framework and Tools for Environmental Management in Africa10

Box 2.1: Principles of the Stockholm Declaration

Principle 1: Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned

Principle 2: Natural resources must be safeguarded

Principle 3: The earth’s capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained

Principle 4: Wildlife must be safeguarded

Principle 5: Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted

Principle 6: Pollution must not exceed the environment’s capacity to clean itself

Principle 7: Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented

Principle 8: Development is needed to improve the environment

Principle 9: Developing countries therefore need assistance

Principle 10: Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out envi-ronmental management

Principle 11: Environment policy must not hamper development

Principle 12: Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards

Principle 13: Integrated development planning is needed

Principle 14: Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment anddevelopment

Principle 15: Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems

Principle 16: Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies

Principle 17: National institutions must plan development of states’ natural resources

Principle 18: Science and technology must be used to improve the environment

Principle 19: Environmental education is essential

Principle 20: Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developingcountries

Principle 21: States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others

Principle 22: Compensation is due to states thus endangered

Principle 23: Each nation must establish its own standards

Principle 24: There must be cooperation on international issues

Principle 25: International organisations should help to improve the environment

Principle 26: Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated

Source: Adopted from Clarke and Timberlake (1982) as cited by UNEP (2003: 3).

The significant achievements of the Stockholm resolutions were: (a) recommenda-tions for the establishment of new institutions and coordinating mechanisms for theinstitutions already in place (the Action Plan); (b) the definitions of a framework forfuture actions to be undertaken by the international community (the recommenda-tions); and (c) the adoption of the guiding principles outlined in Box 2.1 (Sands


Global Landmarks for Environmental Governance 11

2003). The Action Plan recommended that the UN General Assembly formulatefour institutions that included an inter-governmental Governing Council for Envi-ronmental Programmes to guide and coordinate environmental management pro-grammes; an environment secretariat; an Environment Fund and lastly, an inter-agency Environmental Co-ordinating Board that would ensure cooperation andcoordination among major bodies involved in the implementation of environmentalprogrammes within the UN systems. The United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) was born out of the Stockholm Declaration as the secretariat. Today, itsmission is spelt out as the need to:

Provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by in-spiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of lifewithout compromising that of future generations (UNEP 2003a:4).

According to Clarke and Timberlake (cited in UNEP 2003a:5), the environmentwas placed firmly on most government agendas following the Stockholm Declara-tion. The authors indicate that there were only around ten ministries and depart-ments responsible for the environment in existence prior to the declaration. Whereasby 1982, more than 110 countries had established such ministries or departments todeal with pressing environmental matters.

Sandbrook (1992), credits the Stockholm Conference for having managed toplace the environment in the global arena. However, he notes deep divisions be-tween countries of the North (developed) and those of the South (emerging anddeveloping), an aspect that re-surfaced again during the Rio Summit. According toSandbrook’s observations, the conference was a dialogue of the deaf between therich and the poor. In order to clean up the polluted world, governments from theNorth advocated for all nations and industry to agree to share the burden. How-ever, governments of the South wanted industry to create more jobs and eradicatepoverty, even at the cost of the environment. In the perspective of former India’sPrime Minister Indhira Ghandi, of all the pollutants that were faced, the worst waspoverty (Sandbrook 1992).

Our Common Future and Sustainable Development

Our Common Future called upon world governments to embrace the concept ofsustainable development, defined as development that ‘meets the needs of the presentwithout compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’(WCED 1987:8). This way, sustainable development implied capturing the threeconventional pillars namely: economic, social and environmental (Figure 2.1).

The aim of the World Commission on Environment and Development was tofind practical ways of addressing the environmental and developmental problemsof the world (WCED 1987). In particular, it had three general objectives: re-examine the critical environmental and development issues and formulate realisticproposals for dealing with them; propose new forms of international cooperationon these issues so as to influence policies and events in the direction of needed



changes; and raise the levels of understanding and commitment to action ofindividuals, voluntary organisations, businesses, institutes and governments. OurCommon Future reported on many global realities and recommended urgent actionon eight key issues to ensure that development was sustainable. These were: popula-tion and human resources, food security, the urban challenge, energy, industry, spe-cies and ecosystems, managing the commons, and conflict and environmental deg-radation. These eight key issues were identified as early indicators of sustainabledevelopment.

Unsustainable development was attributed mostly to the limitations of technol-ogy and social organisation, natural resources, and the ability of the biosphere totake up the cumulative negative impacts from human activities. Hence, both tech-nology and social organisation could be regulated and improved to pave the way fora new era of sustainable economic growth (WCED 1987). Unsustainable economicgrowth was understood as the main cause of skewed resource distribution (includ-ing income) leading to poverty, as people failed to provide basic needs such as food,shelter and clothing. The poor were associated with the direct impoverishment ofthe environment, as ‘a world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone toecological and other catastrophes’ (WCED 1987:8). In this regard, calls were madefor economic growth that realised the importance of the earth’s life support sys-tems: water, soil and the atmosphere (Cahill 2002).

Our Common Future’s definition of sustainable development was also adoptedduring the UN Earth Summit of 1992, which set Agenda 21 as a global action planfor implementing sustainable development (UNCED 1992). However, in as muchas the definition takes cognisance of people, many environmental policies and legis-

Figure 2.1: Sustainable Development from Our Common Future

Social Dimension

Environmental Dimension

Sustainable Development

Economic Dimension



lation, both on global and national scales, it hardly recognises them as the primaryfocus of development (Jacobs cited in Cahill 2002:2). In this respect, Jacobs identi-fies equity (commitment to meet basic needs of the poor), quality of life (thateconomic growth should not be taken to equate to human well-being), and participa-tion (involving as many stakeholders as possible in environmental policy processes)as additional key themes in attaining sustainability. Cahill (2002) also warns of theneed to distinguish between the concepts of sustainability and sustainable develop-ment. He maintains that the former refers to the end-state, whereas the latter refersto the means by which that end is achieved. However, the two terms are often usedinterchangeably. This is the case in this book.

Although popular and, at times, generic, the phrase ‘sustainable development’ iscomplex and often highly contested. This has resulted in its mis-use at various fora,from the grassroots, through to national, regional and global levels. In fact, it hasbecome a global refrain. Therefore, what we present here are a few pointers to whatwe believe could comprise true sustainability in managing the environment for pov-erty eradication in Africa. True sustainability implies that we as individuals, house-holds, communities, nations and the whole world at large succeed in removing self-ish motives from development; are ready to be good environmental stewards; andthat world governments set the right platforms for true dialogue and let sustainabilityagenda filter down to regional and national levels, resulting in tangible deliverables atthe grassroots. The last point means refraining from repeating extraordinarily re-source-intensive global talk-shows, such as the 1992 Rio Summit, 1997 Rio+5 Sum-mit and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg,South Africa, commonly known as the WSSD, and its Implementation Plan.

Leeson (1995) advocates the principle of sustainable development. He is par-ticularly concerned with broader national or regional trends, and the long-term con-sequences of negative social and economic developments. This confrontspolicymakers with the task to select between ‘more immediate, quantifiable meritsof a proposed course of action and the more speculative benefits to future genera-tions of present self-denial’ (Lesson 1995:38). However, in Africa, the time hascome when we may need to consider sustainable development and sustainability asopen questions. Since no one can really accurately predict the future, we shouldcontinue searching for appropriate positioning and responses, and approachsustainability with an open mind, acting responsibly.

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3–14 June1992, underscored twenty-seven principles (UN 1992). These principles, shown inBox 2.2, are set out here in full; bearing in mind that access to online informationremains critical in many African countries. The principles will permit further debateand research into how far the African continent and those outside it have measuredup to them.



Box 2.2: Principles Established by the Conference on Environmentand Development, 1992

Principle 1: Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. Theyare entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

Principle 2: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and theprinciples of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources,pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the respon-sibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not causedamage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits ofnational jurisdiction.

Principle 3: The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet develop-mental and environmental needs of present and future generations.

Principle 4: In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shallconstitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered inisolation from it.

Principle 5: All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicatingpoverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order todecrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of themajority of the people of the world.

Principle 6: The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the leastdeveloped and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special prior-ity. International actions in the field of environment and development should alsoaddress the interests and needs of all countries.

Principle 7: States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect andrestore the health and integrity of the earth’s ecosystem. In view of the differentcontributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but dif-ferentiated responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibil-ity that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development, in viewof the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the tech-nologies and financial resources they command.

Principle 8: To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people,States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and con-sumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.

Principle 9: States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for sus-tainable development by improving scientific understanding through the exchangeof scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development,adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including new and innovativetechnologies.

Principle 10: Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concernedcitizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appro-priate access to information concerning the environment that is held by publicauthorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their



communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes.States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by makinginformation widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative pro-ceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.

Principle 11: States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental stand-ards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental anddevelopmental context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countriesmay be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other coun-tries, in particular developing countries.

Principle 12: States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open internationaleconomic system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable develop-ment in all countries, to better address the problems of environmental degrada-tion. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not constitute ameans of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction oninternational trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges out-side the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided. Environmentalmeasures addressing transboundary or global environmental problems should, asfar as possible, be based on an international consensus.

Principle 13: States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for thevictims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperatein an expeditious and more determined manner to develop further internationallaw regarding liability and compensation for adverse effects of environmental dam-age caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyondtheir jurisdiction.

Principle 14: States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation andtransfer to other States of any activities and substances that cause severe environ-mental degradation or are found to be harmful to human health.

Principle 15: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall bewidely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats ofserious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as areason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degrada-tion.

Principle 16: National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalisation ofenvironmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account theapproach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with dueregard to public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.

Principle 17: Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be under-taken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact onthe environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.

Principle 18: States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters or otheremergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environmentof those States. Every effort shall be made by the international community to helpStates so afflicted.



Principle 19: States shall provide prior and timely notification and relevant information topotentially affected States on activities that may have a significant adverse trans-boundary environmental effect and shall consult with those States at an early stageand in good faith.

Principle 20: Women have a vital role in environmental management and development.Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.

Principle 21: The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should bemobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable develop-ment and ensure a better future for all.

Principle 22: Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities havea vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowl-edge and traditional practices. States should recognise and duly support theiridentity, culture and interests and enable their effective participation in the achieve-ment of sustainable development.

Principle 23: The environment and natural resources of people under oppression,domination and occupation shall be protected.

Principle 24: Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States shalltherefore respect international law providing protection for the environment intimes of armed conflict and cooperate in its further development, as necessary.

Principle 25: Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent andindivisible.

Principle 26: States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by ap-propriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

Principle 27: States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnershipin the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the furtherdevelopment of international law in the field of sustainable development.

Source: Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3–4 June 1992.

The Rio summit stipulated one of its fundamentals as the ‘precautionary principle’(Principle 15). The precautionary principle states that ‘action to protect the environ-ment against the danger of severe and irreversible damage need not wait for rigor-ous scientific proof ’ (Weiss 2003:137). It transpired because most issues of envi-ronmental policy depend on science and technology. The precautionary principlehas led to governments developing strategies for pro-active management of envi-ronmental risks under conditions of scientific uncertainty, which is usually the situ-ation in decisions affecting environmental policy (Weiss 2003). Other principles ofinterest, with regard to recent environmental management trends in Africa, are theapplication of economic instruments, especially the ‘polluter pays’ principle (Princi-ple 16), and the adoption and application of environmental impact assessments



(EIAs) to ensure development does not harm the environment (Principle 17). Aspresented in Chapter Seven, many countries in Africa now have legislation to guideEIAs.

During Rio, the divide between developed and developing economies persisted.Governments from the North had an agenda to ‘solve issues of the climate, forestsand endangered species’ (Sandbrook 1992:16). For governments from the South, itwas the same story of poverty. They lobbied for the coupling of development andthe environment. Hence, if the North wanted the South to stop deforestation, slowdown the consumption of fossil fuels (chiefly coal) and reduce birth rates, then theNorth had to pay.

The Rio conference witnessed the adoption of Agenda 21, a blueprint for sus-tainable development (UNCED 1992). Agenda 21 (21st Century Agenda) is a list ofaction points agreed by world governments. The plan realised that economic devel-opment neglects other developmental issues (Castro 2004). Agenda 21 actions in-clude: promoting environmentally sound management of solid waste and sewage;combating poverty; education, training and awareness; protecting and promotinghuman health; protecting the atmosphere; managing fragile ecosystems; and con-serving biological diversity. Since then, many multilateral environmental agreements(see Chapter Three) have been put in place and ratified by many countries globally,including South Africa. A full review of the progress in addressing Agenda 21 wasundertaken during the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held inJohannesburg, South Africa, in September 2002, which led to the WSSD Plan ofImplementation (UN 2002).

Article 21 of the WSSD Plan of Implementation calls for the prevention andminimisation of waste, and the maximisation of re-use, recycling, and the use ofenvironmentally friendly alternative materials. It also calls for the participation of allgovernment authorities and stakeholders in minimising adverse effects on the envi-ronment. Actions to achieve this include the implementation of a waste manage-ment hierarchy.

The desire to promote education, public awareness and training (Chapter 36 ofAgenda 21) in order to achieve good environmental stewardship was recognised asone of the key means of implementing Agenda 21. Chapter 36 makes reference tothe Declaration and Recommendation of the Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conferenceon Environmental Education, which was held in 1977 and provided the fundamen-tal principles. Three key issues and the basis for action were spelt out (Quarrie1992). They include:

Reorienting Education Towards Sustainable Development

Education was to be recognised as a process by which societies can reach theirfullest potential, thereby improving capacity to address environmental and develop-ment related issues. To be effective and efficient, environmental and developmentaleducation was supposed to deal with the dynamics of both the natural and humanenvironments. These were supposed to be integrated into all disciplines, making use



of both formal and non-formal methods, as well as effective means of com-munication.

Increasing Public Awareness

Chapter 36 noted the low levels of awareness about the interrelated nature ofanthropogenic activities and the environment. This was linked to inaccurate andinsufficient information, particularly for developing countries. In addition, de-veloping countries also faced problems related to technology and environmen-tal expertise.

Promoting Training

This should have a job-specific focus, aimed at filling identified gaps regarding theknowledge base and necessary skills in environmental and development manage-ment. Simultaneously, training must promote awareness of environmental and de-velopment concerns (as a two-way process) at local, national and global levels.

UN Conference on Desertification

The United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD), held in Nairobi in1997, remains a global landmark in addressing environmental concerns ofdesertification. An estimated 500 delegates from ninety-four countries gathered inNairobi in August and September 1997 to discuss the problems of desertification.UNCOD spelt out the Plan of Action, the immediate objective of which was toprevent and arrest the advance of desertification and, where possible, to reclaimdesertified land for productive use (UN 1997). The main objective was to sustainand promote, within ecological limits, the productivity of arid, semi-arid, sub-humidand other areas vulnerable to desertification in order to improve the quality of lifeof inhabitants. The Plan of Action outlined twenty fundamental principles. UNCODacknowledged that countries affected by desertification are at different stages withrespect to their appreciation of and ability to address desertification problems. Giventhis scenario, countries were required to first define the extent and impact ofdesertification by: strengthening or establishing a national body for assessment andmonitoring of desertification; and determining criteria for identifying and assessingdesertification and its causes. If the problem of desertification existed, a system tomonitor the problem would be set up (UN 1997).

Millennium Development Goals

Millennium Development Goal 7 stipulates the need to ensure that environmentalsustainability is achieved at the lowest possible scale, thus, the household (UNDP2003). Three targets were set, namely to: integrate the principle of sustainable de-velopment into national policies and programmes by 2015; halve the proportion ofpeople without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation; and by 2020,achieve significant improvement in the standards of living of at least 100,000,000squatter residents. The risk of urban squatters remains. Fragile and even stable



ecosystems easily succumb to heavy population densities, resulting in the depletionof naturally occurring life support systems, and which affect quality of life issueslike waste management and sanitation. Other goals are stipulated as to: eradicateextreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote genderequality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; andcombat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

The MDG environmental objectives, unlike the others, have been criticised fortheir generic and immeasurable targets (International Atomic Energy Agency 2005).In addition, the MDGs also fail to take cognisance of possible synergies across thegoals. One area African governments should work towards, if implementation is tobe accelerated, is harmonising and domesticating the MDGs. However, there areother challenges associated with the domestication of MDGs. Priority areas differ.For example, Zimbabwe has placed as a priority the need to work towards socialdevelopment and poverty eradication (Government of Zimbabwe 2004). Zimba-bwe prioritises the MDGs addressing poverty, the empowerment of women andHIV/AIDS. It therefore came as no surprise that the country became the firstAfrican nation to have a female vice president in 2005. Although not a priority area,the Ministry of Environment and Tourism was tasked with achieving the MDGenvironmental goals (Box 2.3).

Box 2.3: Zimbabwe’s Environmental Targets and other Issues for MDGs

Targets

integrate the principles of sustainable development into national policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources

halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation

by 2020, achieve a significant improvement in the housing condition of at least one million slum dwellers, peri-urban and high-density lodgers.

Indicators

proportion of land area covered by forest

land area protected to maintain biological diversity

GDP per unit of energy use (as proxy of energy efficiency)

proportion of people with sustainable access to improved water source

proportion of people with access to improved sanitation

number of housing units produced annually.

Challenges

implementation of the land resettlement programme in a sustainable manner

provision of decent housing in urban areas

provision of safe water and sanitation, particularly in rural areas



establish waste management practices to combat air and water pollution

implementation of the provisions in the 2002 Environmental Management Act

implementation of multilateral environmental agreements energy provision.

Priorities for Development environmental awareness strengthen development of appropriate alternative renewable energy sources provision of decent housing in urban sanitation programme consolidation of the rural water supply and sanitation programme improved management of urban environments expand biodiversity.

Priority for Development Assistance implementation of multilateral environmental agreements environmental awareness capacity building in data collection and analysis.

Source: Compiled from Government of Zimbabwe (2004:51–4).

These are generic priorities for most African countries. For example, the SouthAfrican municipal election campaigns prior to 1 March 2006 were filled with mes-sages around service delivery and housing. The bucket system became a burningissue, the ANC-led government having failed to eliminate it in a decade. The landquestion was also deliberated, with a number of political groupings questioning thepotential of the willing-buyer-willing-seller arrangement to solve critical land distri-bution imbalances that favour the former settler masters. Other issues of concernemerging during the campaign included water supply and energy.

Another point of interest (Box 2.3) concerns priorities for development assist-ance. For a long time, the African continent has been a ‘cry baby’. It is time we forgeahead with continental partnerships and share expertise, for example in capacitybuilding for reliable data collection and analysis. Leaders should prioritise fundingfor research. We are fed with statistics of various kinds, with degrees of bias,due to the fact that Africa does not have coherent databases on various statis-tics (HIV/AIDS included). Hence, it is important to note that in many cases, statis-tics are as reliable as the purposes to which they are being manipulated. To this end,we may have to accept that some of our environmental management decisionscould have been based on wrong statistics and were therefore wrong.



Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

UNESCO (2004) realises that the concept of sustainable development has changedand will continue to do so. As such, in pursuing education for sustainable develop-ment, the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD), which be-gan in 2005, presents three dimensions of sustainable development: society, envi-ronment and economy. Culture has an underlying dimension. Society, the environmentand the economy are thus defined, respectively, as:

An understanding of social institutions and their role in change and development,as well as the democratic and participatory systems which give opportunity for theexpression of opinion, the selection of governments, the forging of consensus andthe resolution of differences.

An awareness of the resources and fragility of the physical environment and theeffects on it of human activity and decisions, with a commitment to factoring envi-ronmental concerns into social and economic policy development.

A sensitivity to the limits and potential of economic growth and their impact onsociety and on the environment, with a commitment to assess personal and societallevels of consumption out of concern for the environment and for social justice(UNESCO 2004:4).

To this end, DESD’s global vision is spelt out as ‘a world where everyone has theopportunity to benefit from quality education and learn the values, behaviour andlifestyles required for a sustainable future and for positive societal transformation’(UNESCO 2004:23). The key actors are absorbed into the DESD the moment theyaccept it, thereby becoming stakeholders in the process. Three sets of stakeholdersand their roles were identified: governmental and inter-governmental bodies, civilsociety and NGOs, and the private sector. Governmental and inter-governmentalbodies are responsible for policy-formulation, promoting public consultation andinput, conducting national and international public campaigns, and integrating edu-cation for sustainable development into education systems. Civil society is responsi-ble for public awareness raising, advocacy and lobbying, consultancy and input intopolicy formulation, executing DESD in non-formal set-ups, participatory learningand action, as well as for mediation between governments and people. The privatesector was given responsibility for entrepreneurial initiatives and training, manage-ment models and approaches, implementation and evaluation, and the developmentand sharing of practices of sustainable production and construction. Five key ob-jectives for DESD were framed (UNESCO 2004:4):

• give an enhanced profile to the central role of education and learning in the

common pursuit of sustainable development

• facilitate links and networking, exchange and interaction among stakeholders in

education for sustainable development



• provide a space and opportunity for refining and promoting the vision of, and

transition to sustainable development – through all forms of learning and pub-lic awareness

• foster increased quality of teaching and learning in education for sustainable

development

• develop strategies at every level to strengthen capacity in education for sustain-

able development.

DESD is characterised as holistic, and as being interdisciplinary in its approaches tolearning for sustainable development across the curriculum. It is values-driven, pro-motes critical thinking and problem solving, employs multi-methods, is participatoryin decision making, and promotes the need to address locally relevant issues as partof the global platform.

Seven strategies are outlined for DESD: advocacy and vision building, consulta-tion and ownership, partnership and networks, capacity building and training, re-search and innovation, information and communication technologies, and monitor-ing and evaluation. The outcomes from DESD are measured by the changed livesof ‘thousands of communities and millions of individuals as new attitudes andvalues inspire decisions and actions, making sustainable development a more attain-able ideal’ (UNESCO 2004:5).

State of Environment Reporting

State of environment reporting (SoER) has become one of the key policy tools forspearheading good environmental governance in Africa. SoER is supposed to pro-vide regular environmental updates by various levels of government. National SoERinitiatives usually take place at five-year intervals (MoMET 1998). Five years isconsidered an adequate period over which ‘significant’ environmental change can beobserved. However, this period is also recommended, as it can be easily adjusted tocoincide with election and government cycles in many African states.

Over the years, SoER has become more structured, following an integratedapproach to environmental assessment, with a reporting framework having emerged(UNEP 2003a). The reporting framework seeks to establish the causal relationshipbetween humans and nature. It outlines the relationships between causes (now com-monly cited as drivers and pressures) to environmental outcomes (the state), and toactivities (policies and decisions) that shape the environment and its transforma-tions. SoER is intended to cover the following major themes and major sub-themes:social-economic trends, land, forests, biological diversity, freshwater, coastal andmarine, atmosphere, urban areas and disasters. Details of the themes and their sub-themes for SoER within the African context are shown in Box 2.4.



Box 2.4: Key Themes in State of Environment Reporting

Land:Consider the levels of degradation and desertification as well as inappropriate andinequitable land tenure

Forests:Record levels regarding deforestation and loss of forest quality

Biodiversity: Look at habitat degradation and loss and the bushmeat trade

Freshwater: Describe and measure vulnerability of water resources, water stress and scar-city, access to safe water and sanitation, deteriorating water quality as well as wetlandsloss

Coastal and Marine: Document coastal area erosion and degradation, levels of pollutionas well as climate change and sea-level rise

Atmosphere: Assess air quality, climate variability and vulnerability to climate change aswell as floods and drought

Urban Areas: Search for signs of rapid urbanisation, assess waste quantities,

determine levels of water supply and sanitation as well as air pollution

Disasters: Record events such as droughts, floods, armed conflict and

earthquakes.

Source: Compiled from UNEP 2003:31

Depending on the level at which SoER takes place, details and the depth of report-ing increase from the continental to the sub-continental, to the national and provin-cial, and ultimately to the local. Although state of the environment reports havebeen developed, particularly at sub-regional and national levels in Africa, challengesin the manner in which information is formulated and the regularity with which thereports are produced remain. Most reports are highly technical and scientific. Thismakes them inaccessible to many policymakers: many of our parliamentarians haveonly attained basic education status. The reports have had limited impact on policydevelopment and implementation. These aspects require serious redress. A few coun-tries, including South Africa, have realised this limitation and have started producingpolicy-oriented briefs around various issues pertaining to environmental manage-ment in the country packaged in ‘policy-friendly’ language (DEAT 2002).

Conclusions

This chapter has discussed fundamentals concerning global landmarks. Some of thelandmarks elaborated include: the Stockholm Declaration, The World Commissionon Environment and Development that produced the now famous document OurCommon Future (The Brundtland Report), the United Nations Summit on Environ-ment and Development that took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 14-17 June1992 leading to the adoption of Agenda 21 as the global action plan on sustainabledevelopment, the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the Millennium De-velopment Goals and the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Thechapter has also conceptualised sustainable development.



Revision Questions

1. What are the fundamental principles of the Stockholm and Rio Declarations?

2. Which major thematic areas should be captured when reporting on the state ofthe environment?

3. What are the key provisions of the Millennium Development Goals?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How practical and applicable is Our Common Future’s conceptualisation of sus-tainable development to the African environmental agenda?

2. What measures has your government put in place to address the United Na-tions Decade for Sustainable Development?

3. From your assessment, are these measures adequate?

4. If not, what alternatives could be suggested to improve on the situation?

5. What measures should be put in place to quicken the pace with which theAfrican Union could achieve the Millennium Development Goals?

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Chapter 3

International Environmental Law:Sources and Fundamentals

Introduction

The earth is plagued with a huge array of environmental problems, due largely toanthropogenic causes. These problems can be categorised as either local or global,depending on the scale or geographical spread of their impact. Though local prob-lems are largely the concerns of nations, because of the apparent localised impact,it is now understood that sooner or later, such impacts will escalate and spreadbeyond national boundaries and may eventually assume proportions of globalconcern.

Awareness raising and sensitisation campaigns have often been employed to ad-dress environmental problems and concerns through changing attitudes. However,this strategy normally takes a long time to produce expected results. Often, exten-sive damage to the environment results. Therefore, the application of the law toaddress environmental problems, before they get out of proportion, is an impera-tive. Shaw (1997) cited Principle 24 of the Stockholm Declaration of 1972 asstating that international matters concerning the protection and improvement of theenvironment should be handled in a cooperative spirit. Principle 7 of the Rio decla-ration of 1992 emphasised the need for states to cooperate in a spirit of globalpartnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the earth’secosystems.

Cunningham et al. (2003) define laws as rules set by authority, society or custom.Environmental law is defined as a special body of official rules, decisions and ac-tions concerning environmental quality, natural resources and ecological sustainability.Its purpose is to regulate human behaviour and activity in order to prevent worsen-ing situations, in line with Umozurike’s (1995) observation that the absence of rulesis an invitation to chaos and anarchy.

Addressing major environmental problems requires international effort, mainlythrough international conventions and treaties. This chapter therefore examines thesources of international environmental law. It discusses some important interna-tional environmental conventions that have been put into force.



Sources of International Environmental Law

Glahn (1970), Hughes (1992), Umozurike (1995) and Shaw (1997) present elabo-rate discussions and analyses of the sources of international law, which are alsoapplicable to international environmental law. They identify four sources of interna-tional law: law-making treaties, international customs, general principles of law andwritten texts. Each of these are discussed further in the following sections.

Law-making Treaties

Treaties, known by a variety of names, ranging from conventions, internationalagreements, pacts, general acts and charters, through to statutes, refer to writtenagreements whereby partaking states bind themselves legally to act in a particularway to establish particular relations between them (Shaw 1997). Treaties can simplybe defined as agreements between two or more states that seek to establish relation-ships between themselves, governed by international law (Umozurike 1995).

Treaties may arise in a number of ways, for example because of pressure froma state, groups of states or an international organisation (Hughes 1992). There arevarious types of treaties; only law-making ones are sources of international environ-mental law.

Law-making treaties are concluded between a number of countries acting intheir own interests, with the intention of creating new rules that are adhered to laterby other states, either through formal actions in accordance with the provisions ofthe treaties, or by tacit acquiescence in observance of the new rules (Glahn 1970).Such types of treaties are instruments through which a number of states declaretheir understanding of particular rules of law, which establish new general rulesgoverning the future conduct of ratifying or adhering states; abolish or modifysome existing customary or conventional rules of law, or create new internationalagencies.

In view of the sovereign nature of modern states, such treaties are initiallybinding only on states that sign and ratify them. If the initial number of ratifyingstates is small, the treaties do not create new rules of general international law. Atbest, only rules of particular or regional application are created. However, as acqui-escence to the new laws, or formal ratification of them by additional states in-creases, and finally, when an overwhelming majority of all states accepts the newrules, they become part of general international law.

Although treaties are considered to be an effective and reliable source of inter-national environmental law (Umozurike 1995; Shaw 1997), it is important to notethat they may take several years to come into force. They normally take about threestages, as described by (Glahn 1970):


29International Environmental Law: Sources and Fundamentals

Negotiation

Treaties are normally drawn up through a process of negotiation coordinated byany authorised person or organisation. Diplomatic or other official channels may beutilised, a meeting of representatives may be arranged, or an international confer-ence may be convened for the purpose.

Adoption and Authentication

Once the text of a treaty has been drafted in a formal form during the negotiation,adoption by the parties takes one of several courses: mutual consent, in the case ofbilateral agreement; unanimous consent, in the case of treaties negotiated between alimited number of states; by the voting rules adopted by the conference, in the caseof multilateral instruments negotiated by an international conference, or accordingto the voting rules provided either by the constitution of the organisation or by theorgan or agency competent to issue such rules, in the case of treaties drawn up in aninternational organisation, or at a conference convened by such an organisation.

Authentication of the treaty is achieved when negotiators initial the text on be-half of their states; the text is incorporated into the final act of the conference atwhich it was made; and the text is incorporated into a resolution adopted by anorgan of an international organisation, or negotiators append their signatures to thetext of the agreement.

Ratification

A majority of modern international treaties become effective only on ratification.Virtually every state has developed detailed domestic regulations outlining the proc-ess of treaty ratification, but there are certain commonalities. The process is gener-ally held to be an executive act, undertaken by the head of state of the government,through which the formal acceptance of the treaty is proclaimed. Until such accept-ance is proclaimed, a treaty does not create obligations for the state in question,except in some rare instances where an agreement becomes effective by signaturealone. Most ratification processes involve discussions in national assemblies (parlia-ments), and in some instances by senates, depending on the provisions of a state’sconstitution. The parliament or senate then mandates the head of state, or any otherdesignated authority, to ratify the instruments on behalf of the state.

International Customs

Customs represent a second source of international environmental law (Glahn 1970;Umozurike 1995). In contrast to the normal meaning of the term, notably thedescription of a habit, a legal custom represents usage with a definite obligationattached to it.

The presence of customary international law is evident from the existence of anextensive body of detailed rules, which comprised the bulk of accepted general



international law until shortly after the end of the nineteenth century (Glahn 1970).Most of the rules governing such diverse rules as jurisdiction over territory, free-dom of the high seas, privileges and immunities of states, and the rights of aliensfall into this sphere of law.

Some of the rules in question originated through the practices of a small numberof states, which were adopted by other states because of their usefulness, until atlast, general acceptance resulted in new rules of law entailing definite obligations.This is in line with Shaw’s (1997) assertion that customs depend on a particularactivity by one state being accepted by another state or states as an expression of alegal obligation or right. This is amply illustrated by Glahn (1970) who observes thata custom results from the existence of a single powerful nation in the West, whichimposed its will on its neighbours in relation to certain matters. Eventually, othercountries accepted the policy or practice, without challenge or protest. When thenumber of assenting states reached a near universal proportion, a new rule of lawhad been created.

Although customary international law is relevant in environmental issues, its im-pact is generally weak, because it recognises the principles of state or territorialsovereignty: that is the right of states to carry out activities for their own benefit.These include, for example, the right to develop industries and to carry out peacefulnuclear activity (Hughes 1992).

General Principles of Law

The statute ranks general principles of law recognised by civilised nations as thethird source of international law (Umozurike 1995). General principles do not applywhen there are relevant treaties or customs, but are simply called in to fill the gapsin the law so that the court is not incapacitated from giving a judgement, non-liquet.For example, a situation may arise where the court is considering a case whereuponit realises that there is no law, parliamentary statute or judicial precedent, covering apoint exactly (Shaw 1997). In such instances the judge simply deduces a rule fromalready existing rules will be relevant, by analogy, or directly from the general prin-ciples that guide the legal system.

General principles therefore constitute a reservoir from which the courts maydraw in appropriate cases, while recognising the dynamics of international law andthe creative function of the courts in interpreting it (Glahn 1970). Early writers alsodrew inspiration from general principles, such as from Roman-Dutch law, in par-ticular, the substantive, procedural and evidentiary aspects common to legal sys-tems, and existing in both municipal and international laws. These principles are notapplied as points of reference in passing judgments in the courts, but are usefulguides in the application of the law.

Written Texts

Written texts, considered as subsidiary law determining agencies (Umozurike 1995),are another important source of international law. As Shaw (1997) states, the influ-



ence of academic writers on the development of international law is marked. In theheyday of natural law, the juristic opinions and critical analyses by academics wereof crucial importance, while the role of state practice and court decisions were ofless significance. However, the importance attached to the text depends on theprestige of the author and the extent to which the author’s opinions withstand thetest of time. Such writers, referred to by the statute as writers ‘of various nations’(Glahn 1970), rise above national, racial and other subjective or prejudicial consid-erations. They are guided by objective reasoning and analyses. Based on these selec-tion criteria, writers such as Gentilis, Grotius, Pufendorf, Bynkershoek, and Vattelstand out as the supreme authorities from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.They determined the scope, form and content of international law. However, withthe rise of positivism and the consequent emphasis on state sovereignty, treaties andcustoms assumed the dominant position in the exposition of the rules of the inter-national system, to the extent that the importance attached to legalistic writing beganto decline (Shaw 1997). This decline in importance notwithstanding, there are sometextbook writers who have continued to exert tremendous impact on the evolutionof some aspects of international law, for example Gidel on the law of the seas, andOppendeim and Rousseau, whose general works on international law tend to bevirtually referred to as classics.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements

As recognition of the interconnections in the global environment has advanced, thewillingness of nations to enter into protective treaties has grown concomitantly(Cunningham et al. 2003). Often, governments sign these international agreementsfor prestige, to be part of the international community, and to avoid criticism. Theseagreements provide useful tools that could be employed by the international com-munity to press for change. NGOs often use these same tools in their campaigns.Usually, violating signatory countries face the embarrassment of having to explaintheir actions at regular meetings. This could be incentive enough for them to con-sider changing. However, since treaties are only binding on signatory countries, andenforcement often relies on self-policing, only good faith can restrain nations proneto violation. This suggests that even signatory governments need some strong politi-cal will, and not just force, to evade the embarrassment of regularly giving explana-tions for violations, and to genuinely respect the terms of treaties.

International efforts to protect the natural environment can be dated to the1870s. Switzerland first tried to establish a regional agreement to protect nestingsites of migratory birds (French 1992). In 1886, a convention was signed betweenGermany, The Netherlands, Luxembourg and Switzerland to regulate salmon fish-eries. But it was not until the 1970s that the move to internationalise environmentalpolicymaking gained serious momentum.

Governments have signed over 200 environmental treaties, covering subjects ofshared concern, which include ocean pollution, endangered species, acid rain, habi-tat loss, hazardous waste production and export, climate change, biodiversity decline



and sustainable development (UNEP 1996). A few of these conventions are dis-cussed below.

Convention on Biodiversity

The earth’s biological resources are vital to humanity’s economic and social develop-ment. There is growing recognition that biological diversity is a global asset of tre-mendous value to present and future generations (UNEP 2003). Despite this widerecognition, there is an alarming increase in the rate of species extinction, due to thecontinued execution of environmentally unsafe human activities.

In response to the growing impact on the biodiversity of uncontrolled humanactivities, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) convened an AdHoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in November 1988 toexplore the need for an international convention to address the problem. Shortlyafterwards, in May 1989, it established an Ad Hoc Working Group of Technicaland Legal Experts to prepare an international legal instrument for the conservationand sustainable use of the earth’s biological resources. As part of the terms ofreference, the groups considered sharing the costs and benefits, resulting frombiodiversity conservation, between developed and developing nations, as well asways and means of supporting innovations by local people.

The effort culminated in the signing of the biodiversity convention by 168 coun-tries at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED), popularly known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Article1 of the convention spells out that ‘the objectives of this convention, to be pursuedin accordance with its relevant provisions, are the conservation of biological diver-sity; the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of thebenefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources, including by appropriateaccess to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies,taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by ap-propriate funding’.

Article 3 of the convention highlights the provision of the Charter of the UnitedNations and principles of international law which stipulate that states have ‘thesovereign right to exploit their own resources in pursuant of their environmentalpolicies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction orcontrol do not cause damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyondthe limits of national jurisdiction’.

Article 10 provides that, as far as possible, each contracting party shall integrateconsiderations of the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources intonational decision-making; adopt measures relating to the use of biological resourcesto avoid or minimise adverse impacts on biological diversity; protect and encouragecustomary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural prac-tices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements; supportlocal populations to develop and implement remedial action in degraded areas wherebiological diversity has been reduced, and encourage cooperation between its gov-



ernmental authorities and its private sector in developing methods for sustainableuse of biological resources.

The convention focused principally on the mechanisms to finance sustainablebiodiversity, its use and protection, and designated the existing Global Environmen-tal Facility (GEF) as the institutional structure responsible for carrying out its provi-sions. GEF is a major Trust Fund, established in 1991, as a joint venture of theWorld Bank, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the UnitedNations Environmental Programme (UNEP). One of the goals of GEF is to pro-vide funds to facilitate sustainable development and the conservation of naturalresources. The convention also highlighted the importance of indigenous knowledgein conservation.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance

Both fresh- and saltwater wetlands are critical areas of biological productivity. There-fore, wetlands are not only ecologically important, but are also economically signifi-cant sites. Unfortunately, these sites are faced with serious problems, including catch-ment, destruction, pollution, and reclamation. It became necessary for countries tocommit to ensuring that their destruction is halted through means of an interna-tional convention.

The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty adopted on 2 Feb-ruary 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea.It has come to be known popularly as the ’Ramsar Convention’. The conventionentered into force in 1975. As of August 2007, it had 155 contracting parties, ormember states, in all parts of the world (Ramsar 2007a).

The first obligation under the convention is for a party to designate at least onewetland, at the time of accession, for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of Interna-tional Importance (the ‘Ramsar List’). In addition, the party should continue to‘designate suitable wetlands within its territory’ for the list (Article 2.1), the selectionof which is based on their significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnologyor hydrology (Ramsar 2007a). The addition of a site to the Ramsar list confersupon a party the prestige of international recognition, and expresses the govern-ment’s commitment to take all necessary steps to ensure the maintenance of theecological character of the site.

However, the convention provides that a contracting party may, because of its‘urgent national interests’, delete or restrict the boundaries of a wetland alreadyincluded in the list (Article 2.5), but that such deletions or restrictions should becompensated for by the designation of another wetland with similar habitat values,either in the same area or elsewhere as a Ramsar site (Article 4.2). In practice, onlya handful of boundary restrictions have occurred. The only sites ever deleted fromthe Ramsar list (with three new sites designated in compensation) were judged on thebasis that they did not meet any of the criteria that were actually set after theirdesignation, so instead, new sites were designated. As of 1 September 2007, the 155contracting parties had designated 1,675 sites for the Ramsar list, covering an areaof 150,200,000 million hectares (1,502,000 km2) (Ramsar 2007b).



There is a general obligation for contracting parties to include wetland conserva-tion considerations in their national land-use planning. This commitment is to ensure‘the wise use of wetlands in their territory’ (Article 3.1). Parties are obliged to pro-mote their conservation. It is important to note that Ramsar is the first of themodern global intergovernmental treaties on the conservation and sustainable useof natural resources. It is equally important to note that although UNESCO servesas Depositary for the Convention, the Ramsar convention is not part of the UNand UNESCO system of environment conventions and agreements. The conven-tion operates in close cooperation with five NGOs: BirdLife International, the In-ternational Water Management Institute (IWMI), Wetlands International, the WorldConservation Union (IUCN), and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) (Ramsar2007a).

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna(CITES) was signed by twenty-one nations in 1973. It was intended to regulate theexplosive growth in the trade of endangered plant and animal species, at both na-tional and international levels. CITES has three appendices, which determine therestriction placed on trade in each of the endangered species. Article II of theconventions (UNEP 2003) spells out that Appendix I shall include all species threat-ened with extinction, which are or may be affected by trade. Trade in specimens ofthese species must be subject to particularly strict regulation in order not to furtherendanger their survival. It must only be authorised in exceptional circumstances.Appendix II includes all species, which although not necessarily now threatened withextinction may become so, if trade in specimens of such species is not subjected tostrict regulation in order to avoid utilisation incompatible with their survival. Otherspecies must be subject to regulation in order that trade in specimens of certainspecies may be brought under effective control. Appendix III includes all specieswhich any party identifies as being subject to regulation within its jurisdiction for thepurpose of preventing or restricting exploitation, and as needing the cooperation ofthe other parties in the control of trade.

Convention to Combat Desertification

Desertification is one of the most serious environmental problems in Africa, withimplications for food security. Though desertification affects the African continentthe most – two-thirds of the continent is desert or drylands – it is not a problemconfined to drylands in Africa. It is a worldwide problem, directly affecting250,000,000 people and a third of the earth’s land surface, or over four billionhectares.

The issue of desertification was discussed globally at the UN Conference onDesertification held in Nairobi in 1977. Attempts to efficiently tackle the problemwere crippled due to a lack of both administrative and financial support. Thereforein 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development



(UNCED) or the so-called Rio Earth Summit recommended the elaboration of aUnited Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)(www.unccd.entico.com/english/faq.htm). UNCCD was adopted in June 1994 andwas opened for signature in October 1994 in Paris. It entered into force in Decem-ber 1996, three months after the receipt of its fiftieth ratification. The conventionis based on the principles of participation, partnership and decentralisation, thebackbone of good governance, with the objective to:

…combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experienc-ing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through effectiveaction at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrange-ments, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development inaffected areas (UNEP 1996).

The convention formulates a range of obligations on both affected country partiesand on developed country parties. These include the following as general obligations:adopting an integrated approach addressing the physical, biological and socio-eco-nomic aspects of desertification and drought; giving due attention to the situationof affected developing country parties with regard to international trade, marketingarrangements and debt integrating strategies for poverty eradication into efforts tocombat desertification; promoting cooperation among affected country parties inthe fields of environmental protection and the conservation of land and waterresources; strengthening sub-regional, regional and international cooperation; coop-eration within relevant intergovernmental organizations; and determining institu-tional mechanisms and promoting the use of existing financial mechanisms andarrangements (UNEP 1996).

UNCCD now has more than 180 country parties, making it truly global in reach.UNCCD has reached maturity and is evolving from the preparation of NationalAction Programmes to their implementation. An assessment of programmes by theparties in 2000 and 2001 showed that the capacity strengthening efforts for keyactors at the local level was successful in identifying and addressing challenges linkedto sustainable development. Furthermore, the bottom-up approach of UNCCDhelped to strengthen relationships between governments and local communities,particularly in larger countries. It also favoured the decentralised involvement ofstakeholders and end users of natural resources in the development process(www.unccd.entico.com/english/faq.htm). UNCCD spells out that in order to achievethe objective, long-term integrated strategies would be employed ‘that focus onimproved productivity of land, and the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainablemanagement of land and water resources’.

Convention on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

The continuous use of substances that deplete the ozone layer, such aschlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), is seriously threatening life on earth. The ozone layer



is the only atmospheric shield that protects the earth from the destructive rays ofthe sun. By 1985, the ozone layer had become so depleted that a hole had developedover Antarctica. This discovery was based on extensive research, the results ofwhich were widely publicised in international media.

A series of meetings were held to discuss the issue. There was strong support foran international convention to be signed to address the problem. This convention,also known as the Montreal Protocol, was signed in 1987, adding specific obligationsto the rather vague framework treaty known as the Vienna Convention. The proto-col was strengthened in 1990. It set strict timetables for the phasing out of CFCsand other ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) by the year 2000. By July 1991, overseventy nations, thirty of which were from the developing world, had signed theconvention. However, in recognition of their circumstances, developing nationswere given a ten-year period of grace to reach full compliance with the terms of theprotocol.

An interesting aspect of the convention, as stated in Article 10a, is that eachparty shall take every practicable step, consistent with the programmes supported bythe financial mechanism, to ensure first that the best available, environmentally safesubstitutes and related technologies are expeditiously transferred to parties operat-ing under Paragraph 1 of Article 5; and second, that these transfers occur under fairand most favourable conditions (UNEP 2000).

Another important element is specifying controlled substances and products con-taining some of them in annexes. Annexes A, B, C, and E provide lists of controlledsubstances, indicating their ozone-depleting potentials. Annex D provides a list ofproducts containing controlled substances specified in Annex A, including their cus-tom code numbers. This provides the basis for proper identification, information,education and enforcement.

Convention on Climate Change

The signing of the convention on climate change was motivated by strong concernsthat human activities had been substantially increasing the atmospheric concentra-tions of greenhouse gases; that these increases enhance the natural greenhouse ef-fect; and that this will result on average in an additional warming of the earth’ssurface and atmosphere, with potential adverse effects on natural ecosystems andhumankind (UN 2005). Over and above providing many goods and services thatsustain rural livelihoods, promote environmental quality and advance economic de-velopment, natural resources serve as a first-line, defence against climate change(Agrawala et al. 2005). Projected carbon dioxide (CO

2) emissions up to 2030 are

shown in Figure 3.1.



Figure 3.1: Projections of CO2 Emissions

Source: Abareconomics (undated)

In spite of amounting evidence in support of climate change, this issue has re-mained one of the most controversial in international negotiations since the 1980s(Shimada 2004). While assessments of past and present emission patterns stronglyinfluence debates over international climate policy, the central challenge is to limitfuture emissions (Baumert and Pershing 2004). Projections of future emissions arehighly uncertain, particularly for developing countries.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

In 1988, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United NationsEnvironmental Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel Cli-mate Change (IPCC) to assess relevant information on climate change, coveringimpacts, adaptation and mitigation (Inriani 2005). A global agreement to mitigateclimate change was proposed, culminating in the United Nations Framework Con-vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This convention was signed in 1992 at themassively attended United Nations Conference on Environment and Developmentin Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Article 2 of the convention states: ‘The ultimate objectiveof this convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of theParties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of theconvention, stabilisation of the greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere ata level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climatesystem. Such a level should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allowecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production isnot threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainablemanner.’



The convention took into account some the specific needs and circumstances ofdeveloping countries, and the fact that these countries are particularly vulnerable tothe adverse effects of climate change. These countries would have to bear a dispro-portionate and abnormal burden. To this effect, developed nations were asked totake the lead in combating climate change. But all parties were obliged to cooperatetowards the achievement of the objective. However, the convention did not containconcrete plans to attain this objective (Shimada 2004).

The Kyoto Protocol

A Conference of the Parties (CoP) to the UNFCCC is held at least once a year. Atthe third CoP in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted. This de-fined policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Idriani 2005). Annex A of theprotocol lists six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO

2), methane (CH

4), nitrous

oxide (N2O)

, sulphur hexafluoride (SF

6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and

perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (UN 2005). The core strategy for reducing greenhousegas emissions is to reduce the burning of fossil fuels by using them more efficiently,a policy that was met with strong opposition. Opponents of the protocol argue thatthat this would cause net economic damage, without acceptance of the immensebenefits that Canada, for instance, has enjoyed from thirty years of energyconservation.

An essential part of the Kyoto Protocol is its ‘flexibility mechanisms’ (Idriani2005). These comprise international emissions trading (IET), by which industrialisedcountries (referred to as Annex I countries) can trade part of their emission budgetsbetween themselves; joint implementation (JI), which allows industrialised countriesto earn emission credits from emission reduction projects in other Annex I coun-tries; and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which permits industrialisedcountries to gain emission credits from emission reduction projects in developingcountries.

It is apparent that only the CDM gives developing countries the opportunity tobe directly involved in the implementation of the protocol, with direct implicationsfor meeting the emission reduction targets of Annex I countries. It is important tonote that the establishment of the CDM under the Kyoto Protocol has been greetedwith mixed emotions from climate, forestry and development experts (Manguiat etal. 2005). Many methodological and generic issues regarding the implementation ofCDM activities, and the role of CDM in climate protection and national develop-ment, remained unsolved up CoP II, held in Montreal Canada in 2005, includingthe role of afforestation and reforestation (AR) projects as a specific part of CDM(Box 3). Given that natural resource-related projects are also major activities sup-ported by official development assistance, the relationship between developmentassistance funding, CDM and AR remains somewhat opaque. The procedure in theimplementation of CDM is quite complicated, as can be seen from a summary byManguiat et al. (2005):



project participants have to select an approved baseline and monitoring meth-odology or develop a project-specific one, which then needs to be approved bythe CDM Executive Board (EB) (the international body in charge of supervis-ing the CDM);

in parallel, they produce a ‘project design document’ (PDD) that explains andassesses the planned activity according to a given scheme and applies the meth-odology in practice;

the PDD and methodology are then submitted to the ‘Designated NationalAuthority’ (DNA, which is the new domestic institution required, among otherthings, to implement the CDM in the host country);

the DNA will issue a letter of endorsement to confirm that the project iscontributing to the host country’s sustainable development priorities;

the correct application of the methodology and the consistency of the PDDwill then be validated by the ‘Designated Operational Entity’ (DOE) (i.e. audit-ing companies and the like) and then registered by the EB;

the registration is the prerequisite for a project to actually produce marketableemission reductions.

The Basel and Bamako Conventions

African countries, as is the case of many other low-income countries of the world,have remained easy targets for the dumping of hazardous wastes. This is a seriousproblem facing the continent and other parts of the developing world, which neces-sitated the signing of the Basel and Bamako Conventions.

The Basel Convention, signed in 1989 by both industrialised, and some 115developing countries, has the objective to:

…set up obligations for State Parties (or signatory states) with a view to: (a) reducingtransboundary movements of wastes subject to a minimum consistent with theenvironmentally sound and efficient management of such wastes, (b) minimisingthe amount and toxicity of hazardous wastes generated and ensuring their environ-mental sound management (including disposal and recovery operations) as close aspossible to the source of generation; (c) assisting developing countries in environ-mentally sound management of hazardous and other wastes they generate (UNEP1996:359).

UNEP (1996) provides a summary of the general provisions of the convention,which include: a) parties prohibiting the import of hazardous wastes shall informother parties of their decision and for these other parties not to permit the exportof such wastes to the prohibiting parties; b) parties are to prohibit the export ofhazardous wastes if the state of import does not consent in writing, in the casewhere the state of import has not prohibited the import of such wastes; c) parties



are to prohibit all persons under their national jurisdiction from transporting ordisposing hazardous or other wastes unless such persons are authorised to performsuch types of operations; d) states of export shall not allow the generator of hazard-ous or other wastes to commence the trans-boundary movement until they havereceived written confirmation that the notifier has received the written consent ofthe state of import.

The Bamako Convention was signed by twenty-six African countries in 1991. Itsobjective was to create a framework of obligations to strictly regulate the trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste to and within Africa (UNEP 1996). Theconvention is confined to hazardous wastes, defined as substances banned, can-celled or refused registration by government regulatory action for health or environ-mental reasons. Radioactive and other wastes are listed in the annexes, but excludewastes from ship discharges, which are covered by another convention. Fortunately,the convention provides some latitude by giving signatories the responsibility toenact legislation covering the identification and categorisation of hazardous wastesnot listed in it. Specifically, it states as requirements: a) the exchange of informationamongst signatory states on incidents of hazardous wastes, and on approaches tosolutions to identified problems; b) the establishment of monitoring and regulatoryauthorities to report and act on trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes;and c) cooperation between signatory states and with international organisations inthe fulfilment of the objectives of the convention.

Implementation Constraints and Achievements for Africa

There are many international treaties aimed at protecting the environment. There-fore, a drastic reduction in the number and intensity of environmental problemsmight reasonably be expected. This, unfortunately, is not the case. Why? Africa’sgreatest priority and preoccupation is economic development. The challenge is tofind policies that can enhance economic growth, whilst at the same time preservingthe natural resource base. Formulating sustainable environmental policies requiresan appropriate mix of economic incentives and suitable institutional arrangements,based on a clear specification of property rights (ECA 2002).

From the general economic situation in Africa, it could easily be concluded thateconomic incentives are a far-flung reality for a majority of the countries. Even thefunding from international donor agencies could hardly be sufficient, let alone beallowed, to defray such costs. Institutional arrangements for the definition of prop-erty rights are in principle possible, but it still remains doubtful as to whether suchpolicies can be implemented, especially in situations where governments are rapidlybecoming aware that huge revenues that would have previously fed central treasur-ies are to be directed at communities.

Indeed, efforts to address environmental concerns pose numerous challenges tothe African continent, among which are the following identified by ECA:



the mobilization of the scientific community to mount an integrated programmefor methods, standards, data collection, and research networks for assessmentand monitoring of soil, water, land, forest and atmospheric degradation

the development of environment use models that incorporate both natural andhuman-induced factors that contribute to degradation and that could be usedfor resource use planning and management

the development of information systems that link environmental monitoring,accounting, and impact assessment to degradation

the implementation of policies that encourage sustainable environmental re-source use and management and assist in the greater use of environmentalresource information for sustainable livelihoods

the implementation of economic instruments for the assessment of environ-mental degradation and encourage the sustainable use of environmental re-sources’ (ECA 2002:xii).

Cunningham et al. (2003) note that many treaties present, more-or–less, vaguelygood intentions. This is due particularly to the fact that environmental protectioncannot generally be legislated for, nor enforced. We may doubt the credibility ofsuch a statement, considering in particular the numerous activities of the UN. But itshould be clarified that the role of the UN and other regional organisations is tobring stakeholders together to negotiate solutions to common environmental prob-lems. The key word here is ‘negotiate’. It may be observed that the implementationof most negotiated solutions depends more on moral persuasion and public embar-rassment than on actual enforcement. It is of no surprise that although many Afri-can countries are signatories to a number of international conventions relating toenvironmental resources management, many are still not committing sufficient re-sources to tackle the problem. Degradation related to global concerns, such as cli-mate change, is simply not a priority for many governments regionally, though itspotential importance is recognised globally. The truth is that there are almost nodomestic or external pressures at present for African countries to implement poli-cies related to global environmental problems, given the low level of greenhouse gasemissions in many of these countries and the possibility that there is a net sink forcarbon dioxide on the continent (ECA 2002).

Another constraint is the general rule that international agreements are onlybinding on signatory parties (Shaw 1997). Many nations are unwilling to give uptheir sovereignty through the signing of such agreements (Cunningham et al. 2003).This means that while some nations might be struggling to address, say, the issue ofhazardous waste dumping, others will continue to promote the problem, for eco-nomic gains. One of the principal problems of international conventions is thetradition of unanimous consent (Cunningham et al. 2003). A single recalcitrant na-tion has the power to veto the wishes of the vast majority. A case in point is thesituation where even though more than 100 nations at the UN Conference in Rio deJaneiro in 1992 vouched for restrictions on the release of greenhouse gases, the US



negotiators influenced the rewording of the convention. The changes meant thatthe convention ‘urged’, but did not ‘require’, nations to stabilise their emissions, withthe implication that nations were not obliged to do so.

One fundamental challenge of environmental governance at a national level isthe coordination of the multiple focal points of the various environmental agree-ments. Some African countries, such as Ghana, Uganda and Kenya have creatednational environmental management, or protection, agencies in a bid to overcomethis problem (Menang 2007).

Overall, despite the numerous hurdles to their implementation, international en-vironmental agreements have registered some great achievements for the Africancontinent. These can be seen in two broad areas: socio-political reforms, and in-creasing environmental commitment. Socio-politically, a number of African statesare beginning to adopt more devolved and inclusive ways of managing societies andtheir resources. The application of such obvious democratic principles finds expres-sion not only in new environmental, forestry and wildlife laws, but also in foundingconstitutional, land and local government laws, as in the cases of South Africa,Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Uganda, Tanzania,Kenya, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal and Benin. At leastthirty-five countries have enacted new codes in their forestry laws since 1990, orhad these in draft by early 2002.

From the point of view of environmental commitment, a number of Africangovernments, NGOs and some individuals have taken commendable initiatives toaddress environmental problems with varying degrees of success. UNCCD (cited inMinang 2007) reports on improvements in efforts to combat desertification inBurundi, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Niger, Swaziland, Tunisiaand Zambia. Some countries (Kenya and Burundi for example) have taken exem-plary initiatives in the fight against desertification. In Kenya, the government createda national Environmental Management Authority in 1999. This semi-autonomouscoordinating body for all multilateral environmental agreements draws membersfrom all the major ministries, NGOs and research and academic institutions. Thebody promoted the creation of environmental committees at provincial and districtlevels to coordinate action on various environmental themes. An important elementof the reforms in Kenya was the creation of the Desertification Community TrustFund, launched in 2004. This is a government-funded programme that has sup-ported projects in a number of districts. In Burundi, the land and forestry codeswere revised to make them more compatible with actions to combat desertification.Measures were taken to serve as incentives for individuals and communities toinvest time and resources in land rehabilitation activities. For example, land owner-ship rights were enhanced, especially for vulnerable groups such as widows andorphans, making it easier for them to obtain certificates that serve as deeds. Com-munities were encouraged to manage woodlands on communal land (Minang 2007).It is important to note that several other African countries have made significant



progress in the area of community forestry, which will be elaborated in ChapterFour.

Economic instruments to effect environmental policy, particularly the applica-tion of the polluter-pays principle, emphasised in both the Rio Declaration andAgenda 21, are already being implemented by some African countries. For example,the Zimbabwean government introduced a carbon tax on all vehicles in its 2001fiscal year. The levy charged depends on the engine capacity of the vehicle. In SouthAfrica, the National Water Act of South Africa makes provision for the payment ofpollution and catchment levies. These funds are specifically intended to promote theprotection of water resources. They can be tapped to support both the capital andoperational costs of providing a higher level of service. Other economic instru-ments for environmental policy applied in Africa take the form of tax exemptionsand tax credits. For example, Zambia has reduced or abolished import duties onpollution control equipment and environmentally sound technologies. Similarly,Mauritius provides manufacturing enterprises with duty exemptions, tax credits, andother incentives around the importation of pollution control equipment and envi-ronmental protection to facilitate economic, industrial and technological develop-ment (UNEP cited in ECA 2002).

Conclusion

This chapter has attempted a definition of international law, highlighting its develop-ment and environmental application. It focuses on international environmental lawand its implication in a world beset by numerous environmental problems, whichhave both local and global impacts. We have noted that many efforts have beenmade to address these problems, at national, regional and international levels, andthat problems with regional or global impacts can best be addressed through interna-tional cooperation.

It is clear that international environmental law has played an increasingly impor-tant role in addressing environmental problems, with regional and global implica-tions. This has resulted in a proliferation of international treaties or conventionscovering a wide range of environmental concerns. Of over 200 such conventions,just eight have been addressed: biodiversity, wetlands of scientific importance, en-dangered species, desertification, ozone layer depletion, climate change, and hazard-ous wastes. These include issues that may appear remote, but are significant toAfrica, such as ozone layer depletion and climate change; and those that are imme-diately understood as constituting a problem on the continent, such as desertification,endangered species and hazardous waste dumping.

Despite their role in addressing environmental problems, international conven-tions are not without implementation constraints. First, there is an absence of abody that can enforce environmental protection at an international level. This ab-sence is felt to the extent that negotiated solutions to global environmental problemsrely more on moral persuasion and public embarrassment. The second factor is thatinternational conventions are binding only on signatory nations, meaning that those



refusing to sign are free to continue perpetrating environmental problems. Finally,the tradition of unanimous consent makes it possible for a single nation to weakenthe strength of international conventions.

In spite of the numerous constraints, international agreements have broughtabout some important reforms in Africa, with practical action on the ground. Theseachievements can be seen in the improving socio-political arrangements and grow-ing environmental commitment in a number of countries.

Revision Questions

1. What is Environmental Law?

2. List and discuss the two sources of international environmental law, highlight-ing the strengths and weakness of each.

3. Why is the application of international environmental law necessary in environ-mental protection?

4. What are treaties? Discuss the stages required for them to come into force.

5. Name and discuss three international environmental agreements, highlightingwhen they were signed and their objectives.

6. Discuss the constraints in the implementation of international conventions inAfrica.

7. What are the positive impacts of the international agreements on the Africancontinent?


1. Climate change threatens global economies but offers development opportuni-ties for developing countries. Discuss.

2. Why is the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol so called,and how should Africa engage with the mechanism?

3. What are the opportunities and constraints of Africa becoming one of theactors in the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol?

4. Despite the Basel and Bamako conventions, waste dumping has continued toconstitute a serious problem, especially for Africa. What are the factors pro-moting this unfortunate practice?

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Baumert, K. and Pershing, J., 2004, Climate Data: Insights and Observations, Arlington: Pew Center onGlobal Climate Change.

Cunningham, W.P., Saigo, B.W., and Cunningham, M.A., 2003, Environmental Science: A GlobalConcern, New York: McGraw-Hill.



ECA, 2002, Economic Impact of Environmental Degradation in Southern Africa, Lusaka: EconomicCommission for Africa.

French, H.F., 1992, After the Earth Summit: The Future of Environmental Governance, Worldwatch PaperNo. 107, Washington DC: Worldwatch Institute.

Glahn, G., 1970, Law among Nations, Toronto: The Macmillam Company.Hugh, D., 1992, Environmental Law, London: Butterworths.Indriani, G., 2005, Gas Flaring Reduction in the Indonesian Oil and Gas Sector – Technical and Economic

Potential of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Projects, Hamburg: HWWA Report 253.Manguiat, M.S.Z., Verheyen, R., Mackensen J., and Scholz, G., 2005, Legal Aspects in the Implemen-

tation of CDM Forestry Projects, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.Minang, P.A., 2007, Implementing Global Environmental Policy at Local Level: Community Carbon Forestry

Perspectives in Cameroon, a PhD dissertation submitted to the University of Twente.Ramsar Secretariat, 2007a, Ramsar Information Paper, No. 2, Ramsar Secretariat.Ramsar Secretariat, 2007b, Ramsar Information Paper, No. 4, Ramsar Secretariat.Shaw, M.N., 1997, 4th edition, International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Shimada, K., 2004, ‘The Legacy of the Kyoto Protocol: Its Role as the Rulebook for an Interna-

tional Climate Framework’, International Review for Environmental Strategies, Vol. 5, No, 1, pp. 3–14, Kamiyamaguchi: Institute for Global Environmental Strategies.

Umozurike, U.O., 1995, Introduction to International Law, Ibadan: Spectrum.UNEP, 1996, Register of International Treaties and Other Agreements in the Field of the Environment,

Nairobi: UNEP.UNEP, 2000, The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Nairobi: UNEP,

<http://www.unep.org/ozone>UNEP, 2003, Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal: UNEP/CITES,<www.unccd.entico.com/

english/faq.htm>



Chapter 4

Environmental Management on African Agenda

Introduction

Insofar as global landmarks for environmental management have sought to influ-ence environmental policy at an abstract level, their impact has been great in influ-encing continental and sub-continental environmental policies. However, Africa’senvironmental management agenda still remain very much in the making of donorsand other development agencies, such as the World Bank, SIDA, CIDA and DANIDA,which hold financial resources, and the capacity to influence political events. It wasonly recently that key African institutions such as the Africa Union and the AfricanDevelopment Bank Group have come up with policies governing environmentalmanagement. The continent has also engaged in a number of controversial multilat-eral environmental conventions, such as the Bamako and Basel Conventions onhazardous waste management, and the Kyoto Protocol.

Besides discussing aspects pertaining to the donor community and its environ-ment agenda for Africa, in this chapter the following policy frameworks are dis-cussed: the Bamako Convention of 1991 (OAU Secretariat 1991), the New Part-nership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD 2002), Southern African DevelopmentCommunity’s Policy and Strategy for Environment and Sustainable Development(SADC 1996), and the 2003 Regional Indicative Strategic Development Programme(SADC 2003), with the aim of establishing which environmental agenda are beingfollowed.

We cannot underestimate (nor should we overemphasise) the role that the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP) has played in shaping Africa’s environ-mental agenda. This is mainly due to its close proximity to the African continent,being the sole UN agency with its headquarters in Africa, in Nairobi.

Environmental Concerns in Africa

Environmental concerns in Africa can be mapped as a web, as presented in Figure4.1. Some of these concerns will be discussed indepth in Chapter Five. Althoughmost of the concerns highlighted in Figure 4.1 are restricted to the African conti-nent, others such as the trans-boundary movement of hazardous chemicals, climatechange, and global warming are of an international nature. It is critical to under-stand these environmental concerns as a web, to be addressed in a holistic manner.



Most donors have failed to do so over the past few decades, probably due to limitsin financial resources and local human capacity.

Figure 4.1: Summary of Key Environmental Concerns in Africa

Although Africa is faced with a multitude of environmental concerns, climate changehas been identified as a critical environmental and sustainability concern for thetwenty-first century. Key environmental issues and crises are increasingly linked toclimate change. The changing climate impacts on phenomena such as land resources,freshwater, marine environments, forests and woodlands, biodiversity, poverty, in-vasive alien species, use of chemicals, disease, food security and corporatecitizenship.

UNEP’s Role in Shaping Africa’s Environmental Agenda

UNEP has been instrumental in shaping both the international and African environ-ment agenda. Its mission is stated thus: ‘To provide leadership and encourage part-nership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nationsand peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of futuregenerations’. To this end, a number of milestones in setting and refining the envi-ronmental agenda have been witnessed, as indicated below.

1972 - UN Conference on the Human Environment recommends creation of a UN environmental organisation

Key Enviro nment

Concerns i n Africa

Land resource s: degradatio n, tenur e and

distribution

Hazardou s che micals

Pove rty, HIV/AIDS and

other diseases

Loss o f biodiversity

Huma n popul ation migrat ion Invasiv e alien specie s

Marin e environme nts

Freshwat er resources

Gene tically modified crops and food (in)secu rity

Forests an d woodlands

Africa and it s colonial histories

Corpor ate ci tizenship

Global warming and climate change

Coast al resource s

Coastal resources

Freshwater resources

Land resources:degradation, tenure

and distribution

Poverty, HIV/AIDSand other diseases

Key EnvironmentConcerns in Africa

Human populationmigration

Loss of biodiversity

Corporate citizenship

Genetically modifiedcrops and food (in)

security

Marineenvironnments

Global warming andclimate change

Forests and woodlands

Hazardous chemicals

Invasive alien species

Africa and its colonialhistories


Environmental Management on African Agenda 49

1972 - UNEP created by UN General Assembly

1973 - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

1975 - Mediterranean Action Plan first UNEP-brokered Regional Seas agreement

1979 - Bonn Convention on Migratory Species

1985 - Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

1987 - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

1988 - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

1989 - Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes

1992 - UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit)

publishes Agenda 21, a blueprint for sustainable development

1992 - Convention on Biological Diversity

1995 - Global Programme of Action (GPA) launched to protect marine environment from land-based sources of pollution

1997 - Nairobi Declaration redefines and strengthens UNEP’s role and mandate

1998 - Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent

2000 - Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety adopted to address issue of genetically modified organisms

2000 - Malmö Declaration - first Global Ministerial Forum on the Environ- ment calls for strengthened international environmental governance

2000 - Millennium Declaration - environmental sustainability included as one of eight Millennium Development Goals

2001 - Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

2002 - World Summit on Sustainable Development

2004 - Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and Capacity Building

2005 - Millennium Ecosystem Assessment highlights the importance of ecosys tems to human well-being, and the extent of ecosystem decline

2005 - World Summit outcome document highlights key role of environment in sustainable development.

Donors and the African Environmental Agenda

Africa’s environmental agenda has been, and is currently, strongly driven by donorsand aid agencies. However, more recently, African institutions such as the AfricanDevelopment Bank, have also established environmental agenda for the continent.



The World Bank’s Environment Strategy

The World Bank’s (hereafter referred to as the Bank) environmental agenda waspartially shaped by criticisms of its pro-economic developmental agenda from themid-1980s to mid-1990s. To this end, the Bank sought to broaden its environmentagenda, particularly in the late 1990s (World Bank 1998), by accepting that sustain-able development can only be achieved if activities are sustainable at both globaland local levels. The Bank decided that helping partner countries to improve theirenvironmental management capacity and mainstreaming environmental sustainabilityprinciples into development programmes were at the core of its business. Pilotprojects to test new instruments for environmental management, such as the Ugan-dan Institutional Capacity Project for Wildlife and Tourism, focusing on strengthen-ing institutions, staff training and public/private partnerships to promote ecotourism,were funded. Pollution abatement projects were also established in Egypt in 1998.In South Africa, ‘green accounting’ initiatives were launched in the same year.

The Bank’s ultimate environment agenda was set out in the document: MakingSustainable Commitments: An Environment Strategy for the World Bank (World Bank 2001).The environment strategy outlines how the Bank intended to work with client coun-tries to address their environmental challenges and ensure that Bank projects andprogrammes integrate principles of environmental sustainability.

Prior to 2000, one of the central pillars, in terms of environmental concerns,for the Bank, had been the development of National Environmental Action Plans(NEAPs). Many of the Bank’s client countries were assisted in developing NEAPs.The main criticism was that they were not adequately implemented. They failed tonetwork into other ongoing government initiatives aimed at addressing environmen-tal concerns, particularly on a national scale.

In its 2006 annual report (World Bank 2006), the Bank recognised the need towork towards the achievement of the MDGs, including Goal 7, which aims atensuring environmental sustainability. The Bank focuses on supporting agriculturein Africa. Agriculture is linked to integrated natural resource management such asprotecting watersheds, sustaining increased investment in irrigation and drainage,supporting effective forest law enforcement and sound governance, and promotingefforts to enhance the resilience of farms, forests, and fisheries to climate change.The Bank is also involved in a new multi-donor initiative, code-named PROFISH,addressing the threat of collapsing fish stocks. Furthermore, the global threat ofzoonoses (diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans), such as ‘madcow’ disease and avian flu, has brought the issue of livestock management andanimal health back to the top of the development agenda, for the World Bank, andglobally.

The Bank has also stated that global warming and climate change are at the topof its developmental agenda. The Bank reckons that the international community isfaced with a serious crisis of securing affordable and cost-effective energy supplies.In this regard, it has put in place a Clean Energy and Development Strategy aimed



at addressing the energy needs of developing and newly industrialised countries.The strategy involves addressing bottlenecks to accessing energy services, control-ling greenhouse gas emissions, and helping developing countries adapt to climaterisks (World Bank 2006). In the eyes of the Bank, an extensive array of technolo-gies exist that can provide the requisite energy services. But policy reform in theenergy sector is urgently needed to stimulate roughly US$300 billion of investmentrequired per year. With regard to climate change, the Bank acknowledges that thepoorest countries, especially in Africa, and their poorest citizens are among the mostvulnerable. As such, adapting to climate variability and change is a priority for devel-oping countries and will require the transfer of existing technologies, the develop-ment of new ones, and the revision of existing planning standards and systems.

In supporting environmental sustainability, the Bank assists developing countriesin meeting the cross-cutting goal of ensuring environmental sustainability by inte-grating environmental concerns into all development-related work (World Bank 2006).This is done through the implementation of its environment strategy (World Bank2001). It addresses the links between environment, poverty and economic growth,with a particular emphasis on the health, livelihoods and the vulnerability of poorpeople. The Bank is also working with partner countries to systematically evaluatetheir environmental priorities, the environmental implications of key policies, andtheir capacity to address development priorities and related environmental con-cerns. To monitor progress towards achieving the MDGs, focusing on environmen-tal sustainability, the Bank has put in place a set of measures to assess changes innatural wealth, which are taking place in developing countries. A summary of theBank’s lending to borrowers in Africa from 2001–6 is shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: World Bank Lending to Borrowers in Africa (US$, millions)

Source: World Bank, 2006:33.



It is of interest to note how the Bank has gradually increased its lending towardsthe environmental and natural resource management sector. The amount allocatedhas more than doubled since 2001. This explains how the Bank is actively involvedin shaping environmental agenda on the continent. The bottom line is that onlyenvironmental and natural resource management projects, in which the Bank has aninterest and are eligible for the Bank’s borrowing benefit can receive funding.This alone creates an uneven terrain in addressing environmental concerns onthe continent.

CIDA’s Policy for Environmental Sustainability

In 1992, CIDA put in place its policy for environmental sustainability. The policyacknowledges the global nature of a number of environmental problems. The con-ditions necessary to sustain development and quality of life in developed and devel-oping nations are linked. The degradation of natural resources is identified as thekey factor limiting development potential of countries in the South and the Northalike (CIDA 1992). The policy document identifies factors limiting developing na-tions to address both local and global environmental problems. Such factors includepoverty, and the inequitable control of resources, coupled with differing attitudesand levels of knowledge about the environment on the part of both individuals andsocieties. Other factors outlined are macroeconomic pressures, such as low com-modity prices and debt burdens, inadequate financial and human resources, under-developed institutional and technological capabilities, inadequate opportunities forpeople to participate meaningfully in the development process, inappropriate ornarrow economic and social policies, and inadequate incentives for environmen-tally-sound behaviour.

CIDA’s environmental agenda in Africa and other developing regions dates backto four decades. In the early 1980s, CIDA supported the creation of environmentalmonitoring and teaching institutions. The agency also adopted an environment policythat led to the application of procedures for routine environmental screening andassessment of development projects in the late 1980s. These initiatives have re-sulted in CIDA being recognised as one of the key stakeholders in environmentalmanagement on the continent. The agency has also provided support to NGOs,universities and private-sector organisations striving to integrate environmental con-siderations into development initiatives. Many of CIDA’s country and response pro-grammes have resulted in the preparation of environmental strategies as part of theprogramme plans. In the case of Zimbabwe, CIDA was actively involved in thedevelopment of the National Environmental Management Act that passed throughparliament in December 2002. Regardless of its – much appreciated – efforts inassisting developing countries to address environmental damage, CIDA believes thatmuch is outstanding. To this end, its 1992 Policy for Environmental Sustainabilityrecognises that there is need for an interdisciplinary approach in analysing pro-gramme and project design, as well as following cross-sectoral ecosystem approachesto project implementation. The agency also advocates the promotion of sound do-



mestic and international economic policies. The 1992 policy acknowledges that envi-ronmental problems are often severe in poor communities. They tend to arm thedisadvantaged and disempowered disproportionately: the poor, the disabled, women,children and indigenous peoples. The policy calls for renewed efforts, both from therural and urban communities, to address the socio-economic needs of such disad-vantaged groups, an aspect which would arguably yield environmental benefits. Thispolicy for environmental sustainability stresses its mission as supporting sustainabledevelopment in developing countries. Sustainable development is taken as embrac-ing the five pillars of economic, environmental, social, cultural and politicalsustainability. Hence, there are five related aspects to the concept of sustainability(CIDA 1992:5–6).

Achieving Economic Sustainability

This requires appropriate economic policies, efficient resource allocation and use,more equitable control over resources, and increased productive capacity amongthe poor.

Achieving Social Sustainability

This means more equitable income distribution, and ensuring the participation ofintended beneficiaries, and those who may be affected, in the decision making whichaffect their lives.

Attaining Cultural Sustainability

This requires sensitivity to cultural factors, including cultural diversity, and a recog-nition of cultural values conducive to development.

Attaining Political Sustainability

This aspect is premised on the assurance of human rights and the promotion ofdemocratic development and good governance.

Achieving Environmental Sustainability

Ecosystems should be protected and managed to maintain both their economicallyproductive and their ecological functions, the diversity of life in both human-man-aged and natural systems, to protect the environment from pollution, and maintainthe quality of land, air and water.

In line with the need to help developing countries achieve environmentalsustainability, CIDA’s policy for environmental sustainability seeks to pursue thefollowing environmental sustainability and operational objectives.

Environmental Sustainability Objectives

increase the institutional, human resource and technological capacities of de-veloping country governments, organisations and communities to plan and im-



plement development policies, programmes and activities that are environmen-tally sustainable;

strengthen the capability of developing countries to contribute to the resolutionof global and regional environmental problems, while meeting their develop-ment objectives.

Operational Objectives

ensure that environmental considerations, including opportunities for enhanc-ing environmental sustainability, are integrated into sector and cross-sector pro-grammes, programme assistance, and project planning and implementation, takinginto account views of beneficiaries and local communities;

promote and support environmental and broader socio-economic policy dia-logue, programme assistance and projects that directly address environmentalissues;

implement design measures that minimise negative environmental impacts andenhance environmental benefits of projects, or identify alternatives;

encourage and support Canadian, international and developing country partnerorganisations to develop policies, programmes and projects that further theobjectives of environmental sustainability;

contribute to the development of knowledge and experience in Canada and indeveloping countries, on undertaking environmentally sustainable forms ofdevelopment;

promote education and awareness among governments and the public in Canadaand in developing countries of the importance of environmentally sustainableapproaches to development.

That environmental sustainability encompasses political aspects, strengthens our earlierarguments that the environment is as much a political matter as an environmentaland social matter. However, CIDA’s policy is still rather silent on how it plans toaddress sensitive enviro-political issues, notably the land question in Africa.

DANIDA’s Environmental Strategy, 2004–2008

The Strategy for Denmark’s Environmental Assistance to Developing Countries2004–2008 outlines targets, principles and priorities for Denmark’s environmentaland environmentally related assistance to developing countries. The strategy recog-nises poverty alleviation as the outstanding challenge and as a prerequisite for stable,sustainable development (DANIDA 2004). The Danish government also realisesthat it is necessary to enhance the environmental sustainability of aid programmes,so as to secure global stability and development. To this end, the development policywas strengthened through a significant focus on the environment. Again, we witnessthe environmental management agenda being widened to capture poverty, to whichearly agenda found it difficult to relate, and integrate into environmental manage-



ment. According to DANIDA, the strengthening of environmental assistance indeveloping countries involves the incorporation of special environmental assistanceinto general development programmes.

The environment, as a cross-cutting issue, will receive increased attention, withinternational environmental activities allocated increased funding. One of the keyenvironmental problems on the Danish agenda is the effort to combat global warm-ing. This includes a focus on the correlation between environmental assistance andthe use of the Kyoto Protocol’s flexible mechanisms, particularly the CDM. Henceover time, and in view of the dynamism of environmental problems and challenges,DANIDA is spearheading an agenda to address global warming.

The DANIDA strategy stands out as the basis for the actual implementation ofenvironmental assistance in developing countries. It covers an entire range of activi-ties in developmental cooperation, including: environment as a cross-cutting issue,environment in multilateral cooperation, environmental issues in programme coop-eration, and special environmental assistance. The integration of special environ-mental assistance into regular development sector programmes implies that the aimof environmental assistance to developing countries is to increase sustainable devel-opment, and as an integrated part of poverty alleviation to limit the damage to theenvironment. Developing countries will be assisted with environmental challengesby enhancing their ability to take responsibility for the environment themselves.

The strategy will be implemented through partnerships with the cooperatingcountries. It is based on national strategies for poverty reduction and sustainabledevelopment. Other issues of interest include gender equality, human rights anddemocracy (including good governance). These are considered cross-cutting issues.They also feature on CIDA’s agenda for environmental management. Likewise,multilateral environmental efforts will be governed by the principles of activemultilateralism. Coordination and synergy between bilateral and multilateral envi-ronmental efforts will be a priority, for example, in the implementation of interna-tional conventions, and in the attention paid to the environment as a cross-cuttingissue in the bilateral cooperation components of the work of international organisa-tions. Environmental assistance is governed by existing guidelines for developmentaid, including ‘A Strategy for the Support to the Development of Civil Society’(which also covers cooperation with Danish NGOs) and ‘Aid Management Guide-lines’. Special development assistance covers poor countries as well as a number ofmiddle-income ones. The existing assistance has contributed to the development andimplementation of the protection of nature and the environment, and to sustain-able development. In middle-income countries, with rapidly growing environmentalproblems, assistance has contributed to efficient solutions that have also benefitedother countries in the respective regions. Special environmental assistance will there-fore be sustained in poor and middle-income countries.

Environmental assistance will simultaneously support the implementation of theDanish government’s climate strategy, through the development of projects thatcan subsequently lead to purchases of carbon credits from developing countries.



The contribution towards the fulfilment of the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) is another benchmark against which Danish environmental assistance willbe measured. The DANIDA strategy recognises that only a few countries haveprioritised the relationship between poverty and the environment in their nationalpoverty reduction strategies. This element cannot be over-emphasised, bearing inmind that the World Bank and International Monitory Fund mechanisms, underwhich most African countries’ poverty reduction strategies were developed, did nothave an environmental management component. The DANIDA strategy calls for aneed to develop methods and tools to ensure this happens more frequently. Thestrategy also advocates the need to continue efforts to make the environment apriority in international organisations, and in development banks. Probably, this isthe reason why the African Development Bank Group is initiating a policy foraddressing Africa’s environmental challenges. Special environmental assistance hashad particularly good results in projects involving urban environment, sustainableenergy, and in the management of natural resources. South Africa, for example, hasembarked on a bilateral Urban Environmental Management Programme funded byDANIDA, running from 2006 to 2010.

The main priorities and operational targets for Denmark’s international envi-ronmental assistance and cooperation with the developing countries for theperiod 2004–8 are to (DANIDA 2004:7–8):

improve sustainable development and limit environmental degradation at glo-bal, national and local levels within the overall development policy objective ofpoverty alleviation. This will happen through assistance in management of en-vironmental challenges and by enhancing the developing countries’ ability ulti-mately to bear the responsibility themselves;

upgrade the environment as a crosscutting issue in the bilateral as well as mul-tilateral development cooperation. Special attention will be paid to the incorpo-ration of environmental issues in national poverty reduction strategies, to na-tional strategies for sustainable development and to environmental analyses insector programmes;

continue to prioritise assistance to focused development and the implementa-tion of international environmental conventions and agreements – includingthe plan of action from the World Summit for Sustainable Development thattook place in 2002 in Johannesburg – in bilateral and multilateral developmentcooperation;

upgrade and strengthen international environmental cooperation within multi-lateral assistance – particularly with regard to efforts involving water, energy,chemicals and climate. This will include increased contributions to the globalclimate foundations;

work for a substantial replenishment of funds in the Global EnvironmentalFacility (GEF);



focus the bilateral and the special environmental assistance on three areas:urban and industrial environment, sustainable energy and management of naturalresources;

continue special environmental assistance in Southern Africa, in the Republicof South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Tanzania and to start a similarprogramme in Kenya;

re-organise the special environmental assistance by applying a long-term pro-gramme approach in line with the sector programme assistance used in tradi-tional development aid;

concentrate cooperation on Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projectsin five countries: South Africa, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and China.

These points set a clear environmental management agenda for Africa. In addition,the specification of countries with which DANIDA will be working in the context ofits special environmental assistance programme brings an interesting dimension todonor aid. For example, in SADC, DANIDA will be working with South Africa,Mozambique and Tanzania. In East Africa, it will be working with Kenya. DANIDAwill also be concentrating on cooperation over the CDM projects with South Africa.Hence, the CDM environmental agenda is being promulgated, but with a singlecountry on the continent: South Africa.

African Development Bank Group’s Policy on the Environment

The 2004 African Development Bank Group’s Policy on the Environment (herebyreferred to as the policy) was driven by a number of factors: the recognition andacceptance of sustainable development as the dominant development paradigm forthis century; a need for a greater focus on pro-poor growth policies and programmesto counter unacceptable impoverishment rates; rapid progress in the inevitable inte-gration of Africa into the globalisation process; and the need for improved govern-ance with a clearer commitment by the majority of African governments to providethe necessary leadership for sustainable development (African DevelopmentBank 2004:iii).

The Bank’s policy acknowledges the significant progress made in the implemen-tation of Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit; the ratification of alarge number of environmental conventions, agreements and protocols; and thegrowing use of MDGs as a measure of development. The policy recognises the on-going degradation of the environment across the continent, in spite of significantstrides made at national and regional levels to establish the necessary legal and insti-tutional frameworks. But, above all, the policy takes into consideration the variousopportunities, in terms of resources and skills, available to Africa for its develop-ment, and for the improvement of the overall quality of life of its people. Criticalis its acknowledgment of the availability of African capacity to deal with its ownenvironmental challenges.



The Bank’s policy framework embraces the concept of sustainable developmentas expressed in the provisions of the 1987 Brundtland Commission. It recognises,however, that although the principles of sustainability have been globally acceptedfor decades, their translation into specific environmental management strategies hasbeen fraught with practical and theoretical problems. However, the growing evi-dence of the rapid deterioration of ecological capital and diminishing assimilativecapacities of ecosystems, coupled with the global scale of environmental problems,have forced policymakers to rethink their development strategies, and to accept thatthe environment and the economy are interdependent. Sustainable development iswidely recognised as the preferred development paradigm.The environment policystresses the anticipatory nature of sustainable development, rather than the reactiveresponses so predominant in development-related decisions. In adopting the con-cept of sustainable development as an environmental policy framework, care istaken to recognise the considerable constraints on Africa.

The Bank acknowledges that large parts of the continent are still threatened bygrowing poverty and disparity in wealth distribution, both nationally and regionally.Faced with such constraints, many African countries have not been able to makeprogress in the transition from normative standards to operational programmes insustainable development. The Bank also attests to the effects of globalisation, andthe decreasing flows of development assistance, which have significantly and nega-tively affected the ability of the poorest nations to deal with environmental chal-lenges. However, the policy recognises that there have been a number of achieve-ments: awareness creation, capacity building, reinforcement of legislative, institutionaland regulatory frameworks, and integration of environmental concerns into na-tional economic development strategies. New threats have, however, surfaced since1992, with HIV/AIDS becoming a major development crisis. Sub-Saharan Africaalone represents 70 per cent of the world’s population living with HIV/AIDS.

The Bank’s policy acknowledges that Africa is endowed with a rich resource baseconsisting of minerals, rich flora and fauna, and large tracts of rainforests. Thesecan provide a basis for industrial development and eco-tourism. Its rich biodiversityconstitutes essential global public goods that not only provide sources of non-timberforest products, but also help attract larger amounts of international funding forpreservation. Economic growth, however, translates into increased economic activi-ties that generate social and environmental costs and benefits. Such externalitiesconstitute potent threats to the economic system, leading to market failures. To thisend, there is a need to enhance the positive, whilst integrating social and environ-mental concerns into economic development policies to reduce or internalise thenegative externalities.

From the Bank’s viewpoint, environmental concerns are now routinely integratedinto country dialogue processes and project design. There is now widespread recog-nition among Bank and regional member country staff that sustainable develop-ment and poverty reduction cannot be divorced from the global environment, andthat local-to-global linkages must be made. The Bank also recognises the importance



of cooperation with sub-regional and international partners in environment policiesto build on efforts aimed at enhancing environmental management.

In line with the conceptual framework adopted to handle the development chal-lenges and priorities facing Africa, the policy supports the creation of the rightconditions that allow as many stakeholders as possible to play their role in achievingsustainable development. The overall goals of the policy are two-fold: to help im-prove the quality of life of the people of Africa; and to help preserve and enhancethe ecological capital and life-support systems across the continent. Some of theprinciples that have guided the development of the policy include the recognitionthat a strong and diversified economy constitutes a just means to enhance the capac-ity for environmental protection; environmental management tools, such as envi-ronmental assessments, should be used as a sustainability assurance, rather than as amechanism of mitigation; community involvement, in particular of the mostmarginalised and vulnerable groups, in decisions that affect them, must be providedfor; and governance structures and institutions most responsive to the needs andpriorities of affected communities in general, and poor people and vulnerable groupsin particular, should be encouraged.

The policy replaced the Bank’s traditional sector-by-sector approach in the man-agement of natural resources with cross-sectoral environmental policy actions basedon an integrated approach. Such an approach ensures optimum results that willsimultaneously help to meet basic human needs and protect the environment. Thekey environmental issues identified include: reversing land degradation anddesertification, protecting the coastal zone, protecting global public goods, enhanc-ing disaster management capabilities, promoting sustainable industry, increasing aware-ness, institutional and capacity building, environmental governance, urban develop-ment and population growth, and civil society organisations (African DevelopmentBank 2004).

To assist in the implementation of the policy, the Bank is using a set of ap-proaches that include: mainstreaming environmental sustainability considerations inall the Bank’s operations; strengthening existing environmental assessment proce-dures and developing new environmental management tools; clearly demarcatinginternal responsibility in implementation; assisting in the building of adequate hu-man and institutional capacity to deal with environmental management; improvingpublic consultation and information disclosure mechanisms; building partnershipsto address environmental issues, harmonise policies, and disseminate environmentalinformation; and improving the monitoring and evaluation of operations. Specifi-cally, the Environmental and Social Assessment Procedures released in 2001 will befully enforced for all lending operations of the Bank. As policy lending is becomingincreasingly important, Strategic Impact Assessment (SIA) procedures will be devel-oped to bring environmental assessments upstream, by assessing the impacts ofpolicies, programmes and plans, rather than conducting environmental impact as-sessment at project level.



New Partnership for Africa’s Development

To address the ills of unsustainable development, NEPAD has put in place anAction Plan for the Environment Initiative (NEPAD 2002). The initiative notes thatAfrica is rich in natural resources, including land, minerals, biological diversity, wild-life, freshwater, fisheries and forests. However, rapid population growth, rising pov-erty levels (including the widening gap between the rich and the poor) and inappro-priate development practices are major factors leading to degraded environments(UNEP 2003). The NEPAD initiative sets seven action plans, grouped according toareas of concern or programmes. Some of the programmes include: integratedwaste and pollution control, the management of cities, and the management ofcoastal and marine resources (NEPAD 2002).

Sub-regional Environmental Sustainability Initiatives

At the SADC sub-regional level, issues of sustainability and the environment aredealt with in two documents: the 1996 SADC Policy and Strategy for Environmentand Sustainable Development (SADC 1996), and the 2003 Regional Indicative Stra-tegic Development Programme (SADC 2003). The Strategy for Environment andSustainable Development was drawn up following the Rio Summit in 1992. Thedocument provides an overall framework to guide good environment management.Five broad strategic areas that would facilitate sustainability in development wereidentified: assessing environmental conditions, trends and programmes made andneeded for sustainable development; minimising significant threats to human beings,ecosystems and future developments; a call to move away from unsustainable tosustainable development for the benefit of all generations; managing shared naturalresources in an equitable and sustainable manner; and increasing regional integrationand capacity building for sustainable development.

The implementation plan was designed around sectoral responsibilities that wereshared by the member countries. Some of the sectoral responsibilities included en-vironment and land management, given to Lesotho, mining (Zambia), energy (An-gola), fisheries (Malawi) and food security (Zimbabwe). In 2003, SADC launched itsRegional Indicative Strategic Development Plan – RISDP (SADC 2003) aimed atre-orienting developmental strategies. RISDP re-grouped sectoral responsibilities undernew cluster directorates that include trade, industry, finance and investment; infra-structure and services; food, agriculture and natural resources; and social and hu-man development and special programmes. The environment is dealt with in thefood, agriculture and natural resources cluster. RISDP takes the environment andsustainable development as one of eight cross-cutting priority areas. The documentalso recognises efforts made by member states to address environmental concernssince the early 1980s. These are reflected in the ratification of major multilateralenvironmental agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change, Convention to Combat Desertification, Convention of BiologicalDiversity, Basel/Bamako Conventions, the Millennium Development Goal and many



more. However, RISPD notes that there are still high levels of pollution as well aspoor sanitation and urban conditions whereby the poor become both victims andagents of environmental degradation.

To address problems associated with environmental degradation (SADC 2003:101), RISDP sets the overall goal of environmental intervention so as ‘to ensure theequitable and sustainable use of the environment and natural resources for thebenefit of present and future generations’. Five areas of focus are established:create the requisite harmonised policy environment as well as legal and regulatoryframeworks; promote environmental mainstreaming in order to ensure the respon-siveness of all SADC policies, strategies and programmes for sustainable develop-ment; ensure regular assessment, monitoring and reporting on environmental condi-tions and trends in the region; capacity building, information sharing and awarenessraising on problems and perspectives in environmental stewardship; and ensure co-ordinated regional positions in the negotiations and implementation of multilateralenvironmental agreements.

Seven broad strategies are set out. Similarly, nine broad targets are set withinstruments for regional cooperation. These were due for finalisation in December2006. Environmental standards and guidelines developed were being implementedin 2008. State of the environmental reports for southern Africa are to be producedregularly at five-year intervals. SADC’s plan of action for implementing the WSSDImplementation Plan was in place by 2004, and the principle of sustainable develop-ment should be integrated into national policies and programmes by 2015.

Controversy on Hazardous Waste Management

The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control ofTransboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africaprovides guidelines for the management of hazardous wastes by member states ofthe OAU. It is named after the Malian capital, Bamako, in which it was adopted. TheBamako Convention was adopted on 30 January 1991 (OAU Secretariat 1991) asan alternative to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Move-ments of Hazardous Wastes (Basel Convention) adopted in March 1989 in Switzer-land. OAU members felt that their concerns regarding the total ban on exportinghazardous wastes into Africa and other relevant regional aspects were not adequatelyaddressed by the Basel convention. Article 1 provides several definitions, amongthem, for ‘wastes’, ‘hazardous wastes’ and ‘transboundary movement’. Under Arti-cle 1(1), wastes are defined as ‘substances or materials which are disposed of, or areintended to be disposed of, or are required to be disposed of by the provisions ofnational law’. Hazardous wastes, as per the provisions of Article 1(2) means wastes,as specified in Box 4.1, and those with characteristics outlined in Table 4.2. UnderArticle 1(4), trans-boundary movement refers to ‘any movement of hazardous wastesfrom an area under the national jurisdiction of any State to or through an areaunder the national jurisdiction of another State, or to or through an area not underthe national jurisdiction of another State, provided at least two States are involved



in the movement’. Also of interest is what the Bamako Convention refers to as‘environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes’, which in Article 1(10)means ‘taking all practicable steps to ensure that hazardous wastes are managed in amanner which will protect human health and the environment against the adverseeffects which may result from such wastes’. The Bamako Convention also stipulatesdefinitions (Articles 11–23) in relation to ‘area under the national jurisdiction of aState’, ‘state of export’, ‘state of import’, ‘state of transit’, ‘states concerned’, ‘per-son’, ‘exporter’, ‘importer’, ‘carrier’, ‘generator’, ‘disposer’, ‘illegal traffic’, and ‘dumpingat sea’ (OAU Secretariat 1991).

Box 4.1: Streams of Hazardous Wastes

The taxonomy of hazardous waste is as follows:

Y0 All wastes containing or contaminated by radionuclides, the concentration orproperties of which result from human activity

Y1 Clinical wastes from medical care in hospitals, medical centers and clinics

Y2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products

Y3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines

Y4 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of biocides and phyto-pharmaceuticals

Y5 Wastes from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preservingchemicals

Y6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvents

Y7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides

Y8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use

Y9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions

Y10 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and/or polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and/orpolybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)

Y11 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytictreatment

Y12 Wastes from production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments, paints,lacquers, varnish

Y13 Wastes from production, formulation and use latex, plasticizers, glues/adhe-sives

Y14 Waste chemical substances arising from research and development or teach-ing activities which are not identified and/or are new and whose effects onman and/or the environment are not known

Y15 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation

Y16 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicalsand processing materials



Y17 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations

Y18 Wastes collected from households, including sewage and sewage sludges

Y47 Residues arising from the incineration of household wastes Wastes having as constituents:

Y19 Metal carbonyls

Y20 Beryllium; beryllium compounds

Y21 Hexavalent chromium compounds

Y22 Copper compounds

Y23 Zinc compounds

Y24 Arsenic; arsenic compounds

Y25 Selenium; selenium compounds

Y26 Cadmium; cadmium compounds

Y27 Antimony; antimony compounds

Y28 Tellurium; tellurium compounds

Y29 Mercury; mercury compounds

Y30 Thallium; thallium compounds

Y31 Lead; lead compounds

Y32 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride

Y33 Inorganic cyanides

Y34 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form

Y35 Basic solutions or bases in solid form

Y36 Asbestos (dust and fibres)

Y 37 Organic phosphorous compounds

Y38 Organic cyanides

Y39 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols

Y40 Ethers

Y41 Halogenated organic solvents

Y42 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents

Y43 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan

Y44 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin

Y45 Organohalogen compounds other than substances referred to in this Annex (e.g., Y39, Y41, Y42, Y43, Y44).



Table 4.2: Characteristics of Hazardous Wastes

Class* Characteristics

1 1 H1 Explosive An explosive substance or waste is a solid or liquid substance or waste (ormixture of substances or wastes) which is in itself capable by chemical reaction or producinggas at such a temperature and pressure and at such a speed as to cause damage to thesurroundings.

3 H3 Flammable liquids The word “flammable” has the same meaning as “inflammable”. Flam-mable liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or liquids containing solids in solution orsuspension (for example paints, varnishes, lacquers, etc., but not including substances orwastes otherwise classified on account of their dangerous characteristics) which give off aflammable vapour at temperatures of not more than 60.5 degrees C, closed-cup test, or notmore than 65.6 degrees C, open-cup test. (Since the results of open-cup tests and of closed-cup tests are not strictly comparable and even individual results by the same test are oftenvariable, regulations varying from the above figures to make allowance for such differencewould be within the spirit of this definition).

4.1 H4.1 Flammable solids, or waste solids, other than those classed as explosives, which underconditions encountered in transport are readily combustible, or may cause or contribute tofire through friction.

4.2 H4.2 Substances or wastes liable to spontaneous combustion Substances or wastes which areliable to spontaneous heating under normal conditions encountered in transport, or to heatingup on contact with air, and being then liable to catch fire.

4.3 H4.3 Substances or wastes which, in contact with water emit flammable gases Substances orwastes which, by interaction with water, are liable to become spontaneously flammable or togive off flammable gases in dangerous quantities.

5.1 H5.1 Oxidizing Substances or wastes which, while in themselves not necessarily combustible,may, generally by yielding oxygen, cause or contribute to the combustion of other materials.

5.2 H5.2 Organic peroxides Organic substances or wastes which contain the bivalent-O-O-structure are thermally unstable substances which may undergo exothermic self acceleratingdecomposition.

6.1 H6.1 Poisonous (Acute) Substances or wastes liable either to cause death or serious injury orto harm human health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact.

6.2 6H6.2 Infectious substances Substances or wastes containing viable micro organisms or theirtoxins which are known or suspected to cause disease in animals or humans.

8 H8 Corrosives Substances or wastes which, by chemical action, will cause severe damagewhen in contact with living tissue, or in the case of leakage, will materially damage, or evendestroy, other goods or the means of transport; they may also cause other hazards.

9 H10 Liberation of toxic gases in contact with air or water Substances or wastes which, byinteraction with air or water, are liable to give off toxic gases in dangerous quantities. H11Toxic (Delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled or ingested or ifthey penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects, including carcinogenicity.H12 Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released present or may present immediate ordelayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxiceffects upon biotic systems. H13 Capable, by any means, after disposal, of yielding another

material, e.g., leachate, which possesses any of the characteristics listed above.

* As adopted from hazardous classification system included in the United Nations Recom-mendations on the transport of Dangerous Goods (ST/SG/AC.10/1/Rev.5, UnitedNations, New York 1988).

Source: OAU Secretariat 1991.



From the provision of Article 3, on becoming party to the Bamako Convention,member states are obliged to inform the secretariat of other wastes they considerhazardous. This is supposed to be done within six months. Inasmuch as the BamakoConvention stands out as a distinctive and beautiful piece of legislation, its test hasbeen in its implementation. How many countries party to it have managed to resistthe importation of hazardous wastes? This question threatened to split the AfricanUnion (then the OAU), as some countries have also ratified the Basel convention.The Waste Management Act of 1998 for Botswana (Government of Botswana1998) makes provisions for the application of the Basel convention. Section 45 (1)outlines that the Basel Convention, including ‘any amendments, appendices andresolutions thereto, shall apply in regulating the trans-boundary movement of waste’.Regulations may be promulgated in order to (Section 45 a and b): make such provi-sion as appears necessary or expedient for the carrying out of and giving effect tothe Basel Convention; and impose fees and provide for the recovery of any ex-penditure incurred in giving effect to the Basel Convention.

South Africa has also acceded to the Basel Convention (DEAT 2000). As one ofthe emerging economies in Africa, particularly in southern Africa, the fact that SouthAfrica is party to the Basel Convention places it in the limelight, as a number ofother countries in the SADC region have ratified the rival Bamako Convention.Being in the forefront of promoting NEPAD, the fact that South Africa allows theimportation of hazardous wastes into its territory negatively impacts on its leadingrole in promoting sustainable waste management in the continent.

The ills of imported hazardous substances are probably best illustrated by eventsthat took place at Thor Chemicals, a former British company based in South Afri-ca’s Kwazulu-Natal Province (Nyandu 2002). Thor Chemicals imported thousandsof mercury waste barrels, which it failed to recycle, from the US and other coun-tries. According to Butler (1997), Thor Chemicals was established in South Africa in1963. Investigations into the company’s activities revealed that workers had beenpoisoned in the process. In 1992, two workers (Peter Cele and Engelbert Ngcobo)lapsed into a coma. A third worker, Albert Dlamini was admitted into hospital aftergoing berserk at work. The following year, Nelson Mandela raised environmentalawareness regarding hazardous waste when he visited Engelbert Ngcobo in hospitalin November. It was on this occasion that it emerged that Thor Chemicals waspolluting the air by operating an unlicensed incinerator. Representatives of twentyaffected families later sued Thor Chemicals with civil proceedings taking place inLondon. This resulted in the parent group (Thor Holdings) agreeing to a settlementof R9,000,000 in April 1997. Loss of memory and sexual desire, headache and,arching joints are some of the many problems that another former Thor Chemicalsemployee, Johannes Nxumalo reported (Nyandu 2002: 289). Although the workerwas aware of the dangers associated with working for the company, poverty forcedhim to risk his life. Nxumalo maintains that him and his colleagues had to jog to andfrom work as a means of ‘getting rid of the poison’ in their bodies. Despite suchbreathtaking accounts, African governments are yet to decisively act on banning the



importation of hazardous trans-boundary wastes. At a regional meeting in Nigeria inMay 2004 (UNEP 2005), African governments adopted a position on the StrategicApproach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM). SAICM is seen as atool for good environmental stewardship in the continent. Through SAICM, Afri-can governments agreed to: manage chemicals at all stages of their life cycle: the‘cradle-to-grave’ principle; target most toxic and hazardous chemicals as a priority;and incorporate the principles of substitution, prevention, the polluter pays, theright to know and greening the industry; and integrate the precautionary, liability andaccountability approaches. A remaining challenge is the question of harmonising theBamako and Basel Conventions.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we discuss how the African environmental management agenda isbeing set. Of note is that the continent’s environmental agenda is strongly influ-enced by donors, some of which have genuine intentions of assisting Africa totackle its environmental ills. It also emerged that the key donors and aid agencyshaping our environmental agenda are CIDA and DANIDA, and recently the Afri-can Union through the NEPAD environment action plans, as well as the AfricanDevelopment Bank Group’s Policy on Environment. The chapter also notes thathighly sensitive discourses still remain, notably how best the continent could speak inone voice in order to address some key environmental problems, such as the impor-tation of hazardous waste. African Union members have ratified the rival Basel andBamako Conventions. Overall, it can be concluded that Africa has embraced theconcept of sustainable development as the development paradigm for the century,and that sustainability and sustainable development embrace politics, environment,economics, culture and society.

Revision Questions1. What environmental management agenda are raised by CIDA’s policy for environmental

sustainability?2. Which environmental management agenda is raised by DANIDA’s environmental strat-

egy?3. How is the agenda different, if at all, from that portrayed by the African Development

Bank Group’s policy on the environment?4. What sub-regional environmental stewardship initiatives exist in your region?

Critical Thinking Questions1. Drawing lessons from the Bamako and Basel Conventions, on which other sensitive

environmental issues have the governments of other African Union countries failed tospeak out with one voice, and how best can such environmental problems and thedifferences between governments be addressed?

2. How best can African governments fund the environmental stewardship agenda?3. Is NEPAD’s environmental agenda adequate for the African Union?



ReferencesAfrican Development Bank, 2004, African Development Bank Group’s Policy on the Environment,

Tunis: African Development Bank.Butler, M., 1997, ‘Lessons from Thor Chemicals: The links between health, safety and

environmental protection’, in L. Bethlehem and M. Goldblatt, eds., 1997, The BottomLine: Industry and the Environment in South Africa, Cape Town: University of Cape Town

Press, pp. 194–213.CIDA, 1992, CIDA’s Policy for Environmental Sustainability, Quebec: CIDA.Darkoh, M.B.K. and A. Rwomire, eds., 2003, Human Impact on Environment and Sustainable

Development in Africa, UK: Ashgate, Aldershot.Darkoh, M.B.K., 1993, ‘Land Degradation and Soil Conservation in Eastern and Southern

Africa: A Research Agenda’, Desertification Control Bulletin, No. 22, pp. 60–8.DANIDA, 2004, Strategy for Denmark’s Environmental Assistance to Developing Countries 2004–

2008, Copenhagen: DANIDA.DEAT, 2000, White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management, Pretoria: Government

Printer.Government of Botswana, 1998, Waste management Act 1998, Gaborone: Government

Printer.NEPAD, 2002, A Summary of NEPAD Action Plans, Johannesburg: NEPAD.Nyandu, M., 2002, ‘Crippled for life by mercury exposure’, in A.D. McDonald, ed., Environ-

mental Justice in South Africa, Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 289–91.OAU Secretariat, 1991, Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control

of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa,Addis Ababa: OAU Secretariat.

SADC, 1996, SADC Policy and Strategy for Environment and Sustainable Development: TowardEquity-led Growth and Sustainable Development, Gaborone:

Southern African Development Community.SADC, 2003, Draft SADC Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP), Gaborone:

Southern African Development Community.SADC-REEP, 2007, Environmental Issues and Crises, Howick: SADC-REEP.UNEP, 2003, Global Environment Outlook 3: Past, Present and Future Perspectives, London:

Earthscan.UNEP, 2005, GEO Yearbook 2004/5, Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme.UNEP, 2006, Africa Environment Outlook 2: Our Environment, Our Wealth, Nairobi:United Nations Environment Programme.World Bank, 1998, The World Bank Annual Report 1998, Washington DC: World Bank.World Bank, 2001, Making Sustainable Commitments: An Environment Strategy for the World

Bank, Washington DC: World Bank.World Bank, 2006, The World Bank Annual Report 2006, Washington DC: World Bank.



Chapter 5

Uncertainties and EnvironmentalThreats in Africa

Introduction

Africa is the second largest of the seven continents in the world, with a land area of30,000,000 km2, about one fifth of the world’s total area (ECA 2001). The ECAestimates that about half of the cultivable land is arid or semi-arid, comprisedmostly of desert, with the least content of organic matter. Yet, the continent re-mains one of the richest in terms of natural resources.

Additionally, Africa has the highest and most rapidly increasing population, witha correspondingly high population density. Factors that account for the growth anddistribution of the population in Africa are ecological and historical (ECA 2001).For example, areas with ecological factors conducive to agriculture have densepopulations, while those that are dry and harsh have sparse populations. The slavetrade, devastating bloody conflicts and international migrations have significantlyreduced the population of Africa; while colonisation and economic factors havemodified the distribution of populations on the continent. The majority of Africa’speople are poor, and depend on natural resources for their livelihoods.

Coupled with an ever-increasing dependence and pressure on these resources(Darkoh 1998) it is indisputable that Africa is also a region of high uncertainties andenvironmental problems. This chapter is dedicated to discussing local and regionalenvironmental problems. The terms ‘local’ and ‘regional’ describe impacts, whichare more or less localised, or confined within the geographical areas where theyoriginate, as well as the impacts that go beyond national boundaries, but are re-stricted to the continent’s boundaries. Such environmental problems include de-forestation, land degradation and soil impoverishment, droughts, desiccationand desertification, wildlife de-population and extinction, and water pollutionand shortages.

Deforestation

One of the most important resources, of which Africa is proudest of, is the forest.It is estimated that African forests originally covered about 3,620,000 km2, a sur-face area about the size of India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh combined (Martin1991). Globally, forests cover only 6–7 per cent of the earth’s landmass, but pro-vide a habitat for about 50 per cent of all known species (World Bank 1992). In line



with this general assessment, Peters’ (1998) work has confirmed that forests con-taining a large number of different species usually contain an equally diverse assort-ment of useful plant species, meaning that there is usually correlation between therichness of species and resources. However, he draws attention to an unusual corre-lation that when there is a high species diversity of plants, individuals of a givenspecies usually occur at very low densities. What this means, for example, is that thehigher the diversity of tree species in a given forest area, the lower the rate individu-als of each representative species in the area, and vice versa. This is due to con-straints of space: there is a limit to the total number of trees that can be packed into,for example, a hectare of forest.

Another unfortunate characteristic, noted by Peters, of the many tropical treespecies is that they have difficultly recruiting new seedlings into their population,despite the abundance of pollinators, fruit and seed dispersers and fruit sets. This isso because of a number of constraints. For example, a seed must avoid being eaten,it must encounter the appropriate light, soil moisture and nutrient conditions togerminate, and it must be able to germinate and grow faster than the seeds of otherspecies that are competing in a given micro-site. All this illustrates why it takesmillions of years for the forest to be established.

The forests are important in a number of different ways. For example, theyserve ecological functions such as protecting and enriching soils, providing naturalregulation of the hydrological cycle, affecting local and regional climates, influenc-ing watershed flows of surface and groundwater through water catchment areaprotection, and helping stabilise the global climate by sequestering carbon as theygrow. In addition to these ecological functions, forests support livelihoods and con-fer dignity on resident rural communities. Many rural communities depend entirelyon them for survival.

Unfortunately, these ecological and livelihood support functions are under seri-ous threat, due to the rapid rate of deforestation in Africa. Deforestation refers tothe removal of forest stands by cutting and burning to provide land for otherpurposes, such as agriculture, the construction of residential or industrial buildingsites, and roads, and the harvesting of trees for building materials or fuel, withoutreplanting new trees. According to the ECA (2002), Africa is consuming its forestand woodlands at a rate only slightly lower than the deforestation rates of LatinAmerica and Oceania, and at a rate of twice the world average.

The causes of this problem on the continent include shifting cultivation, com-mercial logging, harvesting of fuelwood and building materials, and pastoralism.Shifting cultivation is considered to be the major cause of deforestation (Bundestag1990). It is a form of traditional agriculture that is widely practised in the drylandsof Africa. It is an efficient way of manipulating environments that would otherwisebe unproductive under arable farming (Darkoh 2003). According to Schusky (citedin Darkoh 2003), the practice is carried out by between 25 and 33 per cent ofAfrican farmers. Schusky identified two kinds of shifting cultivators: those thatpractise it in order to supplement other, more permanent, cropping activities; and


Uncertainties and Environmental Threats in Africa 71

those that have been forced out of their ‘traditional’ homes, with little option but totry to earn a living by encroaching on forests and other environments. To this, twoother types of shifting cultivators can be added: those who are motivated to acquirelarge tracks of land in order to gain traditional recognition and prestige; and thosewho employ it as a strategy for securing sufficient pieces of cultivable land for thefamily, due to perceived or predicted future scarcity.

Given these four different types of shifting cultivators, there is an obvious cor-relation between deforestation and population growth (Barnes 1990). In the past, asparse African population operated the system for subsistence needs (Darkoh 2003).This was characterised by long fallow periods. This explains why in some parts ofAfrica, such as the Machakos district in Kenya, where shifting cultivation is not thetradition, increasing population pressure leads to intensive and highly sustainableforms of land use (Tiffen et al. 1994). However, the common phenomenon today,as Darkoh (2003) notes, is that increasing population pressure leads to more inten-sive shifting, and a reduction in the length of the fallow period, a condition thattends to make the system unsustainable as it leads to disastrous declines in soilfertility.

Shifting cultivation is generally characterised by what is known as slash-and-burnagriculture. According to Peters (1998), the most intensive and costly way to use theforest is to cut it down, burn it, and plant something else: timber plantation, agricul-tural crops and pasture grasses. Cutting down and burning the forest would not onlyeliminate most of the biodiversity and release approximately 150 tonnes of carbonper hectare in the form of carbon dioxide and other green house gases (Keller et al.1991); it would also increase water movement, soil erosion and nutrient loss, as wellas decreasing evapo-transpiration and total ecosystem productivity (Jordan 1987).Continued burning under shifting systems ensures that woody species do not re-colonise and are, eventually, eradicated (Mannion 1995). Faced with the need toproduce more food in the face of declining soil fertility, farmers often have nochoice but to extend their farming activities to areas that are agro-ecologically un-suited to such forms of land use.

The effects of shifting cultivation are often associated with rapid populationgrowth, in view of the argument that its impact was minimal when populations werelow (Darkoh 2003). Although Cleaver (cited in Darkoh 2003) considers this rapidpopulation growth under shifting systems of agriculture to be one of the primecauses of land degradation, this conclusion, according to Darkoh, is no longer ten-able in all cases. Darkoh’s argument is that while high levels of increasing populationare strongly associated with increasing levels of poverty and pressure on the naturalresource base, it is now recognised that the strong correlation does not necessarily oralways imply a causal relationship running in one direction only. He uses the Machakoscase, mentioned above, to illustrate that there are, indeed, other relationships. Forexample, (Lockwood 2000) observes that rising population densities can lead toeither degradational or conservation pathways.



The latter path, that of conservation, which Darkoh (2003) describes as aBoserupian conception, explains the Machachos case. It recognises that capacity isnot fixed, but can be influenced by the application of labour, investment and tech-nology. The opposing view, that of degradation is neo-Malthusian. It states that aspopulations build up, land runs out, giving rise to over-cultivation and degradation.A third view, held among economists, which Darkoh (2003) designates as post-Bruntland view, down-plays the roles of poverty, population increase and land deg-radation in transitional societies, and highlights the importance of economic growth.This view postulates that as economic growth increases, environmental degradationis enhanced, not necessarily by poverty or rapid population growth, but by what iscalled the Environmental Kuznet’s Curve (Kuznets 1955). The hypothesis statesthat in the initial phase of economic development, a country experiences increasingenvironmental degradation, but after attaining a certain income threshold, degrada-tion subsides as further development continues. According to this principle, whilethere may be negative environmental effects as a result of poverty and rapid popu-lation growth during the early stages of economic development, these will be coun-teracted by later improvements in environmental quality, as incomes and living stand-ards improve. But, as Darkoh (2003) warns, it may be unduly optimistic to apply theBoserupian or the Kuznets’ paths in the hopes of successfully redressing the prob-lems of land degradation in Africa without appropriate interventions, such as soilconservation measures and land-use policies. His argument is that the social organi-sation of African societies differs from those in other regions, such as Europe andSouth East Asia, where societies have adapted successfully to high populationdensities.

It has been noted that even the application of what Darkoh describes ‘as appro-priate intervention’ might not guarantee any significant positive results. For example,in the 1990s, agro-forestry and land-use planning initiatives were widely introducedinto a huge number of rural communities in Cameroon, by conservation and devel-opment projects. The intention was to reduce shifting cultivation and encourageproper land management through crop rotation. But what is the place of croprotation in the traditional cultural landscape of the populations? Where there wasfear of an outright resistance to the new practice, projects started by encouragingwhat was described as selective burning. This was the practice of gathering thedestroyed tree biomass into a few heaps before burning when materials are dry, soas to considerably reduce the surface area affected by fire. But farmers found thisnot only time-consuming, but also difficult to apply in a majority of circumstances.However, they adopted the agro-forestry option, as they could appreciate its ben-efits. Of course, agro-forestry has been an integral part of their traditional culture,although the ‘introduced’ version of planting certain (mostly leguminous) species oftrees on their farms could easily be seen as slightly different from their practice ofdiscriminatory felling, aimed at leaving behind trees of economic value. It shouldalso be noted that in some cases, the latter practice was adopted either because the



farmers did not have the appropriate implement, or because it was not financiallyviable to hire someone else to cut down certain (mostly large) trees.

In Kenya, the government initiated several tree planting campaigns. However, bythe late 1940s, these campaigns had become immensely unpopular because theyrepresented a cornerstone of the colonial government’s land policy (FAO 1987).Although some communities adopted the ‘new’ version of agro-forestry, this did notprevent them from continuing with their traditional shifting cultivation. For exam-ple, in the late 1920s, the colonial forest service introduced a village forestry schemein Malawi to promote the protection of indigenous forests, placed under the juris-diction of village leaders. This initiative was motivated by the traditional practice ofcommunities setting aside some forest areas for protection. The expectation wasthat since this initiative was in line with, and promoted, traditional practice, it wouldreceive community support. But, instead, it was viewed with suspicion. Why? Thesimple reason was that the implementers had failed to consider the cultural motiva-tion behind the practice.

Similarly, even if it were popular, the fact that it was placed under the jurisdic-tion of village leaders would have posed another kind of problem. For example,what could have been presented to the farmers as a disincentive against the drive togain recognition and prestige for securing large tracts of land for future use bygrowing numbers of extended family members? All in all, as the FAO notes, someof the problems with tree planting interventions in the past were due to the fact thatlocal people resented foreign initiatives, especially as these brought back memoriesof some of the negative results of colonialism. Local people distrusted governmentmotives, for fear of further land alienation.

Logging

Second to shifting cultivation as a cause of deforestation in Africa is logging. Thisactivity is largely promoted by high foreign demands, due to the extremely high ratesof consumption by the industrialised nations (Struhsaker 1998; Durning 1992).Added to this is the fact that tropical countries often struggle under massive debtsthat drain their viability and encourage them to liquidate their forest capital morequickly, in order to raise foreign exchange. Similarly, logging offers an easy meansof providing access roads in rural areas, and easily wins rural community and na-tional support. However, it has been noted that commercial tree felling has pro-duced a notable impact on the forest ecosystem. The physical evidence of thisdisturbance is immediately apparent. It persists for many years in the form oflogging roads, skid trails and scattered stumps (Peters 1998).

To reduce the rising problem of deforestation due to logging, many exportingcountries now insist on timber companies processing wood before it is exported.This not only provides another source of employment for citizens, but also tends to‘delay’ the destruction of the forests, as time is divided between forest logging andwood processing. Furthermore, these companies are often given twenty to thirtyyears to carry out logging operations in their concessions, usually divided into plots.



The rule is that each plot is to be logged within a year, in a defined order. Nocompany is allowed to move to the next plot within the same year, whether or notthere is enough wood in that year’s plot (Efansa Sunny 2003, personal communica-tion). Also, by specifying the DBH (diameter at breast height) of every timber spe-cies that a timber company is authorised to harvest, the aim is to set some limits onlogging, with a view to avoiding more serious forest damage, and encouraging forestmanagement. Other practical measures have also been proposed to reduce the im-pact of logging operations. For example, companies are usually heavily taxed (Enviro-Protect 1997); and a percentage of the tax money is set aside for reforestation ofthe exploited area.

High taxes could control the number of companies able to operate in a country.But, as Enviro-Protect (1997) observes, the tax money is often either not well man-aged, or the regeneration effort is instead concentrated on the planting of exoticspecies that present a threat to the genetic diversity of the area. A combined effortof establishing tree plantations, improving forest management practices, and gettingmore value out of existing wood resources is required to curb the prevailing unsus-tainable logging of tropical forests, and to help developing countries meet growingdemands for wood products (Postel and Heise 1988). The practice of selectivelogging has been espoused as a sustainable logging method. This involves selectivecutting and removal of only the most desirable timber species. But, as Peters (1998)notes, this practice is also known to produce a number of ecological repercussions,although it is generally less damaging than total forest conversion. In tropical forests,crowns of many large canopy trees are lashed to those of neighbouring trees by aprofusion of vines, lianas and clumbers. When selected timber trees are felled, othercanopy tree species are pulled down and the whole woody mass crash through thelower canopy to cause even more damage. In the final analysis, harvesting even asmall number of stems can destroy up to 55 per cent of the residual stand, andseriously damage an additional 3–6 per cent of the standing trees (Johns cited inPeters 1998). There is also the strategy of ‘debt-for-nature’ swaps proposed byconservationists. Here a conservation organisation purchases a given amount ofdebt owed by a timber exporting country at a discount. Taking advantage of thelocal currency exchange, the money is used to fund conservation efforts.

Harvesting Fuelwood

There is a flood of literature that has largely blamed deforestation in Africa on theharvesting of fuelwood and building materials by rural communities. Although thisallegation cannot be totally dismissed, it did not, as it does not, reflect the real pictureof the situation in comparative terms. Darkoh (1998) offers a comprehensive com-parative analysis of the status quo. Based on 1989 estimates, the Office of the UNHigh Commission for Refugees found that roughly 11,000,000 trees were cut forshelter needed during the initial period of refugee influxes in Africa (Cardy 1994).This represents deforestation of over 12,000 hectares for that year. In addition,approximately 4,000,000 tonnes of fuelwood were consumed by refugees in Africa



in the same year. Taking a more general view, there were widespread reports of thedestruction of woodlands as a result of clearing for fuelwood. However, Darkoh(1998) observes that while the incidence of deforestation resulting from fuelwoodrequirements can have some serious effects, because fuelwood and charcoal arecritical resources for the poor, recent research has revealed that these effects tendgenerally to be localised in the dryland areas, especially around settlement nodes. Ithas also been generally observed that most local people collect only dead wood ofselected species to satisfy their fuelwood requirements. UNSO (1992) notes that ina purely rural setting, with dispersed settlements, fuelwood has seldom been a bigproblem. In line with this, Darkoh notes that, with the exception of some highlylocalised or highly populated rural areas, such as the Ethiopian Highlands and partsof Central Tanzania, little evidence exists to suggest that rural household fuelwoodconsumption is responsible for large-scale deforestation in Africa. Accordingly, mount-ing evidence, notably from Zambia, Kenya and Sudan, points out that it is ratherurban demand, usually for charcoal, that leads to the extensive cutting down offorests. It should also be noted that high charcoal production is often carried out inareas where logging operations are extensive, as locals collect waste-wood free ofcharge, or at low cost. Urban charcoal demands are also evidently high in Cameroonand Nigeria where some ‘modern homes’ additionally construct what is known lo-cally as firewood kitchens. This is not only a strategy to reduce the cost of consum-ing the rather expensive commercially produced gas, but it is also necessitated by thebelief that certain traditional dishes would not taste as good if they were not cookedon biomass stoves.

Several methods have been proposed to combat deforestation due to the fuelwoodcrisis and increasing demand. These include publicly-supported tree growing pro-grammes, community management of natural forests, and the use of improvedbiomass stoves. The first two strategies constitute what FAO (2003) identifies as thetwo models of wood production. Ethiopia provides a historical example of a pub-licly initiated tree growing programme to promote the production of fuelwood (FAO1987). In the late 1890s, the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik introduced legislation toexempt land planted with funds from taxation. Furthermore, he arranged for thedistribution of eucalyptus seedlings at nominal prices. All this was a response to anextreme scarcity of wood around the then new capital of Addis Ababa. Althoughthe programme was slow to start, by the 1920s the streets and paths of Addis Ababawere already looking like a vast continuous forest. Apart from its use as fuelwood,people found other uses for eucalyptus, such as house construction, implements andfurniture. So the activity spread to other parts of Africa, mostly more sparselyforested areas. However, today the eucalyptus tree is gradually losing popularity, dueto its observed water-losing rather than water-conserving capacity; however, it con-tinues to be maintained wherever it was planted. The spread of neem trees in WestAfrica and the Sahel, introduced into Senegal in 1944 and into Mali in 1953, isanother striking example of the successful introduction of a new tree species in the



more recent past. The eucalyptus and neem tree species are highly valued for boththeir rapid growth, and multi-purpose uses.

Similar to tree planting, there is increasing emphasis in the continent on what ispopularly known as community forestry. Community forestry could be defined asany situation which immediately involves local people in a forestry activity, in areaswhich are short of wood and other forest products, through the growing of trees atfarm level to provide cash crops and other income generating products, large-scaleindustrial forestry, and any other forms of forestry which contribute to communitydevelopment. On-farm community forestry has taken the form of agro-forestryactivities that have been widely promoted, technically and financially, by the conser-vation and development projects that have proliferated on the continent. Tree nurs-eries have been established and seedlings distributed to community members, free-of-charge or at very minimal costs. On the other hand, management of naturalforest areas, in what are now popularly known as community forests, has been donewith the technical assistance of governments, though often with the financial sup-port of conservation and development projects. According to FAO, they are gener-ally designed to use land under direct community ownership, or state land, which hasbeen specially designated for community control. Unlike farm-based communityforestry, control of which is by the individual farmers, in this situation managementis either by the community as a whole, or through a community group.

Perhaps the best known community forest initiative, albeit outside of Africa,has been the Chipko Movement in the Himalayan region of Northern India. Itstarted when a large group of people with common interests in tree resources sawthat by organising themselves into a group, they could more effectively influence thepolitical and economic forces that were improperly managing their physical environ-ment. This movement first came to public attention in 1973, when members dem-onstrated against the commercial felling of trees in forests where they lived byhugging the trees to stop fellers from cutting them down.

Despite the acclaimed success of community forestry in some parts of thecontinent, there are many instances of less encouraging results from such pro-grammes in other parts. For example, we have seen the obvious failures of tree-planting campaigns in Kenya and Malawi (FAO 1987). Specifically, many agro-for-estry programmes have failed for the same or other reasons. One other reason is theprogressive reduction in tangible benefits to farmers, especially when there is anincreasing surplus of supplies, and prices are low. Another important reason forfailure is related to the labour-intensive nature of the activity, vis-à-vis normal farmingoperations. Also, since such projects are often imposed to meet mostly long-termobjectives, rather than desirable short-term community objectives, participants be-gin to feel sooner or later that it is merely a wasted effort on their part to continue.One popular project management recommendation today is to avoid undue intro-duction of new practices, but rather to build on or, at worst, fine-tune indigenoussystems in order to make them culturally acceptable, socio-economically realisticand viable, and, therefore, sustainable.



According to FAO (2003), local management of natural forests is also hamperedby weak and slow-changing institutions, rent capture by local elites, inconsistent lawsand regulations, and a cumbersome bureaucracy. In some cases the government hasrefused to give full ownership and control of community forests to communities. Itmay seem logical to conclude that the concept of participatory forest managementmore appropriately describes what are generally designated as community forests bymost African governments. Participatory forest management is all-encompassing. Itincludes different types of forestry activities that involve local communities exercis-ing different levels of decision-making authority. Concepts such as community for-estry, community-based forest management, social forestry, joint forest manage-ment, collaborative forest management, common property forest management, andparticipatory forestry all refer to approaches that involve local communities at vari-ous levels. The use of such a broad definition is important because it embraces theexperiences from countries that differ in their approaches.

Improved biomass stoves are fast becoming popular. They are seen as an effec-tive means of reducing fuelwood consumption due to their heat retention capacity.This type of appropriate technology has the obvious advantage, over and aboveusing very little wood at once, of encouraging the use of what would have otherwisebeen wasted. Although many samples of high quality stoves are available on themarket, there is the need for further research to increase their quality in terms ofheat retention and smoke emission (Eyabi 2005, personal communication).

Pastoralism

Pastoralism is another cause of deforestation in Africa. It is a form of agriculturethat is carried out in lands that cannot be readily cultivated to produce crops, orwhere it makes economic sense to generate animal products. It may involve cuttingdown forest areas and replacing them with pasture grasses. Nomadic pastoralismoccurs in arid and semi-arid environments, which necessitates the migration of ani-mals and herders on a regular basis from one area to another. Like shifting cultiva-tion, nomadic pastoralism, when well managed, is ecologically balanced through thevarying requirements of livestock components. This makes the agricultural systemstable in a fragile environment. Grazing, however, becomes a threat to biodiversitybecause it not only displaces wildlife but also disrupts the composition of plantspecies. When the population increases, there tends to be a permanent replacementof naturally occurring biota, with lasting changes in the output, input and compo-nents of the system. This system is associated with a major reduction in speciesdiversity, as just a few domesticated animals replace the wide range of wild species(Mannion 1995). Farmers often remove trees from grazing lands with the intentionof improving grass growth by reducing competition for water and soil nutrients. Butthis has an adverse effect on biodiversity because of tree loss.



Land Degradation and Soil Impoverishment

Although there is a distinction between the two concepts of land degradation andsoil degradation (or soil impoverishment), they both describe a decline in land or soilquality due to human activities. Darkoh (2003) defines degradation as diminution ordestruction of the biological potential by one or a combination of processes actingon the land. The concept of land degradation is broader than soil degradation,because it deals with the whole ecosystem, of which the soil is one component. The1994 UN International Convention to Combat Desertification described land deg-radation as the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity andcomplexity of the land (INCD 1994).

When land degradation is a result of human activities, it usually arises from amis-match between land quality and land use (Beinroth et al. cited in Darkoh 2003),with attendant implications for land productivity. Constant exposure of a piece ofland, through, for instance, forest clearance, bush burning and over-grazing, de-stroys the soil structure and texture, as well as the useful organisms responsible forits formation. Land and soil degradation are also due to over-cultivation, whichresults in the depletion of plant nutrients, as well as inappropriate or over-applica-tion of fertilizers, poor irrigation and other inappropriate land-use practices.

The processes of land degradation include water erosion, wind erosion and sedi-mentation; long-term destruction of vegetation, diminution of many plants andanimal populations; or decreases of crop yields, salinization or sodication of soils(Darkoh (2003). Lal (1994) identifies, in broader terms, three key mechanisms thatinitiate land degradation: physical, chemical and biological processes. Physical proc-esses include a decline in soil structure leading to crusting, compaction and erosion.Chemical processes include acidification, leaching, salinization, decrease in nutrientretention capacity and fertility depletion. Biological processes include reduction inbiomass carbon and decline in land biodiversity. Physical soil degradation results inthe deterioration of the structure of the soil, making it more compact and harder touse, due to impermeability to rain and poor drainage. The soil also develops hardpansand surface crusting (ECA 1999). Soil structure is the important property that af-fects all three degradational processes.

Soil degradation is more pronounced where the soil is exposed to agents ofdenudation and erosion. Erosion has been defined as the washing away of the top-soil, together with its valuable plant nutrients. Wind and water erosion types areextensive in many parts of Africa, with an estimated 25 per cent of the non-desertlandmass prone to water erosion and 22 per cent prone to wind erosion (WMOcited in ECA 2002). Using South Africa to illustrate the gravity of erosion, watererosion alone affects 6,100,000 hectares of cultivated soil, 15 per cent of which isseriously affected, 37 per cent, moderately, and the rest slightly. Wind erosion ismore severe as it claims an estimated 10,900,000 hectares of cultivated soil, 7 percent of which is seriously affected, 29 per cent, moderately, and 64 per cent, slightly(Landcare Supplement cited in ECA 2002).



As in the case of deforestation, high population density is readily considered theroot cause of soil degradation in Africa. For example, Darkok (2003) argues thatincreasing population pressure leads to more intensive shifting, and to a reduction inthe length of the fallow period, to such a degree that the soil is no longer allowed toreplenish its nutrient store; hence a decline in soil fertility. However, although in-creasing population density cannot be wholly dismissed, it is not the root cause ofland degradation in Africa. Rather, the extent of degradation is determined by whata population does to the land (ECA 2002). For example, poor land-use practices,such as slash-and-burn agriculture, over-cropping and other farming methods, andthe inappropriate use of fertilisers, have deleterious effects on soil fertility. Accord-ing to the ECA, land degradation is closely linked to land tenure systems. This isevident in the fact that if a people do not own the title to the land, they have noincentive to invest in long-term improvements. Similarly, due to the question ofownership, traditional methods of managing grazing have become less effective.The consequence is that free-range grazing has led to overgrazing, especially in aridand semi-arid areas, resulting in deteriorated land cover. It could, therefore, beconcluded that land degradation is a biophysical process driven by socio-economicand political causes (ECA 1999).

The picture of soil degradation in Africa is frightening. In sub-Saharan Africa,72 per cent of arable land, and 31 per cent of pasture land, are degraded. The rateof soil loss in South Africa is estimated at 400,000,000 tonnes annually (Griffencited in ECA 2001). An estimated 30 per cent of smallholder farmland in Zimba-bwe is now totally degraded. The situation is worse in the densely populated areas ofMalawi, such as the Lilongwe plains. It is estimated that 14 per cent of degraded soilresults from vegetation removal, 13 per cent from over-exploitation, 49.5 per centfrom overgrazing, and 24 per cent from agricultural activities (WRI cited inECA 2002).

Land degradation was a major global issue in the twentieth century. It will remainhigh on the international agenda for many more decades to come. This is due to itsimpact on world food security and the quality of the environment (ECA 2002).When soils are subjected to severe and extreme degradation, their original bioticfunctions are damaged. Reclamation is, at worst, impossible and, at best, difficult orcostly (FAO cited in Darko 1998). The resulting degradation of productive landshas led to declining production and intensified food insecurity (Darkoh 1998).

Several measures have been taken to address land degradation in Africa, rangingfrom modern to traditional methods and techniques. Modern methods, promotedby governments and NGOs, include improving farming methods and systems, withspecific emphasis on agro-forestry for soil enrichment, or conservation and erosioncontrol. Practical steps have been taken to introduce modern cultural practices,such as terracing and ‘horizontal ridging’ on slopes.

In the case of traditional methods, Leach and Mearns (cited in ECA 2002) haveshown that in West Africa, counter to assumptions about environmental destruction,indigenous rural land users have maintained and increased environmental produc-



tivity. This has been achieved through maintaining a balance between the amountand constituents of forest and retained grassland cover, using traditional land man-agement techniques, which respond to changing socio-economic environments.

Another striking example of traditional methods is the Machakos experience inKenya. Tiffen et al. (1994) investigated the processes leading to the recovery of thelandscape of Machakos District. It was observed that for a period of sixty years,landscape degradation had been followed by the improvement of the same land-scape, despite a six-fold rise in human population. The recovery of the landscapewas accompanied by and linked to marked improvements in human welfare. Theimprovements in physical and human environments had been achieved through acomplex blend of externally generated technical innovations and economic changes.But their successful adoption has been due to indigenous initiatives. Toulmin (1995cited in ECA 2002) also notes that the Machakos miracle was created by ordinarypeople adapting to livelihood opportunities, thus underscoring the importance ofapplying indigenous knowledge when addressing the environment.

Droughts, Desiccation and Desertification

Africa’s dryland environment poses formidable problems for sustainable develop-ment. Amongst these are unpredictable and severe drought, and desiccation oraridification due to persistent drought and dryland degradation and desertification.Darkoh (1998) offers clear definitions of desertification, drought and desiccation,terms, which there is a tendency to confuse. He defines ‘drought’ as a naturallyoccurring short-term phenomenon, when precipitation is significantly below normalrecorded levels. It is a dry period from which an ecosystem recovers rapidly afterthe rains return. Such temporary deficits in rainfall can generally be accommodatedby existing ecological, technical and social strategies. ‘Desiccation’ or ‘aridification’ isdefined as a longer-term deficit in rainfall, which seriously disrupts ecological andsocial patterns. It requires national and global responses. Recovery after desiccationis much slower, because trees may have died and vegetation may take many years torecover.

Several definitions have been advanced for desertification. The most currentand widely accepted is that used by UNCED (1992). According to UNCED,desertification is ‘land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas result-ing from various factors including climatic variations and human activities’. An im-portant limitation is that desertification is restricted to the drylands. The definitionidentifies two key factors responsible for desertification: ‘climatic variation’ and‘human activities’. ‘Climatic variation’, or ‘climate change’, refers to short-term cli-mate variability, and longer-term climatic trends or shifts caused by natural mecha-nisms, or by human activity (Kelly and Hulme 1993).

Meanwhile It is important to note that the human activities responsible fordesertification are not different from those that cause land degradation. They in-clude over-cultivation, over-grazing, poor irrigation and other land-use practices.



Desertification is effectively land degradation restricted to dryland areas. Similarly,there is an obvious correlation between drought and desiccation, and desertification.However, as Darkoh warns, it does not necessarily follow that drought and desicca-tion will give rise to desertification. His argument is that this is only likely to be thecase when human misuse or mismanagement of the land weakens the natural envi-ronment (Darkoh 1998). Whether desertification is likely to occur or not dependson the resource management in the dryland areas. Therefore, climate variationsalone, characterised by droughts and desiccation, are unlikely to result in desertificationwhere there is proper resource management, as this should work against the naturalfactors.

Desertification has been mistakenly understood as shifting sand dunes, as ex-pressed in the widely used term ‘desert encroachment’. The common feature of adesert is hence understood as a large expanse of barren rock or sand, with verysparse vegetation. This misconception originates in concerns about shifting sanddunes and sand drifts, where wind erosion is particularly serious in cultivated areasin which dry farming is practised (Darkok 2003). UNCED (1992) has dispelled thismisconception by stating categorically that the process of desertification is not dueto shifting sand dunes, but rather ‘patches of increasingly unproductive land break-ing out and spreading over hundreds of square kilometers’. Desertification maytake centuries. However it should be noted that once a desert has formed, it is verydifficult to restore it as arable land.

According to WWF (1988), deserts are spreading over 6,000,000 hectares ofland every year. This is a very serious situation, given the estimate that 73 per centof the total drylands used for agriculture are degraded (Table I), and a third ofAfrica is affected by desertification. Three distinct areas of the continent are atmost risk: Mediterranean Africa, the Sudano-Sahelian region and the Kalahari-Namibregion in southern Africa (Darkoh 1998).

Drought, desiccation and desertification have dire consequences for the conti-nent. Darkoh (1998) reports that the great drought in the Sudano-Sahel region inthe early 1970s claimed about 250,000 lives. This was actually less severe than thedrought of 1982–5, which affected the entire sub-Saharan region. Ethiopia was theworst affected, with an estimated 1,000,000 people starving to death from the com-bined effects of drought and civil war. Drought reduces millions of people to des-titution, driving mass migration to urban areas in search of work and relief. Addi-tional pressure is placed on basic city services such as water and sanitation, whichintroduces another set of problems. The agro-economic effects of drought includelower and more variable yields, reduction in acreage of cropped lands, less high-yield food cropping, diminished rangeland productivity, changes in pastures and inthe composition and size of herds, and lower prices, as herdsmen flood the marketwith sickly cattle, seeking to sell them before they die.

The effects of desiccation on croplands and rangelands have been much moreserious than those of droughts. In the Sahel, many peasant and pastoral communi-ties have ‘simply ceased to exist after the desiccation of the last 20 years’ (UNSO



1992:30). As would be expected, the effects of desertification are even more pro-nounced:

Desertification reduces the productivity of land and deprives people of biologicalresources that are important for human sustenance. These impacts, in turn, lowerincomes (and subsistence levels) of hundreds of millions of already poor, drylandpeasants, herdsmen and urbanities who form part of the same economy. Prolongedperiods of drought under these circumstances lead to hunger, malnutrition andstarvation, high infant mortality and accelerated rural migration. Loss of biodiversityin cultivated plants and domesticated animals, and in wild foods which are so im-portant when agriculture fails at times of drought, is a direct threat to food security(IPED 1994 cited in Darkoh 1998:13).

…[It] translates into a spiral of declining production, increasing poverty and dimin-ished potential productivity. The exacerbated poverty, in turn, exacerbatesdesertification because, as the pressure increases, people are forced to exploit theirland to survive. In doing so, they further diminish its productivity and the cyclecontinues. The result is seen today in the Ethiopian Highlands and all across theSudan-Sahel: starvation, death, disease and the exodus of millions of environmen-tal refugees moving in desperate search for survival to the urban areas or to other lessdegraded lands elsewhere. Directly or indirectly desertification slowly erodes the ge-netic base for human staple food and undermines the whole production system.Entire societies and cultures are now threatened. The pastoralists of the Sahel are acase in point. For most, the loss of their livelihood means a life in relief camps or inshanty towns mushrooming around Sahelian cities and those of the countries to thesouth’ (Darkoh (1998:15).

Ghai (1992) adds that desertification and resource-scarcity may provoke social un-rest and political and armed conflict. Several governments, most notably the HaileSelassie regime of Ethiopia, have been swept from power due to the suffering andunrest associated with drought and famine. With continuing degradation and theincreasing scarcity of natural resources, the struggle and competition for the re-maining resources are likely to become a potent source of conflict among commu-nities and countries in the African drylands

Wildlife De-population and Extinction

Wildlife de-population describes a considerable drop in the population of wildlife,due largely to the excessive exploitation of species, and the uncontrolled habitatdestruction by humans. Exploitation of wildlife for commercial purposes (e.g. hunt-ing and logging) renders the future of some wildlife species rather uncertain. It isimportant to note that many rural communities largely depend on the sale of gamemeat for income. Wilcox and Nzouango (2000) carried out hunting studies at theBanyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in southwest Cameroon. They recorded a total killof 8,139 animals in eighteen months. This increased rate of hunting is due to acombination of high population growth, improved hunting techniques, and a high



demand for game meat. The meat is usually smoked and sold in local markets on aweekly basis. With increasing external demand, a commercial network is developingto expedite movement of this product from the rural area to the urban area, wheregame meat is an important source of protein (Robinson 1996).

Wildlife–human conflict is another cause of the severe declines in wildlife num-bers, due to increased poaching, as communities consider shooting to be the mosteffective method of addressing the problem (Douglas-Hamilton 1997; Inyang 2002).This conflict may be attributed in large measure to a combination of rapid humanpopulation growth and poor land-use management strategies, such as shifting culti-vation, which impose increasing demands on the land. This demand results in ever-increasing encroachment on wildlife habitats for agricultural activities, and the de-velopment of human settlements. The situation is clearly explained by Hunter (1996)who postulates that the geometry of natural habitat fragmentation, induced by agri-culture, indicates that as the wildlife range contracts in the face of human expan-sion, the interface of potential wildlife-human contact increases. Inyang (2002) ob-serves that even the hunting that Banyang-Mbo in Cameroon communities oftenemploy, as a strategy for resolving conflict (resolution through the elimination ofkey individuals), instead perpetuates conflict, as the targeted species are forced todisperse wildly and cause more widespread problems due to increased disturbance.

The destruction of valuable wildlife habitats to make way for plantations andhuman settlements is a serious threat to the wildlife. A drastic drop in the populationof a species may render it endangered. A species is considered endangered when itis faced with extinction or when it is in danger of becoming extinct. There is a longhistory of why certain species became endangered.

One way of controlling wildlife de-population is to stop the unsustainable exploi-tation of species, as well as the indiscriminate destruction of their habitats, througha combination of environmental education, livelihood support activities and lawenforcement. Environmental education should form the greater part of the effort,and law enforcement should be a last resort, mostly effective if and when thereassured continued collaboration of the target population. Reducing the consump-tion of endangered species through the introduction of supplementary sources ofincome and protein offers sustainable redress. But this approach can be deceptive,because preferences are influenced by a combination of factors that include fash-ion, taste, cultural values and taboos, production cost, and price differences. Thisapproach presupposes availability to be the only economic factor that could influ-ence such preferences. But it should be noted that these are substitution prefer-ences, differing from one individual to another. They are often coloured or compli-cated by such economic variables as scarcity, elasticity of demand, elasticity ofsupply, and opportunity cost.

Moreover, some cultural taboos have a far greater influence on individual choicesthan economic factors. For example, most people from some ethnic groups in theNorth West Province of Cameroon still hold the firm belief that by eating snails,they would develop scabies all over their bodies, among other fearsome conditions.



No amount of persuasion, or motivation, would entice them to contravene or vio-late their beliefs. Unfortunately, some project-implementers may be excited aboutthe idea of introducing snails or some other alternative livestock, having learntabout their success elsewhere.

Alternatively, some of the alternatives introduced may satisfy all the culturalfactors, as well as taste, but not the economic factors. For example, the introducedlivestock may eventually be found to cost more than what it was intended to out-compete, due to the high cost of production. In this case, the income level of thecommunity members would become the determining factor. It could therefore beconcluded that for new livestock to be introduced, it must be both culturally andeconomically acceptable. Therefore, a series of studies must be conducted beforedeciding what introduction would satisfy both economic and cultural factors,i.e., what has the potential to place itself high on the scale of the communities’preferences.

Extinction

As a result of continued wildlife de-population, many valuable plant and animalspecies are being lost. This happens mostly before their uses have been discovered,as a result of excessive exploitation of the earth’s flora and fauna and the un-checked destruction of wildlife habitats. Scientists estimate that every hundred years,one species, either a plant or an animal, becomes extinct naturally. But today anastounding number of species become extinct every year, due to a wide range ofunfriendly and outright destructive human activities.

Extinction is the end-result of wildlife de-population. It may be local or global.Local extinction is the loss of a species in a particular region, while global extinctiondescribes the complete extermination of a species from the earth. Local extinctionsare a common phenomenon in fragmented habitats and islands. Habitat fragmenta-tion could be brought about through road construction and agricultural activities.The resultant fragmented blocks share similar characteristics with islands. Localextinctions in these habitat areas can be countered by re-colonisation from largerhabitat blocks, in the case of habitat fragments, and from the mainland or otherislands, in the case of islands. But in the case of endemic species on a remote islandor habitat fragment, re-colonisation is impossible. This type of local extinction istherefore precisely equivalent to global extinction (Begon et al. 1996), which is anirreversible phenomenon. Normally, local extinction could be addressed throughbreeding and reintroduction programmes. But a solution to global extinction is yet tobe discovered: there simply is no solution. The loss of a species may have greatecological, economic and cultural consequences.

Ecologically, the removal of a species, especially a keystone species, which maybe a top predator or an important prey, could disrupt the ecosystems that performa wide range of functions, from nutrient recycling to global climate moderation.



Economically, some species provide direct sources of income for local communi-ties. Indirectly, they provide a free source of materials for food, building and medi-cine. Culturally, some rural communities are said to have spiritual relationships withcertain species, the removal of which could mean the collapse of such links.

To prevent extinction requires banning the trade, exploitation and purchase ofendangered species. Another strategy is an expanded programme of environmentaleducation aimed at enabling the target populations to identify the problem, appreci-ate its magnitude, analyse its causes, identify possible solutions, distinguish betweenthe species in question and those that are not affected, and appreciate the roles theycan play in addressing the situation.

Water Pollution and Shortages

This is the contamination of seas, rivers and other water bodies with refuse, humanand industrial wastes, or pesticides and fertilizers (Figure 2.11). There is also a com-mon practice by some local communities in, notably, some parts of Cameroon andNigeria, where people use gamalin 20 or gamalin 40 (insecticides) to kill fish inrivers. This is a serious form of water pollution, resulting in the massive destructionof aquatic life. People eating the fish may easily become sick and eventually diedue to the poison. Others may suffer long-term effects, such as infertility orabnormal births.

The excessive use of the now banned pesticide known as DDT (dichloro-diphenyltrichloroethane) produced devastating effects on birds, to the point wheresome, the dodo for example, became extinct. The pesticide was used to launch aneffective campaign against the malaria-transmitting anopheles mosquitoes. But itwas later discovered to be responsible for the thinning of the birds’ eggshells. Be-cause the eggs were thinner than normal, they easily broke whenever the birds saton them to effect incubation.

Many soils have become degraded to such an extent that farmers who canafford to do so often use fertilisers. But often, as Cunningham et al. (2003) note,many farmers over-fertilise because they are unaware of the specific nutrient con-tent of their soils, as well as the nutrient requirements of their crops. Large amountsof phosphates and nitrates contained in the fertilisers become a major source ofaquatic ecosystem pollution. These nutrients may find their way into the aquaticsystem and cause cultural eutrophication or enrichment, a condition, which favours‘algae bloom’ (the rapid multiplication of algae). When the algae decay, they chokeoff oxygen and sunlight required by other aquatic plants and animals (French 1990),which find themselves competing for the fast reducing dissolved oxygen. This phe-nomenon is termed biological oxygen demand (BOD). It has very serious conse-quences for aquatic life.

A similar, but worse, situation is when there is an oil spill, such as that whichhappened at Santa Babara in 1969. This may require a clean-up effort to amelioratethe situation. But the damage is already done, because when the oil spills, oxygen is



prevented from dissolving into water since it cannot even penetrate through the oillayer. Considering the fact that most living organisms cannot survive without oxygenfor a very short time, this produces a very serious and unfortunate situation that cancause untold devastation of aquatic life within just a few minutes.

Farmers using pesticides wrongly is another serious source of water pollution, asthese chemicals are eventually washed into streams and rivers. The chemicals con-tain poisonous substances that not only destroy aquatic life, but may be stored intheir organs, undergoing constant recycling through the food chain in a processknown as bio-magnification. When these chemicals finally reach humans at the topof the chain, their levels are usually so highly concentrated that they constituteserious health and reproductive problems.

Addressing the water pollution problem, especially at a community level, re-quires the proper education of communities about health and other effects. Tradi-tional injunctions have been used in some rural communities; these have proved tobe successful. At a national level, there is need for intensified law enforcement torestrict the movements of harmful and commonly abused products. If many coun-tries increased their enforcement policies, manufacturers might be forced to ceaseproducing such products, due to the loss of markets. In other words, internationallaws should be strengthened, duly backed by the appropriate political will, to ensurethe effectiveness of the international convention; the objectives of which are tofight against the trade in such products, and the discharge of toxic wastes.

The problem is so serious that water, once a freely available common accessresource, has become scarce. It is difficult to access, and is often an expensivecommodity in many countries (ECA 2002). Although water scarcity is defined morein terms of its physical unavailability, more accurately, water is available, but ispolluted, and therefore scarce because it is not safe for drinking. Other factors thatcause water scarcity are natural: such as a prolonged dry season or frequent droughts;others are anthropological activities, such as catchment destruction. The problemof water scarcity is severe on the African continent, and the consequences aremany. As ECA (2002) notes, lack of access to good quality water has far-reachingimpacts on the social, economic and environmental security of African communi-ties, with the most seriously affected being the poor.

In rural Africa, about 65 per cent of the population do not have access to anadequate water supply. Water demand in the SADC region is projected to rise by atleast 3 per cent annually until 2020, in line with population growth projections (ECA2002). Consequently, it is estimated that by 2025, up to 16 per cent of Africa’spopulation will be living in countries facing water scarcity, and 32 per cent will live inwater-stressed countries (WWF 2000 cited in ECA 2002).

With the increasing demand for water, water-poor countries are looking to cross-border sources for future supplies. In most cases, such countries try their best tostore large quantities of water in dams, thus altering and reducing the natural flowsof rivers. The dams themselves do not provide any guarantee of water security forthe host countries, as their future depends largely on land-use patterns in the neigh-



bouring countries. For instance, soil erosion in the river catchments, due to activitiesof neighbouring countries, will cause siltation, thereby reducing water quality andthe viability of dams. Thus, a dam is affected ‘upstream’ by a neighbour, which inturn, causes impacts on a ‘downstream’ neighbour (ECA 2002). In a number ofAfrican countries, as an alternative to dam building projects, efforts to address theproblem of water scarcity, largely by local NGOs, have concentrated on the devel-opment of bore-holes and wells in rural communities, with the financial assistanceof international NGOs, and foreign embassies. Although there are many successstories, such initiatives do not in themselves provide long-term water security forthe beneficiary communities, because the sustainability of such projects dependsnot only on the water management potentials of communities, but also on a reduc-tion in the degradation activities that have implications for water table levels.

Conclusion

This chapter has set out the different types of environmental problems in Africa.Although these problems are generally due to human activities, some are moreclosely associated with a lack of development, with poverty as the root cause; whileothers are linked with unsustainable economic development, with over-consump-tion as their root cause.

It may be summarised that environmental problems are generally due to twomajor factors: resource depletion and environmental pollution. Resource depletion,leaving aside other contributory factors, encompasses deforestation, land degrada-tion, wildlife de-population and species extinction. Problems associated with envi-ronmental pollution include air, water and land pollution, global warming, acid depo-sition and ozone layer depletion.

Revision Questions1. With at least three examples for each, distinguish between local and global environmen-

tal problems.2. Name three environmental problems, analyse their causes and propose solutions.3. Discuss some measures used to check logging activities in Africa and why it has remained

one of the major causes of deforestation.4. What factors contribute to wildlife depopulation in Africa?5. Land degradation is at the root of hunger and starvation in some parts of Africa.

Discuss the contributory factors and propose measures to ameliorate the situation.

Critical Thinking Questions1. To what extent is shifting cultivation a major cause of deforestation in Africa?2. Tropical rain forests are disappearing at rates that threaten the economic and ecological

functions they provide. Discuss.3. What is the correlation between deforestation and global warming?



4. Wildlife-human conflict is another cause of severe declines in wildlife numbers. Expa-tiate. Air pollution and acid deposition are problems associated more with industrial-ized nations. Why should an African worry about these problems?

5. When can the saying ‘Global warming is global warning’ be justified?6. Nuclear technology is both a blessing and a curse to the world. Discuss.

ReferencesBegon, M., Harper, J.L. and Townsend, C.R., 1996, Ecology, London: Blackwell Science Ltd.Bundestag, D., 1990, Protecting the Tropical Forests: A High Priority International Task, Second

Report of the Enquete-Commission, ‘Preventive Measures to Protect the Earth’s Atmos-phere’, of the 11th German Bundestag Retreat Offentlichkeitsarbeit.

Cardy F., 1994, Environment and Forced Migration, Nairobi: UNEP.Cunningham, W.P., Saigo, B.W. and Cunningham, M.A., 2003, Environmental Science: A

Global Concern, New York: McGraw-Hill.Durning, A., 1992, How Much is Enough? The Consumer Society and the Future of the Earth.

New York: W.W. Norton and Company.ECA, 1999, Study on Soil Erosion and Destruction of Land Resources: Issues and Trends in Africa,

Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa.ECA, 2001, State of the Environment in Africa, Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for

Africa.ECA, 2002, Economic Impact of Environmental Degradation in Southern Africa, Lusaka: Eco-

nomic Commission for Africa.Darkoh. M.B.K., 1998, ‘The Nature, Causes and Consequences of Desertification in the

Drylands of Africa’, Land Degradation Development, Vol. 9, pp. 1–20.Darkoh. M.B.K., 2003, ‘Regional Perspectives on Agriculture and Biodiversity in the Drylands

of Africa’, Journal of Arid Environments, Vol. 54, pp. 261–79.Douglas-Hamilton, I., 1987, ‘African Elephants: Population Trends and their Causes’, Oryx,

Vol. 21, pp. 11–23.Enviro-Protect, 1997, Illegal Logging and Timber Trade in Cameroon: Background and Conse-

quences. Cut and Run Project, Vol. 2. Enviro-Protect.FAO, 1987, Tree Growing by Rural People, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation.FAO, 2003, State of the World Forests, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation.French, H.F., 1990, Clearing the Air: A Global Concern, Worldwatch Paper, No. 94, Washington

DC: Worldwatch Institute.Ghai, D., 1992, ‘The Social Dynamics of Environmental Change in Africa’, Whydah, African

Academy of Science Newsletter, Vol. 21(a), pp. 1–8.Hulme, M. and Kelly, M., 1993, ‘Exploring the Links between Desertification and Climate

Change’, Environment, Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 1–11, 39–45.Hunter, M.L., 1996, Fundamentals of Conservation Biology, Oxford: Blackwell Science.INCD, 1994, Elaboration of an International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries

Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification and Particularly in Africa, Final Negotia-tions, Text of the Convention, Geneva: UN.

Inyang, E., 2002, The Effects of Wildlife-human Conflict on Conservation initiatives: A Case of theBanyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in Southwest Cameroon, MSc dissertation, Glasgow: Uni-versity of Strathclyde.



Jordan, C.F., 1987, Amazonian Rainforests: Disturbance and Recovery, New York: Springer-Verlag.

Keller, M., Jacob, D.J., Wofsy, S.C., and Harris, R.C., 1991, ‘Effects of Tropical Deforestationon Global and Regional Atmospheric Chemistry’, Climatic Change, Vol. 19, pp. 139–58.

Kuznets, S., 1955, ‘Economic Growth and Income Inequality, American Economic Review,Vol. 45, pp. 67–98.

Lal, R., 1994, ‘Tillage Effects on Soil Degradation, Soil Resilience, Soil Quality, andSustainability’, Soil Tillage Research, Vol. 27, pp. 1–8.

Lockwood, M., 2000, Population and Environmental Change: The Case of Africa’’, in: P.Sarre and J. Blunden, eds., An Overcrowded World, pp. 59–107. Oxford: The Open Univer-sity, Oxford University Press.

Mannion, A.M., 1995, Agriculture and Environmental Change: Temporal and Spatial Dimensions,Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Martin, C.,1991, The Rainforests of West Africa, Basel: Birkhauser Verlag.Peters, C.M., 1998, ‘Ecological Research for Sustainable Non-wood Forest Product Exploi-

tation: An Overview’, in , T.C.H. Sunderland, L.E. Clark and P. Vantomme, eds., CurrentResearch Issues and Prospects for Conservation and Development, Rome: FAO.

Postel, S. and Heise, L., 1988, Reforesting the Earth, Worldwatch Paper, No. 83, WashingtonDC: Worldwatch Institute.

Robinson, J.G., 1996, ‘Hunting Wildlife in Forest Patches: An Ephemeral Resource’, in J.Schelhas and Greenberg, R., eds., Forest Patches in Tropical Landscapes, Washington DC:Island Press, pp. 113–30.

Struhsaker, T.T., 1998, Ecology of an African Rain Forest: Logging in Kibale and the Conflictbetween Conservation and Exploitation, Gainsville: The University ofFlorida Press.

Tiffen, M., Mortimore, M., and Gichuki, F., 1994, More People Less Erosion: EnvironmentalRecovery in Kenya, Chichester: John Wiley.

UNCED, 1992, Earth Summit Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development,New York: UNEP.

UNSO,1992, Assessment of Desertification and Drought in the Sudano-Sahel Region 1985–1991,New York: United Nations Sundano-Sahelian Office.

Wilcox, A. and Nzouango, D., 2000, Bushmeat Extraction Survey within the Banyangi and MboTribes in the Southwest Province of Cameroon, a final report prepared for the Wildlife Con-servation Society/Cameroon Biodiversity Programme.

World Bank, 1992, The World Development Report 1992, Washington DC: Oxford UniversityPress.

WWF, 1988, WWF Year Review 1988, Gland: WWF International.



Chapter 6

Africa and Global Environmental Problems

Introduction

In the previous chapter, there was detailed analysis of the environmental problemsconfronting the African continent, otherwise referred to as local and regional envi-ronmental problems in our continent. These problems, unlike the global problemswe are about to discuss, have yet to receive adequate treatment for a better under-standing of their impact on the African continent. Global environmental problemswill not be analysed in such depth, because much has already been written on thesubject. Global problems refer to widespread or global impacts, irrespective of thegeographical areas of origin. Although their causes are largely linked to industrial-ised countries, and there is a very insignificant contribution from Africa, their im-pacts do not exclude this continent. Global environmental problems include airpollution, global warming and climate change, ozone layer depletion, acid deposi-tion, nuclear waste and waste treatment.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is of very serious global concern (Figure 6.1); however at the globallevel, the causes are more closely linked with industrialised countries. However, itshould be noted that every day, even in non-industrialised areas, the air is constantlypolluted with smoke from kitchens, vehicles and industry, and through slash-and-burn agriculture, and the indiscriminate burning of refuse. The gases contained inthe smoke vary with the sources, but carbon dioxide (CO

2) and carbon monoxide

(CO) are the most common. Other smoke-borne substances include lead (PB), ni-trogen oxide (NO

X), and sulphur dioxide (SO

2).

C O2 is a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming, which has already been

discussed. CO2 is mainly produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-con-

taining fuels (coal, oil, charcoal or gas) and incineration of biomass or solid waste(Cunningham et al. 2003). Once it enters the respiratory system, it binds to haemo-globin and interferes with the transport of blood. The results are impaired percep-tion, frequent headaches and drowsiness.

Airborne lead is derived primarily from fuel additives, metal smelters and bat-tery manufacturing plants. But leaded petrol is by far the greatest source in the



industrialised world. Direct inhalation of lead can lead to circulatory, reproductive,nervous and kidney damage in adults. Children and foetuses are susceptible to evenlower levels of lead. They can face reduced birth weight, impaired mental andneurosensory development, and learning difficulties.

Figure 6.1: 1890 Industrial Model of Smokestacks Pollutes the Atmosphere

Source: Cunningham et al. 2003.

Evaluating the cost of air pollution, as will be seen from the effects of the associ-ated problems, is complicated. For instance, should valuation be limited to the dam-age of the biophysical environment? Where do the limits lie? Or should it includethe secondary health, psychological, social and economic effects suffered by humancommunities as a result of the pollution? What values can be placed on the effects,which would honestly satisfy each and every affected individual? Must the valueplaced on these effects be the same as those resulting from natural disasters, orhigher?

Serious steps should be taken to arrest this problem, including the education ofcommunities in appropriate waste management methods and appropriate technolo-gies, for example, improved local stoves. Equally, there should be strict enforcementof regulations binding signatory countries to international conventions, which stressthe need for radical improvement in industrial processes, with a view to reducing theemission of air polluting substances. There is also a need to transfer cleaner technol-ogy from the developed world to the developing nations, which mostly still maintainvery old models of technology (Figure 5.7).


93Africa and Global Environmental Problems

Global Warming and Climate Change

Scientific evidence shows that the temperature of the earth is increasing at an un-precedented rate. It is estimated that the global temperature has increased by 7ÚCover the last fifty years. This increase is due to what is referred to as the ‘greenhouseeffect’. The greenhouse effect is the deflection back to the earth of heat trapped bysome pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. These air pollutants, popularly knownas greenhouse gases, include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons andmethane.

These gases are released from such human activities as the burning of fossilfuels, agriculture, deforestation, and industrial processes, and they vary in their con-tribution to the problem (Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2: Contribution to Global Warming of Various Types of Human Activity

Source: Modified from Cunningham, et al., 2003.

Figure 6.3 shows the relative contribution to the phenomenon by human-inducedrelease of each of the greenhouse gases. The continuous and increasing warming ofthe earth by these gases is contributing to human-induced climate change. As de-fined in the section on desertification, ‘climate change’ refers to the short-termclimate variability and longer-term climatic trends or shifts caused by natural mecha-nisms or by human activity (Hulme and Kelly 1993). The climate has been changingnaturally, constantly but slowly, for hundreds of millennia. As a result of the slowadvance of natural processes, the planet has warmed and cooled, passing throughice ages to warm interglacial periods. These gradual transitions, often spanning thou-sands of years, have made it possible for life on earth to adjust relatively smoothlyto each new climatic equilibrium. The results have included obvious shifts in theboundaries of ecological communities. Associated human cultures flourished, and,occasionally, disappeared during the transitions (Darkoh 1998). Today the phenom-enon is accelerating due to human activities. This has disastrous effects for life onearth, as it does not allow for any smooth adjustments to new climate regimes.

0

10

20

30

40

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Agriculture Defores tation Indus trial

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Burning of

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Hum a n a ctivity

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Figure 6.3: Relative Contributions of Human-induced Greenhouse Gases

Source: Modified from Cunningham, et al., 2003.

According to the ECA (2002), Africa contributes very little to global climate change,with low carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel-use and industrial production inboth absolute and per capita terms. Africa accounts for only 2–3 per cent of world’scarbon dioxide emissions from energy and industrial sources, and 7 per cent, ifemissions from land use (forests) are taken into account. South Africa is by far thelargest emitter of carbon dioxide in Africa, responsible for about 39 per cent of thecontinent’s total emissions. South Africa’s per capita carbon dioxide emissions (1.88tonnes) are higher than the global average of 1.13 tonnes per year year. Contrast-ingly, studies from the period 1990–6 found that Zimbabwe, like other forestedcountries of Africa, is a ‘greenhouse gas sink’, as the country’s forests are able toabsorb a higher quantity of gases than all other sectors emit (ENDA cited in ECA2002).

Global warming, evidenced in the melting of the polar ice caps, causes an appar-ent increase in sea levels during the wet periods, resulting in severe flooding of low-lying areas, with the attendant destruction of human life and property. It is alsocharacterised by high incidents of drought during the dry periods, resulting in thedestruction of delicate habitats, for example, the drying up of swamps and waterbodies, with the concomitant destruction of aquatic life. Droughts, cyclones, floodsand bushfires have brought untold hardship to millions of people in southern Africa(ECA 2002).

“‘Global warming’ is described as ‘global warning’ by some environmentalists”since it signals catastrophes of global scale, and of serious global concern. Drasticsteps must be taken to halt this; otherwise life on earth itself will be at stake. Therate of air pollution and the destruction of the ozone layer must be drasticallyreduced. This can be achieved mostly through strict implementation of the termsof international conventions that seek to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,particularly from industrial activities.

010

203040506070

Car

bon

diox

ide

Chlor

oflour

ocar

bons

Ntrous

oxide

Met

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Gre e nhouse ga s

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Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone is a gas high up in the atmosphere in the stratum known as the stratosphere.It protects the earth from the ultra violet (strong harmful) rays of the sun. Ozone isconstantly formed and destroyed naturally through a series of chemical reactions.But the rate of destruction today is increasing, with the result that the ozone layer orshield over Antarctica is gradually being eroded (a hole was discovered over Antarc-tica in May 1985). This ozone shield depletion is due to the addition into the atmos-phere of chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), emitted from productssuch as aerosols, fridges and fire extinguishers.

CFCs are resistant to chemical break-down in the troposphere. Therefore theycan move slowly upward into the stratosphere where they are carried by strongwinds across oceans and continents (Westman 1985). At that high level, they finallyfind themselves in the appropriate, very cold, region, where they encounter frozenparticles, with which they react chemically, releasing the chlorine atoms they contain.One atom of chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone (Mader 1990; Baird1999). This is possible because the chlorine atom is not involved in the chemicalreaction with ozone and so does not get destroyed, but rather acts as a catalyst.

In order to reduce, or stop, the rapid destruction of the ozone layer, individualswould have to refrain from using products that contain CFCs. Also, there should bea mechanism for ensuring that manufacturers are given an incentive to use substi-tutes that are not dangerous to ozone. This could be either through the implementa-tion of subsidies for substitutes to ozone depleting substances, or through stricterenforcement of the regulations of the convention that aims to cut down, and even-tually ban, the use of such substances.

Acid Deposition

This phenomenon, like air pollution, is largely associated with highly industrialisedregions, characterised by high levels of coal burning (Westman 1985). As a result ofthe increasing tide of industrial activities, large quantities of nitrogen oxide andsulphur are emitted into the air. They undergo chemical reactions and become acidsas they are absorbed by the moisture. These substances finally return to the earth inthe form of rain, fog or dust, causing damage to forests, buildings and other mate-rials. They also result in the acidification of soils and aquatic ecosystems: streams,rivers and lakes. The end result is unprecedented crop failure and massive losses ofaquatic life.

The only possible and visible solution to the problem of acid deposition is thestringent implementation of the laws and regulations, which have been set by theinternational convention aimed at abating the problem. They call for radical re-forms in industrial processes to curb air pollution, enforceable with strict sanctionsagainst violating nations. This could involve the application of the ‘polluter pays’principle (PPP), which requires that the polluting nations are asked to bear the costof the air pollution problem. It is important to note that the PPP is not only applica-ble and limited to pollution: it applies to all environmental problems. It is a means of



enhancing the capacity of governments to deal with environmental and develop-ment issues in a cost effective manner, promoting technological innovation, influ-encing consumption and production patterns, and providing an important source offunding (Panayotou cited in ECA 2002).

Nuclear Wastes

The discovery in 1942 of the use of nuclear energy by the Italian physicist, EnricoFermi, brought in what is known as the nuclear age. Nuclear energy is produced bysplitting uranium atoms. This new technology has proved important in the areas ofwarfare, medicine and electricity.

Many developed countries, and some developing ones, have well establishednuclear plants for the production of nuclear weapons, or the generation of nuclearpower, which is considered to be very cheap. However, there are strong moves toprevent any more countries from developing nuclear technology. This is not onlybecause of the fear of proliferation of ‘weapons of mass destruction’, as nuclearweapons are now branded, but also because of the serious problem of nuclearwaste.

Nuclear wastes are highly hazardous and causes serious health problems, such asbody tissue damage, cancer, degenerative diseases, for example, cataracts, mentalretardation, genetic disorders and weakened immune systems. The materials areradioactive, and can spread quickly through the environment by means of air andwater. Materials from a nuclear plant can affect organisms thousands of miles away.An atmospheric nuclear bomb testing created radioactive ‘fallout’ that spread aroundthe globe (Lenssen 1991).

The problem of nuclear wastes accumulation is a great concern. The wastecreated since the beginning of the nuclear age is yet to be effectively managed.Packaging and burying wastes deep in the earth was thought to be the best option.But it is now clear that there is no guarantee that the materials will remain perma-nently sealed off from the biosphere. There is evidence of leaking, which couldresult from tectonic crushing or chemical bursting of the containers in which thewastes are stored, as well as from the corrosive and contamination-spreading actionof groundwater.

The technology of packaging wastes minimises the risks to the present genera-tion. But its use is controversial because of the danger it poses to future generations,given that the materials remain radioactive for hundreds of thousands, or millionsof years. Several other methods have been proposed, some of which have beendiscarded, due to their associated risks, while others are being studied. However,none of the current methods have the potential to address the problem of radioac-tivity of nuclear waste. So far, only the natural decay process is known to diminishit; however, unfortunately, this takes a long time (Baird 1999). This suggests that thenuclear business is risky and should not be encouraged until there is more advancedtechnology to address the question of waste management.



Treatment of Wastes and Pollutants

All along, we have been stressing the need for the prevention of pollution. But whatif a level has been reached where prevention is no longer the only solution? Howcan we address situations where soils, sediments and water bodies have already beenloaded with wastes or chemical pollutants? Different methods are used to addressthe problems of the accumulation of solid wastes and the contamination of soilsand sediments by anthropogenic (man-made) chemicals.

Solid Wastes

The production of solid wastes in most big cities of the world is alarming. In somecities at least hundreds of tonnes of wastes are produced every day, from manufac-turing, packaging, construction and demolition work. These are normally dumped inspecific sites, where municipal council trucks go round to collect them.

Some of the wastes are disposed of as landfill, the cheapest method. We havealready identified the problem associated with landfill: contamination of groundwaterin the course of waste decomposition. But there are improved landfills in which theholes are lined with thick plastics to prevent the leachate (liquid that settles at thebottom of decaying materials) seeping into the groundwater. In a well organisedsystem, landfills are not used for hazardous wastes, and are located where they haveminimal impact on the environment.

Other solid wastes, particularly organic matter, are eliminated by incineration. Agood incinerator is capable of reducing wastes into their simplest forms, with re-duced gaseous emissions. However, the incineration of hazardous wastes is compli-cated, fraught with the possibilities of more serious effects. It requires more ad-vanced technology. Baird (1999) described three types of incinerators, which havebeen developed to address this situation: molten salt combustion, fluidised incinera-tor and plasma incinerator, which make use of very high temperatures and othersubstances. Additionally, supercritical fluids are being employed as a more modernalternative to traditional incinerators.

Recycling is also used as a method of managing solid wastes. Four ‘R’s constitutethe philosophy of waste management: reduce the amount of materials used in themanufacture of products, reuse the materials once they have been made into prod-ucts, recycle the materials by fabricating them into new products, and recover theenergy content of the materials if they cannot be reused or recycled (Baird 1999).The purpose of recycling, or more generally waste management, is to reduce theamount of waste produced and to conserve the natural resources from whichproducts are made.

Chemical Pollutants

One of the results of pollution is the contamination of soils, including sediments,and water. Some of the pollutants are so toxic that they destroy plants, includingcrops, or, at best, inhibit their growth. Other pollutants are less toxic, and taken up



by the roots and become part of the food chain, where they cause health andreproductive problems. Two important technologies have been developed to re-move pollutants from soils, sediments and water. These are: bioremediation andphyto-remediation. Bioremediation describes the use of micro-organisms, such asbacteria and fungi, to degrade or break down wastes and pollutants, as they utilisewaste as food substances. Nitrogen-containing fertilizers are applied to the contami-nated soils and sediments to stimulate the rapid growth of micro-organisms thatfacilitate the biodegradation process. It should, however, be noted that some pollut-ants and wastes are not biodegradable; these are known as recalcitrant.

Phytoremediation is the use of plants for the decontamination of soils andsediments that have been loaded with heavy metals, such as lead, or organic pollut-ants. This is an attractive technique, because metals are often difficult to extractusing other technologies due to their low concentrations (Baird 1999). When pollut-ants are absorbed by plant roots, they may be incorporated into the biomass, whilea small quantity are emitted into the atmosphere. Some are broken down by oxygenand enzymes are released by the roots; the enzymes of fungi and microbes arereleased from the plants. Once the plants have done the work of decontamination,they are harvested and burnt in time to prevent recontamination through leaf-fall.

Conclusion

This chapter has concentrated on the analysis of global environmental problems: airpollution, global warming and climate change, ozone layer depletion and acid depo-sition. It has highlighted their causes and impacts and proposed possible practicalcontrol measures. The chapter also touched on issues of nuclear waste, describingmethods for treating not only nuclear waste, but also solid and chemical waste.

Revision Questions

1. With at least three examples of environmental problems, distinguish between the localand the global problems.

2. Name three global environmental problems, analyse their causes, and propose solu-tions.


1. What is the correlation between deforestation and global warming?2. Air pollution and acid deposition are problems associated more with industrialised

nations. Why should an African worry about these problems?3. Can the saying ‘Global warming is global warning’ be justified?4. Nuclear technology is both a blessing and a curse to the world. Discuss.



ReferencesBaird, C., 1999, Environmental Chemistry, New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.Cunningham, W.P., Saigo, B.W. and Cunningham, M.A., 2003, Environmental Science: A

Global Concern, New York: McGraw-Hill.Darkoh, M.B.K., 1998, ‘The Nature, Causes and Consequences of Desertification in the

Drylands of Africa’, Land Degradation Development, Vol. 9, pp. 1–20.ECA, 2002, Economic Impact of Environmental Degradation in Southern Africa, Lusaka: Eco-

nomic Commission for Africa.Hulme, M. and Kelly, M., 1993, ‘Exploring the Links between Desertification and Climate

Change’, in Environment, Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 1–11, 39–45.Lenssen, N., 1991, ‘Nuclear Waste: The Problem that Won’t Go Away’, in Worldwatch Paper

1.6, Washington DC: Worldwatch Institute.Mader, S.S., 1990, Biology, Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.Snyder, ed., The Biosphere Catalogue, Texas and London: Synergetic Press Inc.Westman, W.E., 1985, ‘Global Pollution Analysis, Monitoring and Control’, in T.P.



PART II

SELECTED TOOLS FORENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT



Chapter 7

Conservation and Natural ResourceManagement

Introduction

The history of conservation and natural resource utilisation is as old as the humanrace. Interestingly, it is characterised both by the nullification of the user rights ofcommunities, and by devolution of power to the communities. On the one hand,nullification of user rights was a measure adopted by many nations to control accessto natural resources, ostensibly for the purpose of management. But it was obvi-ously also a strategy for the monopoly of substantial amounts of the benefit accru-ing from resource exploitation. On the other hand, devolution of power to thecommunities was necessitated by the realisation of some governments of their in-ability to effectively and efficiently control resource exploitation, and of the costsand risks associated with the responsibility. This highlights the significance of thegenerally held view that the success of natural resource management (NRM) de-pends on the involvement and active participation of communities that traditionallyor naturally have rights of access and use of resources to satisfy their basic neces-sities, hence the term ‘community-based natural resource management’.

Today, natural resource management has become important, especially to NGOsaround the globe. The role of these NGOs is to encourage the devolution of powerto rural communities by reluctant governments, and in building the capacities ofcommunities. But despite their efforts, problems still abound around the manage-ment of natural resources in many parts of the world. This chapter highlights someof the problems as it attempts some definitions, classifications and arguments asso-ciated with natural resource utilisation.

Definitions

Natural resources are all the natural items (organic or inorganic) that provide oursources of food, medicine, building and ornamental materials necessary for ourdaily lives and pleasures. This definition, though simplistic, especially from an eco-logical perspective, is apt within the context of NRM. Although non-human livingorganisms utilise a wide range of resources, the combined ecological consequencesof their utilisation are minor compared with human use.



Debates in conservation and NRM circles emphasise that a world without hu-mans would leave the earth and its resources in their usual dynamic but self-sustain-ing state. We humans are by nature omnivorous and insatiable. With our rapidlyincreasing populations and growing demands, humans present a mounting threat tothe earth and its limited resources. Fortunately, as humans are also, relatively, themost intelligent living creatures on the planet, we are capable of managing theseresources.

Conservation and NRM are synonymous, both referring to the utilisation ofnatural resources in ways that allow the present generation to satisfy their needs, andmake it possible for future generations to satisfy their own needs (Begon et al. 1996;Neba, 2005). Conservation, or NRM, is the sustainable management or conserva-tion of natural resources. The process involves preventing resources from rapidexploitation and pollution. Resource depletion results from over-exploitation and/orfrom poor harvesting. Over-exploitation is closely linked to what may be describedas economic warfare, characteristic of open-access regimes, which, at the micro-level, force individuals to increase their rate of exploitation in order to maximisetheir profits (Hardin 1998). Poor harvesting is a feature of societies that still employunsound exploitation techniques, due to the absence of modern or improved alter-natives.

Economic warfare, at the macro-level, encompasses three main types of con-tinuous and never-ending struggle: 1) the struggle by developed countries to main-tain their position on the top rung of the economic ladder in order to continue toenjoy their dignity as super powers; 2) the struggle by developing countries to alsoreach the top rungs of the global economic ladder in order to gain recognition assuper powers; and 3) the struggle by the undeveloped countries to get out of theabyss of poverty in order to seek ways of developing and liberating themselvesfrom characteristic aid-dependent mentalities.

Let us turn to the question of resource pollution. This can be described as theunavoidable economic by-product of using chemicals, or of embarking on geneticmanipulation or engineering without proper care, but with the primary aim of achiev-ing maximum resource yield. Often, polluting chemicals are manufactured. Theyare readily preferred by the poor consumer nations, because they are cheap. How-ever, the lack of political will in the application of sound technologies by the manu-facturing nations, the weakness of international legislation to control manufactur-ing, marketing and use of the chemicals, and the low awareness levels of a majorityof the poor countries about the real human impacts of these chemicals contributeto their continued manufacture and use.

As intelligent humans, it is incumbent on us to take precautions as we observethe obvious signs of rapid resource depletion and pollution. Either of these situa-tions can eventually lead to an irreversible phenomenon known as extinction (Figure7.1). Rapid depletion results from the fact that when resources are over-exploited,very little or no room is allowed for their regeneration. Pollution either destroysresources directly, or suppresses their ability to function properly and regenerate.


105Conservation and Natural Resource Management

Regeneration, however, is not characteristic of all natural resources. We shall nowconsider their classification in order to establish where this term actually applies.

Figure 7.1: Rapid Exploitation and Pollution of Natural Resources Lead to Extinction

Classification of Natural Resources

We are familiar with the classification of resources as biotic and abiotic. This classi-fication is common to all biological texts. It simply illustrates whether a resource iscomposed of living or non-living materials, and whether the resource itself is livingor not. In NRM, this classification is extended to include what these resources arecapable or not capable of: what is their economic interest to us. Our concern iswhether as we continue to exploit these resources, whether they are able to regener-ate, or not, hence their broad classification as renewable and non-renewable. Renew-able resources are those whose stocks are capable of being decreased, throughintra- and inter-specific interactions and human interference. They can increasewithin the carrying capacity of the ecosystems in which they are found, as a normalor compensatory response made possible by their potential to regenerate or renewtheir stocks, such as a forest or a population of animals, if and when the impacts ofcompetition or exploitation are within tolerable thresholds.

It should also be noted that resources exhibiting continuous flow through time,such as the energy from the sun, and the waves or tides, are also considered renew-able (Pearce and Turner 1990). However, we have no influence or control overthese continuous flow resources. Their consideration in NRM is not for their man-agement per se, but for their potential uses as alternative energy. Similarly, non-renewable resources such as mineral resources, including fossil fuels, cannot regen-erate their stocks, and deserve proper care in harvesting them. For instance, oncean oil well or a coal mine has been exhausted, it cannot be replenished.

Renewable and non-renewable resources may both play equally important rolesin our subsistence and economic lives. However they pose completely differentproblems and challenges to our management strategies. It goes without saying that

Natural resources

Rapid resource exploitation Resources pollution

Species extinction



the challenge to managing non-renewable resources is far greater to manage renew-able resources. Figure 7.2 provides an illustration of how to distinguish betweenrenewable and non-renewable resources, as well as some strategic management op-tions that could be applied to each of these classes.

Figure 7.2: Some Options for Managing Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Conservation, or NRM, should, as a matter of principle, focus mostly on non-renewable resources, while paying proper attention to renewable resources, becausethey hold more promise for sustainability, if properly managed. Although the latterhave the potential to regenerate, human exploitation rates may far exceed theirregeneration rates. Exploitation techniques employed may be too incompatible withthe facilitation of their regenerative capacities. De facto, the over-exploitation or theapplication of poor exploitation techniques could render renewable resources ‘non-renewable’, hence the imperative to promote the sustainable utilisation of renewableresources. To guarantee this requires not only the application of legislation anddevelopment of regulatory mechanisms, but also the implementation of studies toproperly understand their ecology, the promotion of capacity building and institu-tional strengthening efforts geared towards NRM at local, national and regionallevels.

This century has seen an explosion in capacity building and institutional strength-ening on the part of governments and NGOs, as well as important studies of abroad range of natural resources. One result has been their classification into wood

Natural Resource

Is it capable of regeneration?

NO

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

Control harvest quantitiesImprove explorationMonitor harvesting timeStop harvesting

Control harvest quantitiesImprove explorationStop harvesting

YES



forest products, further divided into timber and non-timber forest products, andnon-wood forest products, which include animals of various types (Figure 7.3).

Figure 7.3: Classification of Renewable Forest Resources

Because of the increasing rate of species extinction, due to human activity, there isnow global emphasis on conservation, defined, simply, as the sustainable use ofnatural resources. Conservation is also defined as the management of the biospherein order that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to the present genera-tions, while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of fu-ture generations.

A sustainable process or condition can be maintained indefinitely, without pro-gressive diminution of valued qualities, inside or outside the system in which theprocess operates or condition prevails (Holden et al. 1995). Sustainable develop-ment can be defined as any type of development that yields long-term benefits withminimal or no impact on the environment, which otherwise would reverse the situ-ation. Our Common Future, the 1987 report of the World Commission on Environ-ment and Development, chaired by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Bruntland(hence the report’s popular title, the Bruntland Report), defined sustainable develop-ment as development that satisfies the needs of the present generations withoutcompromising those of future generations (Cunningham et al 2003).

Renewab le resources

Wood forest products

Non-wood forest products

Timber forest products

Non-timber forest products

Renewable resources



Conservation and sustainable development are increasingly treated as two sidesof the same coin. In actuality, conservation per se may be repellent to some com-munities while development is a readily welcomed idea. This is so because the com-munities may not see the benefits of conservation as clearly as those of develop-ment. Conservation may even be seen as a means of controlling or prohibiting theuse of some natural resources that have long been part of the economy. Whereasdevelopment is readily considered as means to improve the welfare and living stand-ards of the population.

It is in view of these misconceptions about conservation that some projects nowinclude aspects of development in their plans, at least to demonstrate their intentionto ensure long-term benefits to local populations, who are not sufficiently patient towait for conservation benefits that often take time to accrue. Some projects aredesigned as integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs). This is ob-viously to ensure the adoption by the rural communities of sustainable developmentideals, which do not undermine conservation needs.

Arguments for Conservation

As already indicated, it is often difficult to convince rural populations that conserva-tion is serving their own best interests. It may be advisable to state how naturalresources benefit these populations, and how by not using these resources properlycould lead to their extinction. Taylor et al. (1997) identified three principal areas inwhich arguments for conservation can be made: economics, ecology and ethics.

Economic Perspective

The economic perspective considers the direct and potential values of resources.Many of these resources contribute significantly to the rural economy, as food,building materials, medicines and tourist attractions. Many more have the potentialto do so. The over-exploitation of these resources, at levels that may lead to theirextinction, could mean huge losses to the populations.

Ecological Perspective

Some resources play important ecological roles that contribute to the distributionand abundance of other resources or species. For example, some animals act asagents of dispersal or pollination for a wide variety of plants. While others act as keypredators that help in the maintenance of prey populations in order to reduce thenegative effects of intra-specific competition. Others still may also act as principalprey that feed the populations of a number of predators. The seeds of certainplants can only germinate after they pass through the guts of certain animals, e.g.,elephants. Leguminous plants are also important in enriching the soil.



Ethical Perspective

Ethically, every species has a value in its own right, and, therefore, the right to live.It is true that the values of some species are difficult to appreciate. This could makeany support for their conservation sound ridiculous. But our inability to appreciatetheir value is not the fault of the species. It is largely due to the fact that ourknowledge of the species is generally rather embryonic.

Considering our limited knowledge, we may never know whether the destructionof a species, today seen as having no value, could result in the disruption of anecosystem. It is also important to note that the loss of such species means the lossof genetic diversity. With improvements in knowledge and technology, these speciesmay come to be seen as indispensable to genetic engineering or medical advances.

Cultural Perspective

Though not universally applicable or scientifically explicable, it might be necessaryto add a fourth perspective to the arguments for conservation, namely, culture. Insome parts of Africa (and this is true also for other parts of the world) there is anintricate relationship between nature and culture. Many traditional cultures are char-acterised by secret societies that depend on specific natural resources for their ritesand ceremonies (Figure 7.4). It is easy to guess what would happen to these societiesshould resources become depleted. Similarly, in some of the cultures, certain indi-viduals, families or clans maintain close spiritual (or supernatural) links with particu-lar animal species, referred to as totems.

Figure 7.4: Traditional Ceremonies Depend on Natural Resources

Photograph taken at Tangang village in the southwest region of Cameroon.



Family or clan totems are believed to be responsible for the protection andgeneral welfare of social units. Their destruction is believed to have serious reper-cussions for the social unit. Individual totems are acquired for self-protection butmostly as a source of supernatural powers against enemies. It is believed that thedeath of a totem, often as a result of poaching, could result in the death of theindividual associated with it, except in a case where there is a powerful traditionaldoctor who could intervene immediately to link the individual to a new totem of thesame or a different species.

In discussions about the importance of conservation with people from strongcultural backgrounds, it might be instructive to use the cultural basis as an entrypoint, before moving on to the economic, ecological and ethical considerations.Many species and habitats are known to have survived to this day as a result ofcommunity adherence to traditional beliefs and taboos. Some species, including cer-tain totems, are regarded as taboo-animals. They must not be harmed at all, oreaten, by certain groups or individuals.

Conservation Strategies

Increased knowledge of and concern for environmental problems have motivatedindividuals, NGOs, and private and public institutions to seriously engage in conser-vation in various ways and at different levels. There are two approaches to conser-vation, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, irrespective of its methods, and the level atwhich efforts is directed.

In Situ Conservation

In situ conservation describes a situation where the conservation initiative is imple-mented directly at the site where it is intended. This comprises the identification,designation and management of natural areas to give them various levels of protec-tion, as defined by conservation objectives. These objectives could stress the protec-tion of whole habitats, including all the species therein, or of a specified number ofspecies they contain. From these broad definitions, designated areas are classified asfully protected or partially protected.

Fully protected areas include, in order of importance, world heritage sites andnational parks. These are areas where human activities, such as hunting, harvestingor the collection of natural resources and agricultural activities, are strictly prohib-ited. Partially protected areas include reserves and sanctuaries. Reserves are classi-fied as production and protection reserves. In production reserves, individuals withpermits are allowed to use resources within specified limits, whereas in protectionreserves, no one is allowed to use resources until such a time as when the reserveschange their status to permit human use. In the case of sanctuaries, individuals,again with permits (or user rights), are allowed to use all but those resources thatthey are created to protect, or are protected throughout the national territory.



It is important to observe that protected areas serve as safe havens where spe-cies breed and multiply freely, without human interference. Naturally, these speciesspill over into areas outside the boundaries of the protected areas, where localcommunities are free to harvest them with fewer restrictions, taking advantage ofuser rights; but in accordance with the law. In such situations, it is important thateverything possible is done to improve harvesting methods, and to control the har-vesting effort. The cruder the methods, the higher is the possibility that resourceswill be destroyed in the process of harvesting. The bigger the harvesting effort, thegreater is the proportion of stock to be harvested. Intensification of harvestingcould place it far beyond the sustainable levels of each given resource: above levelsthat leave room for the regeneration of the resource. But controlling the harvestingeffort in such open-access regimes is difficult to achieve, as each individual strivesto maximise profits from the common pool. Fortunately, devolution of power andmanagement responsibility to local communities have proved to be effective meansof redress. However, for the arrangement to be successful, appropriate tools andmechanisms, which guarantee sustainability, must be implemented.

The effective management of any protected area depends on a managementplan. This document gives a clear description of the biophysical aspects of the area,the kinds of activities and pressures that constitute a problem, and the managementoptions that could be applied to zones in the area. Drawing up a management planinvolves several years of basic and applied research within biological and socio-economic domains. It involves consultations with all stakeholders, including the localcommunities, local organisations, and relevant government institutions. It should bestressed that a good management plan depends on both expertise and indigenousknowledge of the area concerned.

Ex-Situ Conservation

Now let us consider the next conservation approach: ex-situ conservation. This is aprocess by which individuals, organisations or institutions are engaged in conserva-tion-oriented activities outside the intended conservation areas, with the ultimateaim of promoting conservation of the intended areas. This may require the applica-tion of high skills and sophisticated technology to activities such as captive breedingand development of seed banks. Captive breeding programmes are commonly car-ried out in well developed zoos. This effort has saved many animal species frombecoming extinct. Endangered animals are bred in captivity, and are reintroducedinto the deprived wild areas where they once roamed.

The development of seed banks is another type of ex-situ conservation. A hugecollection of seeds of endangered plant species is kept under conditions favouringprolonged storage. The seeds are used for breeding at much later dates in areaswhere species are either critically endangered or already extinct. The developmentof sperm banks may be included in this category. This requires at least one livingand healthy female species on which to conduct artificial insemination or implanta-tion, depending on how critical the situation is, with regard to the species concerned.



This is very risky, as the result may not lead to the correct level of captive breeding,due to factors ranging from success with the technique to survival of the femalespecies.

Gender Considerations in Natural Resource Management

Gender issues are now widely and frequently discussed and debated at local, na-tional and international levels, due to the recognition of the continued marginalisationof women in many parts of the world. In developed nations, women take part inpolicy and decision making, and participate in a wide range of cultural events, also inpolitical, economic and environmental activities, at all levels. This is rarely the situa-tion in a majority of developing countries. However, there is now growing interest inthe active role of women in development, as can be seen, for example, from themassive participation of women at the conferences in Dakar in 1994 and Bejing in1995 (Burnley 1999). The exclusion of women from, for instance, environmentalmanagement, can have negative impacts at both household and community levels(Commonwealth Secretariat 1996).

The interaction of women with the environment is no less important than maleinteraction, in terms, particularly, of their effects both on the environment and thehuman community. In rural areas, women’s livelihoods are intimately linked to natu-ral resources. Women are the primary exploiters of non-timber forest products(NTFPs) for both domestic consumption and income generation. In some forestareas of Cameroon and Nigeria, such products include Invingia gabonensis, Gnetumafricanum and Ricinodendron heudelotin. Woman are engaged in trading these andother non-timber forest products such as game meat (Figure 2.8), which is also soldby some women as pepper soup (Figure 2.14). The continuing increasing economicvalues of these products is a function of increasing human populations, and of therising scarcity and demands for the products.

Rural women spend considerable time processing and transforming raw materi-als or products like cassava and oil palm nut, into widely consumed and highlypriced foodstuffs. In their product processing and transformation role, women arealso generators of domestic waste, the disposal of which can have serious implica-tions for both environmental and human health. Furthermore, in many rural com-munities, women play a major role in the burning of farm plots, and in the cultiva-tion and care of food crops. They are also largely responsible for the collection offuelwood, the fetching of water and the cooking of meals for the household. Inthese roles, women are both agents and victims of air and water pollution, and ofsoil degradation or improvement.

In their more traditional roles as home managers, women are frequently exposedto household chemicals in various products. Their bodies absorb pollutants andtoxins, which, in reproductive terms, are passed on to the next generation. Perhapsthe most extraordinary feature is that women are also engaged in the collection ofwaste items for recycling purposes. See for example, the woman depicted in Figure7.5. This effort brings women reasonable cash, and helps clean the environment



where the collection is done. Mostly children from poor homes collect waste items,which they supply to women during their routine trips, to raise cash for their own needs.

Figure 7.5: Women Interact with Different Natural Resources in Various Ways

By interacting with natural resources in such an intimate fashion, women have, overthe centuries, accumulated a stock of knowledge about the local environment, na-ture and the durability of land, water and other natural resources, besides the me-dicinal and other uses of these resources (Commonwealth Secretariat 1996). Theirindigenous knowledge, together with their multiple roles, can be usefully exploited togive meaning and relevance to environmental education. This could serve as a start-ing point in the conception of informal and non-formal environmental educationprogrammes. By implication, women should be considered a very important targetin the design, development, and implementation of such programmes, particularlybecause of their additional role of caring for and raising children. In this way,environmental education can also help clarify the roles of women in communitynatural resource management and be used as a tool for women’s empowerment.However, it should be recognised that if women are required to participate in com-munity meetings and workshops, then the time that is required should be factoredinto their overall commitments (Commonwealth Secretariat 1996).

Women interact with natural resources to obtain products for domestic con-sumption and income. Unfortunately, until recently, little market attention has beenpaid to many of these products, possibly because men, who have taken a leadingrole in many promotional activities, such as search for markets, were not tradition-ally engaged in their harvesting, collection and marketing. Consequently, the har-vesting and gathering methods of NTFPs have largely remained underdevel-oped, and, as a result, large-scale processing is absent, and low quality productsare common.

Photograph taken at Nguti town in the southwest region of Cameroon.



Box 7.1: Women are also Engaged in Environmental Sanitationthrough Recycling Efforts

The implication is that very little value is added to these products before they aremarketed (Nkwatoh 2000), thereby contributing to low market prices, comparedwith those of products harvested and marketed by men. This is another importantsubject of women’s empowerment. Moreover, developing the potentials of a widevariety of these products to yield more sustainable income earnings for rural com-munities would guarantee the conservation of tropical forests (Ndoye et al. 1999).The logic is that a significant increase in the contribution of these products to therural economy, and, therefore, to rural development could result in a correspondingreduction in the incentive for local communities’ support of logging operations.Reaching this stage also depends on the local communities’ appreciation of thevalue of a standing forest in terms of its important economic and environmentalfunctions (Nkwatoh 2000). This points to the need for environmental education.

This Cameroonian woman, FansiPerpetua Chengwe (follow arrow), isa pioneer in the business of collectingwaste items for the purpose ofrecycling. She makes regular trips tosurrounding towns, some two hoursdrive away, and collects old roofingsheets, old rubber shoes and old ironrods which she sells to middlemen inKumba, her base. The men supplythese items to different recyclingindustries in the country. The oldrubber shoes are supplied to Cisplastand the old iron rods to Foukou (bothrecycling industries in Douala) whilethe old roofing sheets are sold locallyfor local production of cooking pots.She has been in this business foralmost ten years now. Although she

does this primarily to generate income for herself, she is very conscious of the fact that she ishelping to clean the environments of the communities where she operates. She is beginning tosee some positive changes in the habits of people in the communities. For instance, in the pastthe people dumped all sorts of rubbish (including kitchen refuse) together, which made whatshe collected usually so nasty; but now they are beginning to separate the wastes and keepwhat she would come back for in much tidier conditions.However, she continues to take precautionary health measures, as she does her business,knowing that no matter how neatly kept the waste items are she will still get in contact withdisease germs through them. She is proud to note that the environments in the communitieswhere she operates are taking on a better look due to her activities.



There is a widespread misconception that the exploitation of NTFPs has noecological consequences. Since a forest exploited for its non-wood resources, unlikea logged-over forest, maintains an appearance of being undisturbed, as the impactsare subtle and hard to observe to the untrained eye, there is the assumption thatthese resources can be harvested repeatedly, year after year, on a sustainable basis(Peters 1999). It is argued that even when the harvesting of some NTFPs does notinvolve damage to, or killing of, the stock, as is the case with the collection of thefruits of bush mango and njansang, collection in commercial quantities spells severecompetition with frugivores (some of which may also be herbivores) that are natu-rally forced to increase their foraging to obtain sufficient food to sustain their lives.

What are the consequence? First, the number of seeds actually left behind fromthe combined activities of commercial collection and foraging is too small to guar-antee any recruitment into the population. Second, foragers that could easily switchto herbivory now increase their attack on the vegetation, including what remains asthe seedlings of target NTFPs that managed to survive into the germination stage)that would have been somehow spared during that period.

Conclusion

The earth is blessed with both renewable and non-renewable natural resources thatserve as insurance for the continuous improvement of the general welfare of hu-mankind. Classification of resources as renewable means that they have the poten-tial to regenerate and increase within the carrying capacity of their various ecosys-tems. But it is also clear that they can be rendered non-renewable by the humantendency to carry out exploitation at rates higher than their regeneration rates, andto apply exploitation techniques incompatible with their regenerative capacities.

The current global trend shows that natural resources are under increasinglyserious stress due to a combination of a number of underlying factors, includingpoverty, a lack of political will and struggle for economic power. Non-renewableresources present enormous challenges to NRM efforts. The situation would bemade even more complex if renewable resources were allowed to degenerate intothat category.

There are fundamental arguments that can be advanced for the conservationand sustainable management of natural resources, and well established strategies toachieving conservation objectives. However, arguments and strategies, though use-ful in education terms and conservation, are not in themselves sufficient to bringabout the desired change. For instance, it is increasingly obvious that effective andefficient natural resource management can be achieved only through the involve-ment and active participation of communities with traditional rights of access to theutilisation of resources to meet their basic requirements. The role of women innatural resource degradation and management must be given utmost importance.



Revision Questions

1. With concrete examples, define natural resources.2. With examples, distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources.3. Conservation and natural resource management are used interchangeably. Define and

state the objectives of this practice.4. Discuss the three basic struggles that economic warfare promotes at the macro-level,

which create an impact on the environment.5. Advance and discuss three arguments in favour of conservation and natural resource

management.6. With illustrative examples, distinguish between in situ and ex situ conservation.


1. Conservation is a determinant of sustainable development. Discuss.2. The belief in totems offers great opportunities in the conservation of the African envi-

ronment. Discuss.3. The effective management of any protected area depends on a management plan. Dis-

cuss how this can help in the management of a protected area of your choice.

ReferencesBegon, M., Harper, J.L. and Townsend, C.R., 1996, Ecology, London: Blackwell Science.Burnley, G.E., 1999, 'The Role of Women in the Promotion of Forest Products', in T.C.H.

Sunderland, L.E., Clark and P., Vantomme, eds., Current Research Issues and Prospects forConservation and Development, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation.

Commonwealth Secretariat, 1996, Women and Natural Resource Management: An Overview of aPan-commonwealth Training Manual, London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

Cunningham, W.P. and Saigo, B.W., 2003, Environmental Science: A Global Concern, New York:McGraw-Hill.

Hardin, G., 1968, ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’, Science, Vol. 162, pp. 1243–48.Holden, P. J., Daily, G.C. and Ehrlich, P.R., 1995, ‘The Meaning of Sustainability: Biophysical

Aspects’, in M. Munasinghe and W. Shearer, eds., Defining and Measuring Sustainability:Biogeophysical Foundations, Washington DC: The United Nations University and the WorldBank.

Inyang, E., 1996, ‘Community Based Natural Resource Management’, Jordanhill InternationalNetwork for the Environment, Glasgow: William Anderson and Sons Ltd, pp. 40–1.

Ndoye, O., Ruiz-Perez, M. and Eyebe, A., 1999, ‘Non-wood Forest Products and PotentialForest Degradation in Central Africa: The Role of Research in Providing a Balance be-tween Welfare Improvement and Forest Conservation’, in Sunderland, T.C.H., Clark,L.E., and Vantomme, P., eds., Current Research Issues and Prospects for Conservation andDevelopment, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation.

Neba, N. E., 2005, Biological Resource Exploitation in Cameroon: From Crisis to Sustainable Man-agement, Bamenda: Unique Printers.



Nkwatoh, A.F., 2000, Evaluation of Trade in Non-timber-forest Products in the Ejagham ForestReserve of South West Cameroon, Phd thesis submitted to the Department of NaturalResource Management, University Of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Pearce, D. W. and Turner, R.K., 1990, Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment,Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.

Peters, C.M., 1999, ‘Ecological Research for Sustainable Non-wood Forest Product Exploi-tation: An Overview’, in Sunderland, T.C.H., Clark, L.E. and Vantomme,P., eds., Cur-rent Research Issues and Prospects for Conservation and Development, Rome: Food and Agricul-tural Organisation.

Taylor, D. J., Green, N.P.O. and Stout, G.W., 1997, 3rd edition, Biological Science, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.



Chapter 8

Environmental Impact Assessmentand Public Participation

Introduction

Until the mid-1990s, many development projects in African countries were imple-mented with limited environmental concerns. The results were catastrophic: severeenvironmental damage and unsustainable economic development ethics. This chap-ter is written within the context of the increased consensus on the part of Africangovernments of the need to harness negative environmental impacts associatedwith development activities. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) must incorpo-rate significant elements of public participation. It is recognised as a set of tools thatcan enhance good environmental management and governance, so as to make de-velopment sustainable. Since public participation is a slippery concept in decisionmaking surrounding EIA, this chapter deliberates considerably on that question.Social and economic development in most developing countries currently repre-sents a dilemma between meeting the basic human needs of an increasing popula-tion on the one hand, and conserving declining natural resources on the other.Development activities and policies concerning agriculture, dams and man-madelakes, drainage and irrigation, forestry, housing, industry, mining, power generationand transmission, waste treatment and disposal and water supply, bring about changesin the environment in which they are undertaken. These impacts can be severelyadverse if the processes are not well regulated or controlled through improvedproject selection and more responsive planning and design. EIA is therefore intro-duced and discussed as a tool to chart a new course of development action, whichensures a balance between biophysical and human environments leading to the pre-sumed state of sustainability.

Analysis of the EIA process is, however, incomplete without an articulation ofpublic participation. Public participation in EIA is a crucial link in achieving itssuccess. It highlights the relationship expected between the various stakeholders whohave a direct or indirect interest in a development activity, the impact of which, onthe environment, is the subject of examination. Ideally, public participation shouldbe an integral component of the entire EIA process. The critical stages in which thismust be undertaken fully are during the scoping phase, during the preparation ofthe draft EIA statement, and during the review of the draft EIA.



What is Environmental Impact Assessment?

This is probably the question with which most authors begin when addressing EIAwithin many contexts. Below are selected definitions of what could plausibly consti-tute EIA.The Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA2004:1) defines EIA as ‘a process that assesses the impacts of a planned activity onthe environment – physical, social and economic – providing decision-makers withan indication of the likely consequences of the development actions’. Therefore, asan integral component of the planning process, EIA enables ‘potentially negativeimpacts to be mitigated (and positive impacts to be maximized) early in the designstages’. Through the EIA process, the developer can enhance the manner in whicha project is planned, implemented and, in some instances, de-commissioned. El-Fadland El-Fadel (2004:553) maintain that ‘environmental impact assessment (EIA) wasdevised as a decision tool in response to grand swell of ecocentric concerns tomediate between the technocentric view of continued development and the abilityto create economic growth while overcoming environmental problems’. The gov-ernment of Zimbabwe defines EIA as ‘an assessment of the environmental impactsof an activity, based largely on existing information and some field reconnaissance’(MoMET 1997a:5). To this end, an EIA should be undertaken during the earlyfeasibility studies with the purpose of identifying ‘likely impacts, to estimate theirseverity, to indicate which impacts may be significant, and to indicate what opportu-nities are available to avoid or minimise negative impacts and enhance potentialbenefits (MoMET 1997a). Hugo (2004:275) describes EIA as: ‘a site specific envi-ronmental management tool designed to bring all the relevant detailed informationregarding site specific development to light, which encompasses methodologies andtechniques for identifying, predicting and evaluating the environmental impacts as-sociated with project developments and actions’.

From the definitions outlined above, the following deductions can be made re-garding EIA; that it is:

a tool used to guide decision-making in ensuring that environmental as well astechnical and economic considerations are taken into account

project and site specific, thus, leading to it being highly contextual

a process with cyclical and simultaneously linked stages

supposed to provide monitoring, evaluation and decommissioning facets to adevelopment project

used to identify both the negative and positive impacts with the intention ofmitigating against the negative impacts whilst enhancing the positive impacts

applicable to both development activities and policies.

EIA is also known by other terms, amongst which: Environmental Assessment (EA),Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA), Environmental Auditing (EA), and Environ-mental Appraisal (EA). However, for the purposes of this publication we will stick


121Environmental Impact Assessment and Public Participation

to EIA. In addition, given our holistic definition of the concept of environment, itmust be noted that modern day EIA, by default, encompasses:

Ecological Impact Assessment (EIA) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)– in their limited nature to cover mainly the biophysical components of theenvironment

Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Social Impact Assessment (SIA).

In this regard, EIA practitioners and facilitators should always make sure that theirteams include expertise from these fields. Other specialists, such as archaeologists,agronomists, environmental economists, planners, geologists and botanists, shouldalways be consulted as per the dictates of the specific proposed development project.Their impact assessment reports will form components of the bigger EIA report.

Stages in the Environmental Impact Assessment Process

Various EIA models are presented in the literature (Biswas and Geping 1987; Hugo2004; Weaver 2003). However, common to all these models, and to others notreferred to here, is that generic stages are evident. The flow diagram in Figure 8.1 isa representation of the key stages in the EIA process. These stages share a closerelationship with the generic stages in the project cycle. It should be noted thatemphasis has been placed on linking the entire EIA process to public participation.Public participation in this case is taken to mean the active involvement of in-formed citizens including among them the disadvantaged, disempowered groups(women, children and the poor), and all other interested and affected parties in theEIA process. This presupposition is echoed in South Africa’s EIA regulations thatdefine public participation as the: ‘means of furthering interested and affected par-ties and the public with an opportunity to comment on, or raise issues relevant to, anapplication for environmental authorisation, the adoption of a policy or guide in…orthe compilation of an environmental management framework’ (DEAT 2004:7).

Depending on the level of empowerment of the stakeholders in the EIA proc-ess through the resources available, such as levels of literacy, trust in governanceissues, money, time, transportation and political power, public participation can takeplace as part of a spectrum that includes information, consultation and collabora-tion (SAIEA 2005). The views expressed above were also echoed as part of theEarth Summit major principles. Principle 10, for example, stipulates that:

Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concernedcitizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appro-priate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public au-thorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their com-munities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. Statesshall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making infor-mation widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings,including redress and remedy, shall be provided (UN 1992).



In addition, Principle 20 seals the call to involve women. The principle states that‘Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Theirfull participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development’ (UN1992).

Figure 8.1: Generic Stages in the EIA Process

Development proposal(Entry point)

Screening (by legislation)

Prescribed activity?

Yes

Exemption from fullEIA?

Prepare draft EIA(Impacts, migrationand management)

No

Scoping phase (forScoping phase EIA

and/or Drafting termsof reference)

Draft EIA statementreview (permittingauthority or author-

ized referral agencies)

EIA report acceptance

Yes

No

Yes

Permitting authorityfor project approval

Monitoring and auditingincluding decommissioning

No Appeal

Appealrejected

Public participation encouraged

Decision by permitting authority

Strong public participation

Decision by permitting authority andpublic participation

Terms and conditions basedon management plan



From Figure 8.1 the following key stages in EIA can be deduced: screening,scoping, preparation of the draft EIA statement (impact identification, mitigationand management plan); the draft EIA statement review as well as monitoring andauditing (including decommissioning). These and other stages are considered in turnin the next sections, including the manner in which they relate to the project cycle.The interface between the project and EIA cycles need to be carefully explained soas to add value and justification for the need to carry out EIA.

Interface Between the Project and EIA Assessment Cycles

Since there is a close link between the project and EIA cycles, it is inevitable that theconstituents and the relationship that exists between these cycles be simultaneouslyconsidered. The interface in terms of the stages is summarised in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Interface between Project and EIA CyclesStage Project Cycle EIA Cycle

1 Pre-feasibility Screening2 Site selection Scoping3 Feasibility and feasibility report Impact assessment and draft

EIA report/statement4 Board decision and detailed design Draft EIA statement review

and environmental managementplan

5 Construction, operation and closure Monitor, audit anddecommission

Pre-feasibility (Screening) Stage

The pre-feasibility phase is the key planning stage. Certain information is known.Such information includes the basic nature of the project (for example, petroleum,irrigation or gas pipe). At times, the general site or group of alternative sites in whichthe development will take place (sometimes the total land area) is also known. How-ever, at this stage, detailed designs of the proposed development are not available.The EIA activity at this project stage mainly involves screening. Usually, project typelists, which are drawn up by government, are used. Alternatives are considered andanalysed. If an EIA is required, then a quick preliminary EIA can be used in con-sideration of alternatives. A preliminary EIA acts as an early indicator of theimpacts that are likely to be significant, and helps identify of environmentally soundalternatives. A major problem with such EIA screening lists is that they do not takeinto account location, one of the key determinants of the nature of environmentalimpacts. In addition, what may appear to be a small project at the national level isnot necessarily small at the local level. However, putting in place rigid screeningcriteria might not be the best option, as both the project and its location determinethe magnitude and significance of the impact. To address this limitation, a phasedscreening process is perhaps the best option.



Screening can therefore be understood as a process through which a decision isreached as to whether or not to subject a project to a detailed or full EIA. Thisdefinition is, however, more applicable to situations in which legislation does not listor prescribe development projects, or in situations where border-line proposedprojects (in terms of EIA requirements by law) are encountered. The screeningprocess usually leads to one of the following decisions being arrived at, that: adetailed or full EIA is required, a limited environmental analysis (or scoping levelEIA) is required, or no EIA is required. In screening, the beneficial and detrimentalshort and long-term effects of each alternative are compared and summarised tofacilitate discussion and evaluation by interested and affected parties. Factors deter-mining the necessity of either a scoping level or full EIA include (Hugo 2004;Murray-Hudson 1995) the nature of activity, location of the proposed develop-ment and scale (size). For example, activities such as mining, industrial, infrastruc-ture (roads, airports, dams and power lines), agricultural activities and policies (suchas resettlement, grazing, green revolution and canals) require either a scoping level,or a full EIA, to be undertaken. Activities planned in environmentally sensitive areassuch as national parks, buffer zones and wetlands are subjected to similar treatment.Screening is mostly done using simple checklists for the type of an activity, and listsof environmentally sensitive areas. A checklist consists of a list of environmentalparameters to be investigated for potential impacts. Checklists therefore ensure thatparticular environmental aspects are not overlooked during analysis. A typical screeningchecklist roughly estimates the likely impacts of the proposed development activityon: land, groundwater (geohydrology), surface water (hydrology), atmosphere, noise,vegetation (flora), animals and birds (fauna), human health and safety, aesthetic andcultural values as well as the socio-economic dimensions; or contains ‘yes/no’ ques-tions. Two major benefits can be realised from this exercise. Firstly, it highlightspotential significant environmental impacts at an early stage when alternatives canstill be considered and/or when mitigation measures can be taken. Secondly, it is acost-effective tool, which helps ensure that substantial financial and human resourcesare not committed to environmental analysis for development activities with fewenvironmental impacts.

Project Site Selection (Scoping) Stage

At this stage the EIA activities centres on scoping to determine the nature of im-pacts associated with each possible alternative as well as the extent of the impacts,their significant, whether they are reversible or not, or whether they are direct (pri-mary) or indirect (secondary). The public is heavily involved, and in other countries,a scoping level EIA is undertaken. The terms of reference for the finally selectedproject site alternative, for the full EIA, are jointly developed by the interested andaffected parties or stakeholders.

Once a decision has been made – or is prescribed by law – to undertake a fullEIA, the next stage is to determine its scope. The scoping exercise requires leadagencies to undertake an early and open process to determine what should be inves-



tigated, and to what extent. Scoping also helps in dealing with the type of data to beobtained, and methods and techniques to be used and the way in which the draftEIA statement results will be presented. The agencies should achieve this objectivethrough careful consideration of existing information relevant to the assessment, aswell as from the organised involvement of other agencies and consultations with thepublic. Issues surrounding public engagement and participation are considered fur-ther later in this chapter. The main purpose of scoping is therefore to identify thesignificant issues and eliminate the insignificant ones. It has been established thatwhere scoping does not take place, delays in project implementation often occur,along with extra costs, because of time spent assessing impacts that were not identi-fied earlier, and which eventually proved significant. Scoping therefore effectivelydetermines the ToR of the EIA. The major issues to be considered during scopinginclude: definition of the activity; if not covered during screening, the identificationof alternatives for development (e.g., different location or size, environmentallyfriendly technologies); definition of the planning time horizon; spatial scale (impactscould be in-situ or off-site); and coverage of human effects.

Socio-economic as well as political impacts must be incorporated into the EIA,together with their possible direct and indirect environmental impacts. On this basis,social impact assessment (SIA) is now considered an integral part of a full EIA.Impacts come in various forms, which include: significant and insignificant impacts,primary (direct) and secondary (indirect), reversible and irreversible, short term andlong term, on-situ and ex-situ (on-site and off-site) and non-recurring and recurring(Hugo 2004; Murray-Hudson 1995). Significant impacts are outstanding impactsrequiring mitigation, while insignificant impacts have negligible effects, requiringminimum or no mitigation measures. Direct impacts are a direct result of an activ-ity, for example, the relocation of communities due to construction of a dam or aroad. Indirect impacts emanate from subsequent effect caused by direct impacts,for example, the loss of business at a village shop after the community consumershad been relocated to allow for construction of a road or bridge. Generally, directimpacts are more easily identifiable than indirect impacts. The direct impactsare usually felt immediately, as compared with the indirect effects, which some-times set in gradually.

Reversible and irreversible impacts refer to the permanent nature of impacts.Reversible impacts refer to effects that can be reversed by natural means when theproject is complete, for example, re-forestation of land where soil has been bor-rowed and land cleared for construction of a road or dam. In this case, the bor-rowed areas are back-filled, and indigenous trees and grass planted, to ensure thatafter a period of time, they appear as natural as possible. Irreversible impacts referto permanent effects, when the project is completed. A good example is mining,where even after rehabilitation, mine dumps remain visible and dangerous. Irrevers-ible impacts will generally cause permanent damage to the environment.

Short-term impacts occur over a short period of time and are of a finite dura-tion, for example, noise and dust emissions during construction. Long-term impacts



occur for a very long period of time and tend to have effects well into the future,for example, reduced river flow downstream of a dam after the dam construction.

On-site impacts take place directly at the proposed development project loca-tion. Off-site impacts are those that occur far away from a project but resultingfrom the project. Specific impacts are therefore characterised by their extent, or byarea affected. An example of on-site impact is noise vibration, and dust caused bytraffic movement and blasting at a construction site. An example of an off-siteimpact is the shortage of a particular drug at a local clinic, due to high incidence ofillness requiring the particular drug by construction personnel.

Impacts, which occur only once, are said to be non-recurring. Those which con-tinue to occur are called recurring. An example of a non-recurring impact is therescue of animals caught by the flooding of Kariba Dam when it filled for the firsttime. High incidence of seasonal mosquito bites caused by high breeding because ofa dam constructed is a recurring impact. Impacts also tend to have negative, neutralor positive effects.

Positive impacts are those that bring a change for the better to a community orthe environment. For example, a positive impact is the creation of jobs duringconstruction works. Neutral impacts tend to have no impacts at all and everythingcontinues to happen or go on as if nothing ever happened at all. Negative impactsharm, degrade or impair the ecosystem, health and quality of life of the people wholive and work in the affected environment.

The techniques or methods used in achieving impact prediction and assessmentsin the EIA process differ quite considerably. Such methods do not provide completeanswers to all questions, related to the impacts of the proposed projects. Thereforethey should be selected based on appropriate evaluation and professional judge-ment. Higher order techniques should be selected only when those of the lowerorder fail to achieve the desired detail regarding a particular impact or set of im-pacts. Hugo (2004:278–85) identifies the following common techniques: ad hoc meth-ods, checklists, matrix, composite matrix, networks, flow diagrams or models as wellas map overlays and geographic information systems (GIS). Details concerning thesemethods can be obtained from the referenced author, see for example, El-Fadl andEl-Fadel (2004), Murray-Hudson (1995).

Every proposal will bring about positive and negative change to the communityin which it is located. Mitigation provides practical ways of reducing adverse im-pacts on the environment and social life of a community, and enhancing the ben-efits of the proposal. The implementation of a cement factory near a communityposes health risks to the inhabitants of the community while at the same time offersemployment opportunities. Mitigation measures might include the installation ofefficient dust collectors, which reduce the dust being released to the atmosphere,and/or relocating settlements that are on the side of the factory where dust depositswill accumulate. Mitigation measures are better implemented at the design stage ofa proposal, so that the cost of modifying the proposal will not be prohibitive.



Mitigation measures include: avoiding or eliminating adverse impacts by nottaking certain actions or steps (avoidance). Limiting the degree, extent, magnitude orduration of adverse impact by reducing the size/scale of the proposal and its imple-mentation (minimisation). Rectifying adverse impacts by repairing or enhancing theaffected resources (rehabilitation or restoration which is an extreme form of reha-bilitating). Compensating for loss with substitute similar resources (replacement).Typically, mitigation measures should be put in place at four generic levels in projectimplementation: planning, construction, operation and decommissioning stages. Miti-gation measures for a water development project such as a dam during the con-struction phase include (MoMET 1997b):

timing to avoid dry season discharge if possible

timing and extent of changes in river flow adjusted to minimise disruptions,problems

demarcation of zonation of tree clearance

timing to minimise herbaceous plant cover

bank stabilisation if practical

importation of cooking/heating fuel when appropriate

exportation of solid waste when practical

representatives on a long-term basis in order to identify any possible remedialaction

land use planning in area of resettlement

monitor trends in demographics, health, education, employment, crime, etc

control of aquatic macrophytes

health education

reconcile recreational fishing with inshore netting and subsistence line fishing

fisheries management plan (pelagic/inshore/recreational).

Compensation is also considered a form of mitigation, used for certain social andeconomic impacts, where the loss of assets, or access to resources by individuals orcommunities, are replaced with cash payments or alternative assets or resources.Compensation is a form of mitigation used in specific socio-economic impacts whereloss of asserts or access to resources by individuals or communities may be com-pensated for in cash, or through the provision of alternative resources. This is avery difficult process. It is usually impossible to give full or ‘fair’ compensation. Inmany instances it is even difficult to identify those deserving compensation. Theprocess of compensating the affected is slow, even though the impacts may be feltimmediately. In assessing and evaluating compensation for lost assets or resources,the following points should be borne in mind:

evaluation of the value of the assets or resources that will be lost from imple-menting the proposal



identify the individuals or communities that should be compensated for the loss

examine the most equitable method of compensation. The method adoptedshould be acceptable to all parties, and it should be such that it is self-sustainingto the beneficiaries (open-ended commitments from the proponent to the ben-eficiaries should be avoided)

the cost of compensation should be incorporated into the economic analysis ofthe entire proposal

the compensation plan and how it will be implemented must be outlined inthe environmental management plan (EMP) which should be part of theEIA document.

It is inevitable that clear policy guidelines must be developed at either the projectspecific or the national level to compensate those affected and these guidelinesshould ideally be fair, equitable and timely. Such procedures are normally statutory.In Botswana, compensation guidelines for payment in lieu of lost land, trees, crops,structures and other fixed assets are provided by the Ministry of Local Govern-ment, Lands and Housing for use by land boards and others who require them. InZimbabwe, the Ministry of Agriculture and Resettlement has guidelines for assess-ing the value of land and other assets when it desires to designate a farm forresettlement.

Project implementation usually alters the environment in one way or another.Such alterations may bring changes with certain effects. An impact often resultsfrom a change and its effects. A suitable example is the discharge of industrialeffluent into a river, which reduces the amount of oxygen dissolved in water (change)resulting in fish dying (effect) affecting fishermen economically (adverse impact).Monitoring the implementation of the environment management plan becomescritical.

Findings of the full EIA exercise are presented in the form of a draft EIAreport (statement). The draft should capture the following items and format: projecttitle that identifies the type of project proposed (i.e., a multi-purpose dam, and itsgeneral location); executive summary written in a non-technical language that alsoincludes a set of major recommendations about the way forward, including mitiga-tion measures against negative impacts if necessary; project proponent; project de-scription to include, but not necessarily limited to, the description of the project interms of raw materials, processes, equipment and products, maps, flow diagramsand photographs (where applicable) and a summary of the technical, economic andenvironmental features essential to the project, description of existing environmentto include discussion on conditions, in qualitative and quantitative terms, of thebiophysical and human environments before the implementation of the project,spatial boundaries within the environment that is under consideration, and environ-mentally sensitive areas; project options; environmental impacts; mitigation meas-ures; management plan (including decommissioning), key sources of data and infor-mation and list of references.



Feasibility and Feasibility Reporting (Draft EIA StatementPreparation) Stage

All EIA work should be done at this stage. It can be very expensive to do an EIAafter the design stage of the project is over as the EIA may recommend a change inthe whole concept or design. Post-design EIA may also lead to project cancellationafter a lot of resources would have already been committed. The EIA should thusbe seen as a means of prevention (anticipation) rather than cure. In as much as aproject design can be forced to change due to insights drawn from the ongoing EIAstudy, the reverse is also true. A project design can sometimes change due to eco-nomic or engineering aspects leading to a re-orientation in the draft EIA statementpreparation. It is therefore necessary for teams from both activities to be in con-stant and continuous liaison if the activities are to run smoothly.

Board Decision/Detailed Design (EIA Statement Review/Management Plan) Stage

At this stage the proponent, government or donor agency makes a decision aboutthe economic viability of the project. EIA results are considered concurrently. Ap-proval is followed by an application for authorisation by a developer to a local orcentral government agency. In this way, EIA plays an important role in decision-making.

After the draft EIA statement is ready, it must undergo a detailed review process.The quality of the draft EIA statement must be such that it is of an acceptablestandard (especially in the eyes of the public) and that it properly reflects the projectsperformance in terms of sustainability (particularly in the eyes of the permittingauthority that is in many cases the government or donor). The general objectivesfrom reviewing the draft EIA report are to: objectively evaluate the draft EIAreport in relation to the ToR of the study and the quality of the findings obtained,assess the views of all stakeholders on the findings, enable decision-makers to arriveat final decisions on how to proceed with implementing the proposal, and ensurestrong commitment to the implementation of the environment management plan. Itis advisable that the review of the draft EIA report be done by an independentbody, different from the consultants that carried out the studies and the proponentinterested in achieving the implementation of the project. It is only at this point thatthe review can be presumed objective in assessing the quality of the data gathered,the theoretical models used for prediction of impacts, and the conclusions.

The results from the review process usually take one of these four forms: (1)complete rejection of the draft EIA – on the basis that it did not adequately coverthe scope of the study or address the ToR; (2) approval of the draft EIA statementsubject to major modifications – simultaneously leading to the approval signal forthe development; (3) approval of the draft EIA statement subject to minor modifi-cations and (4) approval of the draft EIA statement without any amendments –which is very rare. The last three options mean that the development project will



also simultaneously be implemented as proposed. However, the developer or sub-contracted EIA experts may wish to appeal against the first two outcome decisionsfrom the review process, as these mean that more information on impacts andmitigation for the proposed development project will be needed.

After review, the draft EIA is finalised into a manual for managing the environ-mental aspects of the development activity. Usually, an agreement (letter of accept-ance or permit) between the development proponent and the EIA authority is signedand bound together with the final EIA statement. This agreement shows acceptanceof the findings and, more importantly, enshrines the environmental managementplan that outlines significant mitigation against adverse impacts. Without such a com-mitment, the EIA statement may simply be shelved and its recommendations ig-nored.

Construction, Operation and Closure (Monitor, Audit and De-commission)

Writing in the early 1990s, Kakonge (1993) identified a number of constraints onimplementing EIA in Africa. Problems most noticeable then (and probably today)included inadequate environmental legislation, inappropriate institutional frameworkfor coordinating and monitoring government activities, shortage of qualified man-power, inadequate financial resources and lack of public awareness of the need forEIAs, see for example Tarr (2003). A lot of negative impacts are likely to emergeduring project implementation – its construction and operation.

Without proper monitoring and auditing, the final EIA statement may turn outto be merely a document for obtaining a permit to implement the proposal. Moni-toring is required to assess whether the predicted impacts materialise, and what theirseverity might be. The feedback from monitoring allows for modifications in theactivity and/or appropriate mitigation. Monitoring should be properly focused on(Hugo 2004; Murray-Hudson 1995): checking for the occurrence of the most im-portant predicted environmental impacts, checking whether the mitigation measuresare effective, and provide early warning about unexpected environmental impacts.Monitoring should be done at all phases of the development project. Running con-currently to monitoring is environmental auditing. An environmental audit, similarto a financial audit, assesses the performance of the development proponent. Thisis done in terms of the requirements specified in the final EIA statement; thus, thisis specifically a compliance audit (Hugo 2004). Ideally, an independent body shoulddo the auditing. Such an independent body could be a consultant, a representativefrom a regulatory body, an NGO or an informed member of the public. Both themonitoring and environmental auditing phases in EIA are linked to de-commission-ing. Depending on the nature of project, de-commissioning might take three forms:ongoing, end of life or both. De-commission ensures that the environment is reha-bilitated after the conclusion of operations. This is common for mining pits, landfillsites, road construction borrow pits or even dried water boreholes. The responsibil-ity of decommissioning lies with the proponent or major beneficiaries of the project.As such, the likely costs of de-commissioning should be predicted with reasonable



accuracy during the feasibility stages so that financial arrangements are made. De-commissioning resources should also be clearly indicated in the environmental man-agement plan from the final EIA statement.

Stakeholders in the Environmental Assessment Impact Process

Stakeholders in the EIA process are of two major types: (1) those directly affectedby the proposed development project (affected parties) and (2) those indirectly af-fected by the proposed development project (interested parties). The group of af-fected parties comprises the developer(s), as well as other beneficiaries in terms ofaspects such as employment, improved standard of living, increased commercialactivities and improved health. The other affected parties are those negatively im-pinged on in aspects like relocation, lost land, increased noise, pollution and trafficcongestion, depending on the nature of the project. However, to identify those thatwill be indirectly impacted (either positively or negatively) by the proposed develop-ment project may be more difficult, and to a large extent, will be subjective. Forinstance, surrounding communities in which a cement manufacturing plant is lo-cated may be indirectly affected in the areas of employment opportunities and thepollutant plume from the smoke stacks. For this reason it is considered good prac-tice to broaden the participation of persons or group of persons to include anyonewho has an interest or could be marginally affected by the proposal. Other stakeholdersinclude government (in most cases as permitting authority), environment NGOs,EIA experts and donors.It is not usually possible to involve every member of acommunity in a full public consultation and participation process, but it is usual toconsult with representatives of the community. It is important is ensuring that thosechosen for the public participation truly reflect diversity of opinion in the commu-nity. Care is required to ensure a fair and balanced representation of all views, andthat the views of the poor or minority groups are not suppressed in favour of themore influential or wealthy.

EIA Legislation: Policies and Frameworks

The EIA legislative framework in Africa has improved significantly since the 1990s.At the international level, soft laws such as the Rio Declaration provide the platformfor the development of EIA policies and laws. Principle 17 of the Rio Declarationstates that ‘Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall beundertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse im-pact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent nationalauthority’ (UN 1992).

At the Southern African Development Community (SADC) level, the 1996 ‘SADCPolicy and Strategy for Environment and Sustainable Development: Toward Eq-uity-led Growth and Sustainable Development’ provides the basis for implementingAgenda 21 within the region’s context (SADC 1996; SADC 2003). By 2003, allcountries in SADC had either specific EIA policies and/ or framework laws in place(Tarr 2003). Table 8.2 summarises these policies and laws as well as other relevantissues concerning responsible institutions and capacity.



Table 8.2: EIA Legislation, Institutions and Capacity in Southern Africa

Country EIA p olicy Spec ific EIA l aw

R espo nsible insti tu tion

Capaci ty (6/2002)

N o. of E IAs done by (6/2002)

Angola N one E nvi ronm ent F ram ework Law , N o.5, 1998

N ationa l D irectorate for E nvironm ent, M inistry and Urban P lanning and E nvironm ent

5 profess ionals

N o s tatis tics avail able

Botswana N ational C onser vation Strategy, 1990 – not strictl y EIA

In pr ogress N ationa l C onse rvation Stra te gy

4 profess ionals

16 com ple ted between 1985 a nd 2001

Le sotho N ational Envi ronm ent Polic y, 1996

E nvi ronm ent A ct, No .103, 2001

N ationa l E nvironm ent Sec retari at, M inistry of E nvironm ent, G ende r an d Y outh

3 profess ionals

N o s tatis tics pr ovided

Malaw i N ational Envi ronm ental Polic y, 1996

E nvi ronm ental M anagem ent A ct, No .34 , 1991

M inistry of N atural R esources and E nvironm ental A ffairs

3 profess ionals


Mauri ti us N ational Envi ronm ent Polic y, 1990 N ational Envi ronm ental Action P lan, 2000

E nvi ronm ental P rotec tion A ct, No . 34, 1991

E IA Divi sion, M inistry of E nvironm ent

7 profess ionals supporte d by envi ronm ental police

Over 800 appl icatio n lodged between 1993 a nd 2000 but nor r esu l t on the outcom es

Mozam bique N ational Envi ronm ental Ma nagem ent P rogram me , 1996 – not strictl y EIA

F ram ework E nvi ronm ent Law , N o.20, 1997 E IA R egulations, N o.76, 1998

N ationa l D irectorate of E IA, Ministry of the C oordin ation of E nvironm ental A ffairs

8 profess ionals


Nam ibi a Envi ronm ental Assessmen t Polic y, 1995

E nvi ronm ental M anagem ent Bi ll, in pr ogress

E IA Unit, D irectorate of E nvironm ental A ffairs, M inistry of E nvironm ent an d Touri sm

2 profess ionals


Se ychell es N one E nvi ronm ental P rotec tion A ct, N o.9,1994 E IA R egulations,

E IA Unit, M inistry of E nvironm ent (located in the Off ice of the P re sid ent)

9 profess ionals




Most EIA legislation in Africa prescribes projects for EIA. In Nigeria, EIA legisla-tion, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Decree No. 86, was enacted in1992 (Olokesusi 1998). Projects are screened using six criteria: the project magni-tude, extent or scope, duration and frequency, associated risks, significance of im-pacts and availability of mitigation measures associated with impacts identified. InZimbabwe (MoMET 1997a), new development proposals and substantial additions,expansions and improvements or re-construction of existing activities are prescribedas requiring EIA. The same criteria are used in Egypt and Tunisia (Ahmad andWood 2002). In Egypt, EIA requirements are covered under Law No. 4 on Envi-ronmental Protection 1994, whilst the EIA Decree No. 362 1991 regulates EIA inTunisia (Ahmad and Wood 2002).

Development projects requiring an EIA in Zimbabwe are prescribed based onthe type of development rather than its size (Government of Zimbabwe 2002;MoMET 1994). In addition, the government can, from time to time, prescribedevelopment activities, policies and programmes for EIA. Activities likely to affectenvironmentally sensitive areas such as national park estates, wetlands, dambos andvleis, productive agricultural land, national monuments and important archaeologicaland cultural sites are also prescribed for EIA. The full list of prescribed develop-ment activities includes, agriculture, dams and man-made lakes, drainage and irriga-tion, forestry, housing developments, industry, infrastructure, mining and quarrying,

Swaziland Environment Action Plan, 1998 – not strictly EIA

Swaziland Environment Authority Act, No. 15, 1992 Swaziland Environmental Audit, Assessment and Review Regulations, 2000

Swaziland Environment Authority

9 professionals

An average of 2 completed each moth

Tanzania National Environmental Policy, 1997

Environment Management Bill

National Environmental Management Council (located in the Office of the Vice-President) and local authorities

Unknown

An estimated 26 completed since 1980

Zambia National Conservation Strategy, 1997 – not strictly EIA

Environmental Protec tion and Pollution Control Act, No.12, 1990 (as amended Act No.13, 1994)

EIA Directorate, Environment Council of Zambia

5 professionals

134 project briefs completed since 1997, of which 23 resulted in full EIAs

Zimbabwe Environmental Impact Assessment Policy, 1994 National Conservation Strategy, 1987

Environmental Management Act, No., 2002

EIA Unit, Department of Natural Resources, Ministry of Environment and Tourism

9 professionals

196 completed since 1995

Source: Compiled and updated from SAIEA 2003:333–5.



petroleum, power generation and transmission, tourist and recreational develop-ment, waste treatment and disposal as well as water supply.

In Egypt (Ahmad and Wood 2002), the prescribed projects are arranged intothree categories: the ‘black list’, ‘grey list’ and ‘white list’. Projects that require a fullEIA fall under the category ‘black list’. Those falling into the ‘grey list’ require thedeveloper to supply considerable EIA information that will be accompanied by anenvironmental screening form B to enable the authority to make an informed deci-sion as to whether a full EIA will be required or that only a limited scale (scopinglevel EIA) is undertaken. ‘White list’ projects require the developer to complete theenvironmental screening form A, for which only the basic project data is needed.Table 8.3 provides a comprehensive summary of the status of EIA legislation inselected North African countries.

Table 8.3: Summary of EIA Legislative Status in Selected North African CountriesLegislative parameter Country

Algeria Tunisia Egypt MoroccoYear enabling legislation enacted 1983 1988 1994 2003Legal provision for EIA Legislation Legislation Legislation Legislation

& regulations & regulations & regulations & regulations

Status of EIA regulations Legislated Legislated Legislated LegislatedProvisions for appeal None None Legislated NoneSpecification of time limits None Legislated Legislated NoneCompetent authority for EIA Yes Yes Yes YesReview body for EIA Yes Yes Yes YesSpecification of sector responsibilities Yes Yes No Yes

Source: Modified according to El-Fadl and El-Fadel (2004:560, 562).

From the many prescriptions as to which proposed development projects requirefull EIA, scoping EIA or no EIA, and details of content and procedures, SouthAfrica’s 2004 EIA regulations can be considered to be the most comprehensive.Authorisation of projects for EIA is dealt with under chapter three of the EIAregulations. The chapter (made up of sections 7–21) stipulates content and proce-dure (DEAT 2004) for: applications; assessment of applications; screening and con-siderations of screening reports; scoping and consideration of scoping reports andplans of full EIA study; contents of specialist EIA reports and their procedures;contents of draft environmental management plans; consideration of draft EIAreports and issuing of environmental authorisation; and decisions of competentauthority and transfer of environmental authorisations. The EIA regulations alsoassign lower and upper limits to certain problematic proposed development projects,both in terms of screening and/or full EIA requirements. Projects that need screen-ing only are listed under Section 22 and fall within Category I. Those requiring fullEIA are listed under Category II in Section 23.

Public Consultation and Participation in EIA

Kakonge (1998) links good governance to EIA. In his view, environmental conflictscan be resolved through the use of EIA. In this respect, EIA draws heavily on the



principles of good governance: information, transparency, accountability, responsi-bility and participation (see for example Global Reporting Initiative 2002; IDSA1994; IDSA 2002). Good governance presents a huge challenge to African govern-ments, particularly accountability and transparency. As such, public consultation andengagement during EIA processes has always been limited. For example, there is noopen or legislated public engagement in EIA processes in Egypt and Tunisia (El-Fadland El-Fadel 2004). However, although varying in the levels and stages of engage-ment, almost all the EIA legislative framework in southern Africa makes provisionfor mandatory public participation and consultation in EIA (Tarr 2003). Public par-ticipation and consultation is not a direct and easy process. Readers should be warnedthat it is more of an art than a science. Expertise needs to be developed to facilitatepublic participation in EIA processes, more so, in a manner that is not viewed asencroachment on issues of governance by many politicians of the land.

Initiatives are already underway to build expertise to facilitate public participa-tion in EIA, especially in Southern Africa. The southern African Institute for Envi-ronmental Assessment (SAIEA), a non-profit organisation with its head office inNamibia has implemented the Calabash Project to promote public participationfacilitation in EIA. A pioneer group of about twenty-five experts mainly from south-ern Africa undertook a two-day course in public participation facilitation in EIA inWindhoek, the capital city of Namibia in May 2005. The project is funded by theWorld Bank. Among the participants who were from outside the SADC region werethose from Kenya, Ethiopia and Cote d’Ivoire.

The SAIEA identifies four key areas that need attention in terms of publicparticipation in EIA. These include limited capacity, political interference, participa-tion rights and lack of experience and confidence (SAIEA 2005). Since govern-ments are constrained in their capacity, their ability to guide and decide on EIA iscompromised. On the other hand, high level political heavy weights are reported toinfluence decisions regarding particular EIA, especially those in which they havedirect interest. Furthermore, the public, particularly those in Africa, are largely una-ware of their rights in terms of EIA procedures.

This is rendered more complicated still by variances in understandings of de-mocracy, participation and good governance across the continent, an aspect magni-fied by diverse religious beliefs and patterns of colonialism. Public participationprocesses are still an emerging feature, in which there is a lack of experience andconfidence in them. After all, there are many other pressing issues that might re-quire ‘real participation’ such as the need to have descent housing, HIV/Aids andpoverty reduction.

Public participation is required virtually in every stage during the EIA pro-cess, or rather, at every stage when a decision has to be made about the proposeddevelopment. However, for clarity, the following are the key stages in which thepublic must be engaged without compromise: the scoping phase, impact identifica-tion and mitigation, and during the drafting of the EIA statement review.



Ideally, the public should also be involved during EIA monitoring and the ulti-mate de-commissioning of the project. However, since resources will not permitthis type of engagement, capacity should be built to empower the public to carry outthese activities outside the main EIA process. In fact, it is during the EIA implemen-tation and decommissioning stages that a number of short cuts are undertaken.leading to severe negative environmental damage, as some developers will be wellaware of the fact that no one will be monitoring them effectively. However, there isa need to realise the benefits and constraints of public participation as well as toensuring adequate participation, as summarised below.

Outcome of full public participation include:

offering all the stakeholders a sense of commitment and ownership of theproposal

allowing for views and values which otherwise may have not been consideredto be brought to bear on the proposal

ensuring that the final proposal is the optimal one, representing the best com-promise of all conflicting interests

providing an opportunity for the public to influence project planning, designimplementation, and operations in a positive manner

offering increased public confidence in the process of decision making

providing for better transparency and accountability in decision making

reducing conflicts through the early detection of contentious issues.

Ensuring successful public involvement means:

sufficient relevant information must be provided in a form that is easily under-stood by non-experts. Technical jargon should be avoided

sufficient time must be allowed for stakeholders to read, discuss and considerthe information and their implication

sufficient time must be allowed to enable stakeholders to present their views

all issues raised must be addressed and thoroughly discussed

the selection of dates, venues, and times of meeting should be done to encour-age maximum attendance

gender integration

good moderation is very essential.

Constraints to full public participation may be caused by:

limitation of financial resources: Participation may be constrained by the finan-cial situation of local people, because participation requires time away fromother tasks and hence loss of income. Cash for transportation and subsistencemay have to be provided for the community members that attend meetings

the wide spread of the rural population and difficult terrains



language and literacy level

cultural norms: These may limit the participation of some groups, such aswomen in the participatory process established for the EIA process. In suchcases, other options to ensure their participation have to be explored

Heterogeneity: communities are rarely homogeneous. Although this may con-stitute a constraint it can, nonetheless, be exploited for the benefit of achievingthe best compromise of the conflicting interest and views.

Public Participation: the Case of the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Project

To help illustrate issues on EIA and public participation, we selected a major invest-ment in Africa, the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project(Map 8.1). Given its transnational and global nature, the case study presents manychallenges and insights regarding EIA and public participation in practice.

From 1993 to 1999, intensive scientific investigations and analysis, as well aspublic engagement and consultation with interested and affected parties, were done.The findings, amounting to twenty volumes of environmental assessment and envi-ronmental management planning documents, were incorporated into the design of

Map 8.1: Chad–Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project

Source: Utzinger et al. 2005:69.



the oilfield and pipeline. The project was to develop the oil fields at Doba in south-ern Chad (at a cost of US$1.5 billion) and construct a 1,070 km pipeline to offshoreoil-loading facilities on Cameroon’s Atlantic coast (at a cost of US$2.2 billion). Thesponsors were Exxon Mobil (the operator, with 40 per cent of the private equity),Petronas of Malaysia (with 35 per cent), and Chevron Texaco (with 25 per cent).The project was projected to result in nearly US$2 billion in revenues for Chad(averaging US$80,000,000 per year) and US$500,000,000 for Cameroon (averagingUS$20,000,000 per year) over the twenty-five year production period.

The project started in 1969 when Exxon launched its programmes for oil explo-ration in Chad and the surrounding countries (Utzinger et al. 2005). In 1975, oilreserves were discovered in the Doba basin of Chad. Due to civil war in Chad,further explorations were halted from 1981 up until 1988. In 1993, Cameroon wasbrought on board as the site for offshore marine export terminal (Map 8.1). Thefirst oil sales on the global market were recorded in December 2003. Public partici-pation during the EIA process for the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Developmentand Pipeline Project was extensive. Thousands of public comments were recordedin the facilitators’ notes, videotapes and on the stakeholders’ public comment data-base. Since 1993, about 900 village and community-level public meetings were heldin the two countries. In addition to public meetings, over 145 other meetings wereset up with local and international NGOs, amounting to over 250 in total. Theproject also made efforts to consult with organisations that had taken opposingpositions to the project on a one-on-one basis. More than 700 copies of the 1997draft EIA reports were distributed for comment to local and international NGOs,government agencies and the public. The draft EIA reports were in both Englishand French, the dominant languages used in the two countries. In many circum-stances, the draft EIA reports had to be hand-delivered by project representativestogether with a brief outlining their contents. To account for accessibility problems,several copies of the draft EIA reports were placed at seventeen public readinglocations in the two countries. These were additional to customary locations thatincluded government offices throughout the countries. Such public reading loca-tions received over 13,000 interested and affected parties, who recorded over 9,000comments in the notebooks provided for the purpose. Social marketing tools (Maibach,Rothschild and Novelli 2002; Nhamo 2003; Shewchuk 1994) such as making an-nouncements through the use of local media, village level public information cam-paigns, and local leaders appointed as local community contacts, were utilised toraise awareness on where the draft EIA reports could be viewed for comment. Thepublic participation programme was faced with challenges around distances coveredby the project, biophysical and cultural diversity. To overcome these obstacles, theproject adopted a consultation methodology built around five key principles (orguidelines). The public consultation programme had to: (1) conduct ongoing factfinding meetings, (2) take consultation to the people, (3) evolve the basis of consul-tation, (4) facilitate consultation with experts, and (5) comply with World Bank guide-lines and directives regarding public consultation and participation. The public com-



ments were analysed, and from the process, fifteen basic comment categories emerged.These were ranked as reflected in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Summary Categories for Public CommentsCategory Rank (%)

Positive views on project 22Hiring/job opportunity/employment/training 19Compensation/resettlement 12Environmental impacts/pollution/leaks/spills 9Consultation/participation 9General project/technical/schedule 8Project revenue/economics/ownership 6Roads/construction/infrastructure 3Socio-economics/cultural 3Environmental documents 3Safety/security/sabotage/protection of pipeline 2Health 1No direct relation to project 1Project funding/Bank’s role 1Human rights/civil unrest 1Total 100

Source: http://www.essochad.com/Chad/Files/Chad/EAESU9.pdf, accessed 1 June 2005.

Positive views indicated support for the project implementation, desire to have theproject begin, and appreciation of the public consultation information provided.Issues around employment opportunities revealed that residents had unrealisticallyhigh expectations regarding the number of opportunities that the project wouldcreate. With regard to migration, the main concern raised was that there was apotential influx of migratory workers to the oilfield development area, an aspectthat would result in negative socio-economic impacts to those in the vicinity. Therecruitment process was also questioned, as stakeholders raised the concern that itmight not be transparent, or might be manipulated along political and tribal lines.

By 2002, 12,701 people were employed; about 75 per cent of whom were na-tionals of Chad and Cameroon. An estimated 60 per cent of the workers fromChad and Cameroon were employed in skilled and semi-skilled jobs. Another 4 percent were in supervisory positions. Demobilization of workers no longer needed forpipeline construction in Cameroon reduced employment of Cameroonians by over900 at the end of the fourth quarter of 2002. While intensive construction at theoilfield facilities raised the employment figure in Chad. Wage payments toCameroonian and Chadian workers during the fourth quarter of 2002 amounted toabout US$5,700,000 and US$6,300,000 respectively.

Clarification was also sought around compensation. Although the governmentof Cameroon had compensation laws of 1981, these could not give a fair marketvalue to deal with lost crops, including fruit trees. Market values had increased overtime and exceeded those stipulated by the law. To this end, the project instituted asystem to supplement payments to bridge the gap. In Chad, compensation was at



first tackled on a one-on-one basis. Individual crops were enumerated and compen-sated based on government rate sheets. However, this was later modified and com-pensation was calculated on the basis of plot size, an element that would showequity. Community (or common property) compensation was also addressed forloss of bush land affected permanent infrastructure in particular. This came in theform of compensation in kind. Projects that resulted from this form of compensa-tion included the construction of schools, wells, market places, roads, storage ware-houses, tree planting and medical assistance.

The need to minimise resettlement was also recorded during the public consulta-tion. As a result of an extensive pipeline routing process, no resettlement was antici-pated along the route. However, a few families were to relocate fields as storageyard facilities in Cameroon. However, resettlement was inevitable in the oilfield areain Chad. An estimated 150 households were affected, and the number was signifi-cantly reduced by re-designs of the oilfield.

Emerging Issues of Concern

What emerged strongly from this chapter is that the African continent has madesignificant strides towards addressing sustainability principles through the applica-tion of EIA as one of the key decision making tools for approving developmentprojects. Significant gains have been recorded in terms of establishing legislationspecifically addressing EIA requirements in various countries. However, the follow-ing matters still remain slippery issues with regards to the fine-tuning of EIA proce-dures in the continent (El-Fadl and El-Fadel 2004; Kakonge 1993; Kakonge 1994;Kakonge 1998; SAIEA 2004).

Public Participation

The public needs to be made aware of their environmental rights. Governmentsneed to open up when it comes to debating issues of good governance so as toencourage participation when it comes to dealing with environmental matters in theEIA process.

Local Government Blackouts

Many local authorities are not directly responsible for EIAs. Yet, most develop-ments are implemented within their jurisdiction. In addition, local authorities havetraditionally controlled development through various regional, town and countryplanning acts, which by their nature had considerable elements of EIA. In thisregard, we recommend that efforts be made towards decentralising EIA, permittingauthority to local authority assessment so that harmonisation might be worked outbetween town planning and EIA laws; lastly, to cut red tape.



Harmonisation of EIA Legislation at National, Sub-regional and AfricanUnion Levels

There still remain key challenges for African governments to harmonise EIA legis-lation at all levels. This may culminate into an African Union ‘mother’ EIA legislativeframework. EIA laws at national levels are still highly sectoral. Yet, sub-continentalframeworks (i.e., eastern, central, northern, southern and West Africa) can be put inplace and eventually fed into one EIA legislative framework within NEPAD or atAfrican Union level as an EIA Convention.

Selective Sectoral Application

Most EIAs are applied to specific development sectors, even to specific projectswithin the sectors perceived to have severe negative impacts (Tarr 2003). Sectorstraditionally exposed to EIA in Africa include mining, petroleum and gas, as well asagriculture (but mainly limited to dams). Agricultural policies seldom receive EIAattention, yet these have the potential to harm the environment. Zimbabwe’s 2000Fast Track Land Reform Programme is one such potentially harmful agriculturalprogramme. Fisheries and tourism projects likewise receive limited attention.

Expertise in EIA

As of June 2002, the whole of SADC had only eighty professionals managing EIAinstitutions (SAIEA 2004). Most tertiary institutions do not have courses in environ-mental management in general, and EIA specifically. Furthermore, government de-partments have experienced a severe ‘brain drain’ on a national, regional and inter-national scale. Experienced EIA professionals often switch to better paid jobs in theprivate or NGO sectors. More effort is needed to encourage the establishment ofcourses in this arena. Resource pooling can assist in utilising the available limitedEIA expertise through initiatives that seek to form coalitions between governments,NGOs, the private sector, universities and other research institutions. As is the casewith the health sector, the environment and EIA must be prioritised.

Enforcement

Apart from the lack of monitoring and auditing of EIA, most legal documents donot stipulate clear monitoring and auditing procedures for EIAs and the resultantpenalties to offenders thereof (Ahmad and Wood 2002). This area needs urgentattention. Regular monitoring is necessary (Tarr 2003) to ensure that developersimplement the agreed-upon management plans. South Africa is one country thathas taken compliance and enforcement seriously, including the establishment ofenvironmental courts in 2004 (DEAT 2004).



Under-resourced EIA Institutions

Many in positions of authority (politics and business) still consider EIA as anotherunnecessary hurdle that delays development, job creation and ultimately povertyeradication in the continent. Therefore, there must be continued lobbying, particu-larly from peers that would realise the benefits of engaging in EIA.

Sectoral Orientation to EIA

EIAs are still undertaken and driven from a sectoral point of view. Hence, manygovernment ministries and departments consider EIA as the sole responsibility ofthe ministries responsible for environment and tourism. A cross-cutting paradigmshould therefore be advocated.

Logistics and Ream Management During EIA Preparation

Drawing from a large-scale EIA for the proposed Dune Mining at St. Lucia in SouthAfrica, Weaver et al. (1996) note that EIA teams need to complement each other,not only technically, but also in purpose. The expectations and approach to the EIAshould be mutually understood. All members should be mutually accountable fortheir joint efforts. Logistical issues, particularly around public participation, are usu-ally seen as delaying the process.

Recognition of Potential Sub-regional EIA Promotion Initiatives

Governments should recognise and resource sub-regional EIA initiatives. One goodexample is the initiative by the Southern African Institute of Environmental Assess-ment (SAIEA), an indigenous NGO based in Namibia. SAIEA is dedicated to pro-moting EIA as a tool to achieve sustainable development and eradicate poverty insouthern Africa. Through partnerships, SAIEA has been supporting government,development agencies, other NGOs and the private sector in the field of EIA.Some of the support mechanisms offered by SAIEA include: developing terms ofreference for EIAs, independent reviewing, monitoring implementation, training (in-cluding hosting student attachments or internships), research and assisting with EIAlegislation reform and formulation.

Conclusion

In this chapter, EIA and public participation processes were discussed. Various defi-nitions of EIA and the stages in the generic EIA process were outlined. The stagescovered included screening, scoping, impact identification and mitigation, draft EIAreview, monitoring, auditing and de-commissioning. The interface between genericproject and EIA cycles was also considered. Stakeholders in the EIA process includeboth the affected and interested parties. EIA legislation, particularly from southernAfrican countries, was documented. The last part of the chapter investigated public



participation with a case reference from the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Project. Insum, the chapter presents a toolkit for undertaking EIA and public participation.

Revision Questions

1. What is EIA?2. What are the generic stages in the EIA process?3. How are the project and EIA cycles related? How does this help to understand the EIA

process better?4. From the text, what is public participation?


1. How would you address issues of corruption with regard to the approval of EIAs ifyou were to be a senior official in one of the government offices responsible for thistask?

2. Identify a proposed development project that has failed to take off due to EIA require-ments. What EIA issues have been raised by the regulating authority, which led to thedelays? How best could you have addressed the concerns stopping the implementationof the development project?

3. Identify and discuss key legislative provisions for EIA and public participation in yourcountry. What challenges exist?

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Chapter 9

Understanding Environmental Education

Introduction

Environmental problems have been subjects of popular discussions and debatesfrom time immemorial. The result is a long history of educational campaigns andmovements that eventually forged the way for the inclusion of environmental con-cerns into national and international policy and decision making. Environmentaleducation has been recognised as a tool or mechanism for providing lasting solu-tions to these problems. This chapter starts with an exploration of some of thecampaigns and movements. It then focuses on the development, forms, definitions,goals, objectives approaches and programmes of environmental education.

Ancient Landscapes Towards Modern Environmentalism

Swan (1975) and Cunningham et al. (2003) present a comprehensive report on thegrowth and development of environmentalism in the US. Swan suspected that evenas far back as when man started using metals, dire predictions were being madeabout the survival of humankind. The ecologists of the day were already warningof the perils of tampering too much with the natural scheme of things.

Colonial times witnessed the birth, in the US, of the conservation movements.During that period, a few laws were passed to prohibit the burning of forests and toprotect various wildlife species. Thomas Jefferson and George Washington warnedagainst destructive land practices, as they feared an adverse economic impact. Later,Alexander Wilson and John James Audubon expressed concern about the extinctionof certain wildlife species and sought their protection. Ralph Waldo Emerson andHenry David Thoreau were interested in the relationship between man and nature,and what could happen should there be dissonance. But despite the efforts of theseand others, conservation still meant nothing to many people in the US, as they stillbelieved that natural resources were inexhaustible. It was not until the publication in1864 of George Perkins Marsh’s book Man and Nature that this myth of resourceinexhaustibility came under careful examination.

By the 1930s, several efforts had been made to conserve wildlife and wildernessby establishing hunting regulations and designating parks and refuges in the US.Yellowstone National Park was created in 1872, as the world’s first national park. Itis regrettable that up until today, most of the rural populations of developing coun-



tries, and even some members of the elite community, still believe in the inexhaust-ibility of natural resources. But before the 1930s, in the US, John Muir, John Burroughsand John Wesley Powell had contributed enormously to the concept of resourceconservation and to the cause of aesthetic and wilderness conservation. Muir was anaturalist who was instrumental to the founding of the Sierra Club. Burroughs, afamous outdoor writer, popularised the study of nature. Powell is best known forhis report to Congress on the management of the arid west, and his exploration ofthat region.

Educational efforts, following the conservation movements, gave rise to theeducational movements. Aldo Leopold, a forester who later became an ecologist,was famous in this domain. He added an ethical dimension to the concept of wilder-ness preservation conceived by Muir and the others, and did much to make gameand wildlife management a recognised profession.

Prior to Leopold’s ethical concept, the justification of most conservation effortswas based on aesthetic, religious or economic grounds. Leopold pointed out thathumans share the earth with other life forms; and that the well-being of each lifeform hinges on the well-being of every other life form. He based the land ethic onthe ecological premise that since humans share the environment with all other lifeforms, it is their responsibility to maintain it in the best interests of the total commu-nity of life.

Of the many educational movements that emerged in Leopold’s time, threewere prominent: nature education (nature study), conservation education, and out-door education. These movements, or subjects, are related and partially overlap.They are considered to be the forerunners of environmental education because oftheir contribution in content and methods to the subject. By 1971, many institutionsof higher learning in the US were already offering environmental education courses.

In the UK, the earliest focus on environmental education was in 1943, when theCouncil for the Promotion of Field Studies was formed. This later became known asthe Field Studies Council (Boulton and Knight 1996). The Field Studies Councilheralded an upsurge of environmental activities related to the countryside (Wheeler1981).

The need for environmental education grew more urgent in the 1960s as a resultof the increasing evidence of environmental degradation. In 1960, the World WideFund (now known as the World Wide Fund for Nature, or the WWF) was launchedto raise the level of public concerns about the rapid disappearance of species (Boultonand Knight 1996). Soon after, in 1963, Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, waspublished. This book drew popular attention to the potential dangers of the exces-sive use of pesticides. A few years later, a delegation from Sweden raised some ofthese concerns during a UN meeting. This initiative, together with the urgent Ameri-can interest in the environment, which found expression in the United States Na-tional Environmental Policy Act, with its early phraseology about inter-generationalequity, which came into effect in 1970 (Wood 1999), influenced the conference onhuman environment.


Understanding Environmental Education 147

The Internationalisation of Environmental Education

The term environmental education was first recorded following a conference heldunder the auspices of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature andNatural Resources (now the World Conservation Union or IUCN) in Nevada in1970. It first appeared on the world agenda after the United Nations Conference onthe Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. The conference designatedthe 5 June as World Environment Day, and encouraged governments to celebratethat day every year by organising activities aimed at raising environmental awarenessor ensuring environmental protection (Vinke 1993). Representatives at the confer-ence recommended that the UN establish an international environmental educationprogramme. In response to the recommendation, UNESCO sponsored a series ofenvironmental education workshops and conferences around the world. Representa-tives from member countries met in Belgrade, in the former Yugoslavia in 1975, tooutline the basic definition and goals of environmental education.

Another international conference was held in 1977 in Tbilisi in the former So-viet Republic of Georgia. More than sixty nations were represented at that confer-ence. Delegates from the two conferences ratified the definition and objectives ofenvironmental education. The conference recommended that environmental edu-cation should be directed to the general public at every age, at all levels of formaleducation, at specific occupational and social groups (administrators and planners,industrialists, agriculturists and so on) through formal and informal education. Thisis in consort with the popular Brundtland Report (Box 9.1) which identifies bothformal and informal environmental education as tools for sustainable development.The report enumerates some informal methods that could be employed to promoteenvironmental education; these include special interest groups and on-the-job train-ing. It also stresses the need for a multidisciplinary approach to the subject.

Box 9.1: The Bruntland Report

In 1984, the United Nations established the World Commission on Environment andDevelopment, otherwise known as the Brundtland Commission. The mandate given to thecommission recognised the need to link long-term environmental strategies to those ofdevelopment. It urged the commission to recommend ways by which concern for theenvironment could result in greater cooperation among developing countries and betweencountries at different stages of economic and social development. In 1987, the commissionpublished its report, Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report.



Defining Environmental Education

The definition of the environment was discussed in Chapter One. Education couldbe defined simply as a process that aims to effect a positive change in behaviour. Itcould also be defined as the behavioural change due to exposure to some kind ofsystematic training or experience. It is considered to be education for sustainability(IUCN 1993). It is a process of empowerment through equipping people with in-formation in a manner that permits them to gradually, systematically and purpose-fully transform information into useful bodies of knowledge. It further equips themwith the appropriate skills that enable them to apply the knowledge to the transfor-mation of resources into goods and services for the betterment of society. Note theuse of the expressions ‘positive change in behaviour’ and ‘betterment of society’.These are used to distinguish good education, because a negative connotation wouldmean using the knowledge and skills acquired to instead produce intentionally whatcould be used to destroy society.

Environmental education was defined by delegates of the Belgrade and Tbilisiconferences as ‘a process aimed at developing a world population that is aware ofand concerned about the total environment and its associated problems, and whichhas the knowledge, attitudes, skills, motivation and commitment to work individu-ally and collectively toward the solution of current problems and prevention of newones’. Put simply, environmental education is a process aiming to improve the qual-ity of life by empowering people with the tools and mechanisms they need to solveand prevent environmental problems. It could also be defined as a subject that aimsat changing the attitudes and perceptions of individuals with regard to the treatmentand use of natural resources. It aims to inculcate in the individual a sense of ac-countability in the use of the limited natural resources.

Environmental education is concerned with the creation of conditions that fa-vour modifications of attitudes or behaviour that have negative impacts on theenvironment. Environmental education increases awareness about issues by interro-gating attitudes, perceptions, values and beliefs. It helps individuals to evaluate andclarify their feelings about the environment, and how they contribute to environ-mental problems. It also helps them to understand that there are conflicting valuesamong people and that these conflicts must be addressed if environmental prob-lems are ultimately going to be prevented or solved. In the same mode, WWF(1988a) states that it enables people to understand, analyse and evaluate the relation-ship between people and the environment.

Touré (1993) asserts that environmental education is not only an instrument inthe fight against environmental problems, but also a precondition for the rationalmanagement of environmental resources needed for human survival. He furtherpostulates that the efficacy of environmental education depends on the interest ofthe topic chosen, and on the role it can play in improving the income, hence thesocio-economic situation, of the populations concerned. It is the demonstration of



the link between economic development and the protection of environmental re-sources that very often convinces the local population to take action. Communitieswill support environmental programmes only if they reflect their local beliefs, val-ues and ideologies (World Bank 1992).

Scope and Forms of Environmental Education

Environmental education has hardly been given the scope and dimension it de-serves in any single situation, due largely to disputes that exist about its goal. Schnei-der (1993) attributes this to the fact that in any given local or national situation,environmental concerns of individuals, groups of people, and even institutions,tend to be limited rather than embracing. Also, the capacity of these actors is limitedby their place in society and by the means at their disposal. Hence, there is always atendency in site-specific situations, for example, in a conservation project setting, tolimit environmental education to areas such as agro-forestry, conservation and hygiene.

According to Dunlop (1993), environmental education covers forms of under-standing and dimensions of behaviour. It must address values and beliefs regardingthe political economy and quality of life in a society. It is also concerned with thedistribution of power at all levels, not only within nation states, but across nationalboundaries, from supranational organisations or transnational companies. It mustalso concern itself with the fine details of the natural world, understanding theimportance of maintaining intact all the links in the chain of being and survival.

Martin (1990) summarises these thoughts in one of his guiding principles ofenvironmental education: environmental education should consider the environ-ment in its totality – natural and man-made, ecological, political, economic, techno-logical, social, legislative, cultural and aesthetic. This means that people should beable to develop an understanding of the ecological processes that govern life onearth; an understanding of the geo-morphic and climatic patterns that influenceliving things and human activities; an appreciation of the social, economic and cul-tural influences that determine human values, perceptions and behaviour; and anawareness of an individual’s own personal relationship with the environment, as aconsumer, producer and sentient member of society (WWF 1988).

There are three forms of environmental education: education about the envi-ronment, education from or through the environment, and education for the envi-ronment. These form what is sometimes referred to as the trinity of environmentaleducation (Figure 9.1), which suggests inseparability. It also points to holism: lookingat the ‘whole’ rather than at separate parts. The holistic approach is advocated bymany experts. The reasoning is that none of the three forms can stand out sepa-rately, and significantly merit the name of environmental education. All three mustbe blended into a single ‘whole’ to give depth and breadth to the subject. Let us, forthe purpose of study, consider them separately.



Education about the Environment

Here the main consideration is the acquisition of knowledge about the environ-ment, including the various components, and how they interact and interrelate. At-tention is paid to the problems facing the environment, their causes and possiblesolutions. This form brings us to stage one, which can be called environmentalscience or environmental studies, an important part of environmental education.

Figure 9.1: Trinity of Environmental Education

Education from the Environment

Put simply, this means using the environment as a teaching resource. Students carryout observations or experiments on different environmental aspects. Over and abovegaining knowledge, appropriate skills and concepts are developed in the course ofconducting experiments. These skills and concepts help equip and prepare the indi-vidual for environmental commitment. This is clearly an extension of the first form,and brings us to stage two.

Education for the Environment

This form brings us to stage three, the last stage. It could be described as the stageof environmental commitment and action. This is where you can safely hope toachieve the goal of environmental education. Individuals use their knowledge andskills acquired to improve the quality of the environment in one way or the other.This should, however, happen voluntarily, without pressure from anyone or anyexternal factor such as the threat of law-enforcement or promise of a reward.Should these be the motivating factors behind any action taken by an individual, wecannot safely say that the individual has acted because he or she has become envi-ronmentally educated.

Education fromthe Environment

Education aboutthe Environment

Education forthe Environment

EnvironmentEducation



Objectives of Environmental Education

The goal of environmental education is not to confer new behaviour on to individu-als, nor to brainwash them into thinking in a particular way. Rather, it is to help themto learn how to think, including how to investigate and analyse, how to solve prob-lems, make decisions, weigh opinions, and align values with personal actions.

Environmental education stresses five objectives: awareness, knowledge, atti-tudes, skills and action, which can be remembered easily by the acronym AKASA(Figure 9.2). These five objectives are synchronised with the three levels of learning:cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitudes and feelings), and psychomotor (physicalor motor skills).

Figure 9.2: Interactions of the Objectives of Environmental Education

These objectives interact with one another to finally produce the core effects in the‘action’ (Figure 9.3). It can be deduced that the intensity and impact of an actionincreases or decreases with the frequency of the action. This is largely influenced bythe factors (including external influences), and level and direction of interactionsthat lead to a given action in a given situation.

Awareness

To help people become aware of the problems affecting the environment, theircauses and possible solutions. The task here is to bring the people to genuinelyexamine their relationships with their environment with a view to identifying andappreciating the impact of such relationships on the environment.

Action

Influences

Influences

Attitude

Awareness

Knowledge Skills

Modifies

Influences

Raises

Increases

Modifies Influences

Increases Influence

Enhances

Modify

Influence

Influences



Knowledge

To enable people to gain a better understanding of the various components of theenvironment, how they interact, interrelate and inter-depend with one another, andthe natural and human factors that can cause a dissonance or total disruption of theinterconnectedness and balance of the components. But the acquisition of knowl-edge is not in, or of, itself sufficient; the knowledge should be able to lead on to theformation of appropriate environmental attitudes and behaviour.

Attitude

To prepare and guide people to acquire environmentally appropriate social values,strong concern for, and sensitivity towards, the environment, and the motivation toactively participate in its conservation. People’s values are the products of theirperceptions, and the determinants of their actions. Their attitudes towards the envi-ronment are a combination of how they perceive it and how they think they oughtto treat it. Noibi (1990) conducted research with a sample of fifty-five teachers,drawn from a population of 150 teachers who had completed a course in environ-mental education at the Lagos State College of Education in Nigeria. The resultsshowed a significant correlation between environmental knowledge and environ-mental attitude (r = 0.20, < 0.05), indicating that knowledge about the environmentcould lead to the formation of appropriate environmental attitudes.

Skills

To equip people with the basic skills necessary to analyse and solve or preventenvironmental problems, skills are the tools that prepare people for action, whichcan be triggered by an appropriate level of motivation generated from positiveenvironmental attitudes.

Action

To enable people to develop a sense of responsibility and accountability towards theenvironment, and a commitment to take appropriate actions or participate activelyto address currently identified environmental problems. As shown in Figure 1.2,action (also known as participation) occupies a central position. It is often observedfollowing environmental education interventions, as proof of the effectiveness ofsuch initiatives. Noibi’s (1990) research showed a significant correlation betweenintended environmental action and actual environmental action (r = 0.02, <0.05),pointing to the possibility of intentions, leading to desired goals. But environmentalattitude was shown to have no correlation with actual environmental action, whereasits correlation with intended environmental action was highly significant (r = 0.57,<.01). A simple explanation for this could be that external factors might have had,and do have, an influence in deciding whether or not the actual environmentalaction is realised.



Environmental Awareness and Sensitisation

A majority of environmental agencies and organisations set the goal of raising aware-ness or sensitising target populations to particular or general environmental con-cerns and issues. Although these are two different sub-targets in terms of level, withsensitisation occupying a higher echelon (Figure 9.3), the agencies and organisationsinvariably aim at the same ultimate target: action. However, it should be noted thatit takes greater effort and more expertise to sensitise than to raise awareness.

Raising the awareness of a target population to environmental issues can lead to,but is no guarantee of, their sensitisation. To raise environmental awareness is tomake the target population conscious of the prevailing environmental issues andpossible solutions; whereas to sensitise them is to stimulate their feelings in such away that they develop concern and a responsible attitudes for the environment.Sensitisation could also be defined as a process by which people are enabled todevelop a set of beliefs, values and attitudes that can positively influence theirperception, treatment and use of the environment and its resources.

Figure 9.3: Awareness and Sensitisation Occupy Different Levels

Sensitisation can lead to the cultivation of positive environmental attitudes, which,in normal circumstances, translate into positive environmental behaviour, best ex-pressed in actions. To reach this final stage is not easy; it depends on the level ofsensitisation of the individual, which increases with age, not merely in biologicalterms, but with respect to an accumulated attachment to particular ideas and values(Patterson 1993). It may occur as a result of subtle but powerful influences, such as

ACTION

AWARENESS

SENSITISATION



advice, and examples of the family and peer groups, rigorous norms and beliefsystems of the community, patterned indoctrination through programmes of themass media, schools and similar institutions, or emerging economic and related op-portunities. This suggests that formulating appropriate strategies for changing ormodifying the general attitude of a particular group of people towards the environ-ment may require a historical journey in time and space to establish what the attitudewas originally, and why, how it evolved over time into its present form, and thefactors responsible for its evolution. Knowledge of all this is crucial to the formula-tion of an appropriate sensitisation strategy. A multiplicity of methods could beemployed to bring about sensitisation and the desired change in attitude.

The effort required to sensitise an individual increases with the age of thatindividual. This explains why experts advise that environmental education be givento people in their childhood, while they are still in elementary school, so that by thetime they reach the age where they tend not to listen to advice, their values andattitudes will have been cultivated already, and will remain an important part of theirlives. On the other hand, starting environmental education with people at adulthoodpresents great difficulties, especially if the values and attitudes they have developedfrom childhood are in opposition to the tenets of the new discipline. These child-hood experiences that have become oppositional forces, are enhanced by the cul-tural, economic and political climate in which people are born and nurtured.

Organisational and Institutional Arrangements for EnvironmentalAssessment

Although many countries have not yet incorporated environmental education intotheir school systems, there are many institutions and organisations that provide ex-cellent examples of environmental education programmes, aimed at both schoolsand the general public.

Botanical and zoological gardens offer opportunities for broad-based environ-mental education (Boulton and Knight 1996). Both children and adults benefit fromguided tours, outreach materials and other educational services provided by theseestablishments. Museums, too, have changed their traditional focus on exhibits toinclude special educational programmes.

National parks and other protected areas are now playing an increasingly signifi-cant role in the promotion of environmental education. Many have informationcentres, which carry out educational activities ranging from audio-visual shows, in-teractive displays, printed materials to educate the casual visitor tourist, and displaynotices, whilst special programmes are arranged for school groups. Some examplesof the above establishments also provide opportunities for teachers to receive train-ing in environmental education. The Bronx Zoo in New York offers a good exampleof well designed programmes of teacher training in this domain. A number ofinstitutions offer specialised courses in environmental education tailored to the needsof the participants, for example the International Centre for Conservation in the



UK. Some universities in both developed and developing countries are now offeringcertificate, diploma and degree courses in environmental education.

Prerequisites for the Implementation of Environmental Education

Before implementing an environmental education programme, it is absolutely nec-essary to carry out certain tasks, which could help place the implementer in a posi-tion to make informed decisions. These tasks consist of carrying out elaboratestudies at the early stages of the programme. Wood and Wood (1985) elaborate thestages involved in the design of conservation education programmes, applicable toenvironmental education programmes, detailed below.

Assessment of the Environmental Situation

The first task is to carry out an assessment or appraisal of the environmental situa-tion. This means identifying and assessing the various components of the biophysi-cal environment and the various human activities that are likely to have an impacton them, positively or negatively. By extension, it involves an identification of theprevalent environmental problems, the causes of the problems, and the potentialsolutions.

Identification of the Target Audiences

A target audience can be described as a group of individuals who, directly or indi-rectly, are affected by or contribute to the identified problems, or who could beinstrumental in the implementation of possible solutions. These could be men, womenand youth; farmers, hunters, fishers and harvesters of forest products, or commu-nity institutions such as the Village Traditional Council, Women’s Group and YouthAssociation.

It is necessary to understand the role and level of influence of each of the targetaudiences in the community, how they interact with each other, and their perceptionand level of awareness of environmental problems. Assessing the level of educationwithin each target audience will also be useful in determining how best to deal withits members. It is equally necessary to understand the community’s methods ofcommunication, including both language and local idioms, and how each target audi-ence reacts to new ideas or innovations.

Formulation of a Working Strategy

Most programmes fail. This is due largely to unrealistic and ill-defined workingstrategies, which help illuminate the way towards the right decisions, the right direc-tions and the right paths.



Box 9.2: Framework for Developing an Environmental Education

Awareness/Knowledge

programme and/or activity goals and objectives clearly defined and stated

benefits of activity to communities clearly demonstrated and/or articulated

environmental, health and other relevant issues adequately covered

(these should include both general and specific ones).

Skills

good communication skills promoted amongst staff and with and amongcommunities

simple analytical skills developed in community members (e.g. to analyse environmentalproblems and issues also in a more scientific way)

practical activities which are culturally acceptable, intellectually, physically andsocio-economically rewarding to communities and gender sensitive.

Implementation Tools

communication tools for awareness raising and sensitisation

cost-effective, attractive and culturally acceptable mass media tools, which are

intellectually and socially meaningful, rewarding to communities and gender sensitive

identification of key target groups

identification of potential collaborators and areas of collaboration

inter-personal communication tools that are culturally acceptable intellectually andsocially meaningful and rewarding to communities and gender sensitive.

Mechanisms

mechanism(s) for ensuring regular activities in communities activity sustainability mechanisms that include both short and long term dimensions mechanism(s) for targeting various categories of communities (e.g. receptive/non-

receptive ones, those with schools and those without, those with roads and thosewithout)

mechanism(s) for exploiting/minimising prevailing/emerging opportunities/threats whichcould mean encouraging internal and external collaboration, avoiding duplication ofefforts, guaranteeing the removal of potential obstacles to activity implementation,acquiring additional information, knowledge and skills, and securing additional material

and/or financial support)

mechanism(s) for monitoring and evaluation (e.g. regular feedback from selectedcommunity groups).

Source: Inyang 2007.

A strategy could be defined as a concrete plan of ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘with whom’, and‘when’. Action should be geared towards the intended goal. It clearly defines the goaland objectives of the programme, the target audiences and appropriate methods tobe employed. It therefore means that before formulating the working strategy, thegoal, objectives and methods need to be properly defined. A proper definition shouldnot be formulated only in terms of wording, but also by linking between the catego-



ries. It should be clear how the methods, together with the activities on which theyare built, contribute to the achievement of the objectives, and how the objectives, inturn, lead to the goals.

Other important elements are those that guarantee the sustainability of the pro-gramme. It has been generally observed that many environmental education activi-ties fail due to a lack of mechanisms, also of sustainability. In a consultancy assign-ment for WWF-Coastal Forests Programme in Cameroon, Inyang (2007) developeda generic framework for the formulation of an effective environment educationstrategy. An important feature of the framework is a number of mechanisms forprogramme sustainability (Box 8.2). This framework was used in workshop settingsto formulate environmental education strategies for four different projects, withobvious positive results.

Formulation of Environmental Messages

This is a very important, but perhaps the most difficult, task of the environmentaleducation. Each target audience needs specific environmental messages communi-cated in particular ways, using appropriate media in particular situations in order tomake the programme meaningful and effective.

Some messages may be used to address the entire village community or theVillage Traditional Council, while others could be aimed at specific target audiences,like hunters, fishers, farmers and harvesters of non-timber forest products. Ad-dressing a well-tailored environmental message to a wrong target audience may ei-ther render it ineffective, which is simply a wasted effort, or generate a bitter reac-tion from the audience. For example, giving a sensitive message on hunting intendedfor community decision-makers directly to a group of hunters may provoketheir antagonism.

Ngome (1992) points out that the most fundamental question concern the kindsof things people should be told to make them realise that there is a serious problem,and that they will have to contribute to a solution. The core message to bring aboutawareness will be somewhat different from the message that is meant to bring aboutaction. Even when people finally realise that there is a problem, it is usually difficultfor them to accept responsibility for that problem. To avoid negative reactions, itmay be practical to down-play their contribution to the problem and highlight theimportance of their contribution to a solution.

By the same token, in formulating an environmental message, as much as possi-ble, the positive should always be highlighted. This may seem difficult at first, as theeasiest way, in most cases, is to employ the word ‘don’t’. But it can be effective tominimise using the ‘don’t’ word. The target audience should be left to make its owndecision about whether or not to continue with an environmentally unfriendly activ-ity. In other words, the word ‘don’t’ should be allowed to come from its members.There is increasingly common experience that once members of a target audiencefeel that a decision has been imposed on them, they will not implement it. Instead, it



may raise suspicion, unless they are sufficiently convinced that implementing it is intheir own best interests.

Communication of Environmental Messages

Communication is an extremely important process in environmental education, es-pecially if the effort is to ultimately influence a desired change in behaviour. Adzeyuf[undated] defines communication simply as the process by which one or more peo-ple are engaged in the exchange of ideas, knowledge, facts, feelings and impressionsin such a way that the receiver can gain a clear understanding of the message and itsintention. Seiler and Beall (2002) define communication as the simultaneous sharingand creating of meaning through human symbolic action. The latter definition stressesthe importance of meaning: for what is a message without a shared meaning?

Messages are sent and received through channels. Horn and Rogers (1975) de-fine a communication channel as the means by which a message gets from thesource to the receiver. The most effective strategy to inculcate environmental edu-cation into the social system – school or local community – is to combine mass andinterpersonal communication channels, as their combined effect is greater than thatof either used separately (Chaffee 1972; Rogers and Shoemaker 1971; Rogers 1973).While mass media – radio, television, newspapers – are the most effective in in-creasing levels of awareness and general knowledge about environmental issues,interpersonal channels are most effective in convincing people to change what theyactually do in practice (Horn and Rogers 1975). The purpose of communication,therefore, is to bring about social change, which Rogers and Shoemaker (1971)define as a process by which alteration occurs in the structure and functioning of asocial system. They suggest three sequential stages in the change process: invention:creation or development of new ideas; diffusion: communication of new ideas tomembers of a given social system; and consequences: changes that occur as a resultof the adoption or rejection of the innovation.

In any social system, the members are linked together and influence one anotherto produce a diffuse effect. A diffuse effect is like a chain reaction. It is the cumu-lative increase in the degree of influence upon an individual to adopt or reject aninnovation, as a result of the increasing rate of knowledge and adoption, or rejec-tion, of the innovation in the system. Once the adoption rate starts to increase, thesocial climate encourages others to ‘get on the bandwagon’. It is important to notethat the pace at which an innovation is diffused is a function of its complexity,conspicuousness, compatibility with existing practice, and the existence of appropri-ate media of communication (Ritson 1977). The more complex, less conspicuous orless compatible with existing practice an innovation is, the slower its diffusion rate,and the other way round. Cunningham et al. (2003) take this further, and give anelaborate presentation of the interactions, not only the social, cultural and linguisticfactors that influence change in the society, but also the physical and external fac-tors, such as worldview and influence of change agents, that play extremely signifi-cant roles to effect the change.



Communication is also influenced by the degree of ‘homophily’, or similarity,between the source of the message and the receiver. Homophily is defined by asharing of important attributes that enhance the effectiveness of communication.Such attributes may be expressed broadly as lifestyles, beliefs, philosophies or idi-oms, all of which affect the encoding and decoding of messages. Coding refers tothe manner in which a sender chooses to word and express a message. Decodingdenotes the manner in which the receiver interprets the message (Buchanan andHuczynski 1991). The products of these twin processes are defined by ‘perceptualfilters’, coloured by the context and setting in which the communication takes place,and refined by the relationship and mode of transmission between the sender andthe receiver. In other words, these factors affect what people express outwardly andhold back, what they hear and do not hear, and the meaning they assign to whatthey hear.

Education for Sustainability

So far, we have gathered a substantial amount of information on the subject ofenvironmental education. One of the conclusions from the knowledge gained is thatthe importance of this subject is increasingly enhanced by its role, both a prerequi-site and a tool for sustainable development (Schneider and Weekes-Vagliani 1993).Its broad scope includes but is not limited to ecological and economic considera-tions. It is well known that as society strives to achieve economic development,through the use of environmental and other resources, ecological processes andlife-support systems are often negatively affected. Negative effects on ecologicalprocesses and life-support systems are known to have serious consequences for theeconomic system and climate. Based on this realisation, there is now more and moreemphasis on striking a balance between economic development and environmentalprotection; hence the concept of sustainable development.

The link between environmental education and sustainable development hasbeen demonstrated by authors such as Huckle. In his ‘Environmental education andsustainability: a view from critical theory’, which appears as a chapter in Fien’s bookEnvironmental Education: A Pathway to Sustainability, published in 1993, he elaborates,on the discourses of ‘education for environmental management and control’ and‘education for sustainability’. The concept of education for sustainability has contin-ued to grow in prominence. This is due, particularly, to its strong appeal emanatingfrom its obvious focus on sustainable development. This can be discerned from itsname, which soon made it gain wider acceptability as an alternative form of envi-ronmental education. It should, however, be noted that education for sustainabilityis a re-orientation of environmental education towards sustainable developmentconsiderations.

Therefore, while environmental education takes a holistic approach and main-tains a balance between all the considerations, education for sustainability tends tolay more emphasis on sustainable development.



Conclusion

This chapter has established the fact that although environmental education is arelatively new subject in Africa, the concepts and efforts that eventually broughtabout its development into a full academic discipline have come a long way. It grewfrom warnings by concerned and foresighted individuals about the possible conse-quences of environmentally unsustainable activities perpetrated by humans, anddeveloped into conservation and educational movements in the US in the 1930s.

The conservation movements focused on legislative and practical measures tosafeguard nature and its resources; while the educational movements concentratedon the development of human knowledge about nature, through well designed stud-ies. The latter movements have similarities with initiatives in the UK in the 1940s.However, the need for environmental education became more urgent in the 1960sdue to the increasing evidence of the rapid degradation of the environment. Twointernational conferences were held, in 1972 and 1975 respectively. These helpedformulate the definition and internationalisation of environmental education.

The efficacy of an environmental education programme lies in its inclusion ofboth short-term and long-term dimensions, meaning implementing both non-for-mal and formal aspects of the subject. We are advised of the necessity to ensurethat the programme should, as much as possible, reflect local realities, colour andflavour.

It should be noted that implementing an environmental education programmerequires, from the outset, an assessment of the environmental situation, an identifi-cation of the target audience and formulation of the working strategy. This is fol-lowed by a consideration of a range of factors that inform the formulation andcommunication of environmental messages. This chapter has also defined the mean-ing, scope and forms of environmental education.

Revision Questions

1. What important movements have given birth to what has come to be known as envi-ronmental education?

2. Discuss the role played by Aldo Leopold in the development of environmental educa-tion?

3. Discuss the factors that brought about the internationalisation of environmental educa-tion.

4. Define environmental education and state its objectives.5. With illustrative examples, describe the three forms of environmental education.6. Distinguish between awareness raising and sensitisation.7. Discuss the four key prerequisites of environmental education.


1. The scope of environmental education is more or less defined by the site and theavailable resources. Discuss.



2. In order to formulate appropriate strategies for changing or modifying the general atti-tude of a particular group of people towards the environment, a historical journey intime and space may be required. Discuss.

3. The more complex, less conspicuous or less compatible with existing practices an inno-vation is, the slower its diffusion rate. Elaborate on this within the context of a namedenvironmental education activity.

4. The efficacy of an environmental education programme lies in its inclusion of bothshort-term and long-term dimensions. Discuss.

5. Discuss the extent to which environmental education merits the description of educa-tion for sustainability.

ReferencesAdzeyuf, E. [no date], Micro-media Communication Techniques. Training Module in Communication Skills

for Human Resource Management and Development, unpublished paper.Boulton, M.N., and Knight, D., 1996, ‘Conservation Education’, in Spellberg, I.F., ed.,

Conservation Biology, London: Longman, pp. 69–79.Buchanan, D. and Huczunski, A., 1991, Organisational Behaviour: An Introductory Text, Essex: Prentice

Hall.Chaffee, S.H., 1972, ‘The Interpersonal Context of Mass Communication’, in F.G., Klime, and P.J.,

Tichenor, eds., Current Perspectives in Mass Communication Research, Vol 1, Beverly Hills: Sage.Cunningham, W.P., Saigo, B.W., and Cunningham, M.A., 2003, Environmental Science: A Global

Concern, New York: McGraw-Hill.Dunlop, J., 1993, ‘Lessons from Environmental Education in Industrialised Countries’, in H.

Schneider, H., Vinke, J., and Weekes-Vagliani, W., eds., Environmental Education: An Approach toSustainable Development, Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, pp.79–101.

Horn, B.R. and Rogers, E.M., 1975, ‘Interpersonal Communication of Environmental Education,in McInnis, N., and Albrecht, D., eds., What Makes Education Environmental? Washington DC:International Educators Inc.

Inyang, E., 2007, ‘Baseline Study for the Development of an Environmental Education Pro-gramme in Korup National Park and Mount Cameroon Areas in Southwest Cameroon. AConsultancy Report Submitted to the WWF-Coastal Forests Programme’, IUCN, 1993, Educa-tion for Sustainability, Gland: IUCN.

Martin, P., 1990, First Steps to Sustainability: The School Curriculum and the Environment, UnitedKingdom: WWF.

Ngome, M., 1992, Environmental Education in Cameroon: The Problems and Prospects, Cameroon: WWF.Noibi, Y., 1990, Pre-service Teacher Environmental Knowledge and Attitude: The Lagos Experience, pre-

pared for the 5th International Environmental Education Conference, Churchill School, Churchill,UK, 25 – 29 June 1990.

Patterson, T.E., 1993, The American Democracy, New York: McGraw-Hill.Ritson, C., 1977, Agricultural Economics: Principles and Policy, London: Granada Publishing.Rogers, E.M. and Shoemaker, F.F., 1971, 2nd edition, Communication of Innovations: A Cross-cultural

Approach, New York: Free Press.Rogers, E.M., 1973, ‘Mass Media and Interpersonal Communication’, in Pool, I.S. and Ashramm,

W., eds., Handbook of Communication, Chicago: Rand.Schneider, H., 1993, ‘Conclusion’, in H., Schneider, J., Vinke, and W., Weekes-Vagliani, eds.,

Environmental Education: An Approach to Sustainable Development, Paris: Organisation for Eco-nomic Co-operation and Development, pp147–7.



Schneider, H.J., Vinke and W. Weekes-Vagliani, eds., 1993, Environmental Education: An Approach toSustainable Development, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, pp.79–101.

Seiler, W. J. and Beall, M.I., 2002, 5th edition, Communication: Making Connections, Boston: Allyn andBacon.

Swan, M., 1975, ‘Forerunners of Environmental Education’, in N. McInnis, and D. Albrecht, eds.,What Makes Education Environmental? Washington DC: InternationalEducators Inc.

The World Bank, 1992, The World Development Report 1992, Washington DC: Oxford UniversityPress.

Touré, F. D., 1993, ‘Environmental Awareness Raising and Education: Experience of the “Inte-grated Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Development Project in Four Pilot Villages” in Senegal’, in H.,Schneider, J., Vinke and W., Weekes-Vagliani, eds., Environmental Education: An Approach toSustainable Development, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-ment, pp. 147–7.

Vinke, J., 1993, ‘Actors and Approaches in Environmental Education in Developing Countries’, inH. Schneider, J. Vinke and W. Weekes-Vagliani, eds., Environmental Education: An Approach toSustainable Development, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, pp.39–77.

Wheeler, K.S., 1981, ‘A Brief History of Environmental Education in the UK’, in Department ofEducation and Science: A Review, London: HMSO, pp. 22–3.

Wood, C., 1999, ‘Environmental planning’, in B. Cullingworth, ed., British Planning: 50 Years ofUrban and Regional Policy, London: The Athlone Press.

Wood, S. and W. Wood, 1985, Conservation Education: A Planning Guide. Peace Corps Information andCollection Exchange Manual M-23, Washington DC: Training and Program Support.

WWF, 1988, A Common Purpose: Environmental Education in the School Curriculum, Surrey: WWF.


Chapter 10

Sustainability Reporting

Introduction

Sustainability reporting can be viewed at global, continental, sub-continental, na-tional, sub-national and company level. The notions of sustainability and sustainabledevelopment are generally taken to reflect environmental, economic, social andtechnological spheres; whereas at the corporate level, these spheres are envelopedwithin the principles of good corporate governance. These include the elements ofequity, accountability and transparency.

As an emerging phenomenon, sustainability reporting guidelines and initiativesare evolving at all levels. At a corporate level, sustainability reporting encompassesthe now widely accepted concept of triple bottom line reporting; focusing onenvironmental, social, and economic sustainability, as well as good corporategovernance. Since reporting at this level traditionally covered economic and/orfinancial matters adequately, this chapter seeks to highlight and elevate the other,previously neglected elements of reporting including environmental and socialdimensions.

This chapter presents the fundamentals and applications of these two previouslyneglected dimensions in reporting and analyses how they have been addressed,particularly at national and company specific levels to sustain Africa’s natural resourceheritage. Therefore, the following five sections are critically examined in the chapter:global and national sustainability reporting initiatives; a historical perspective ofsustainability in business; company level sustainability reporting guidelines; a globaloverview of sustainability reporting; and sustainability banking in Africa.

Global and National Sustainability Reporting Initiatives

This section considers global and national sustainability reporting guidelines andinitiatives. Focus is on the following initiatives: the United Nations Indicators ofSustainable Development Framework of 2001; and Yale university’s Environmen-tal Sustainability Index and Environmental Performance indices where work startedin 2000. Each of these initiatives will be considered briefly in turn in the nextsections.



United Nations Indicator Framework

Work on the UN programme to set indicators for sustainable development wascommissioned by the United Nations Commission of Sustainable Development(UNCSD) in 1995 (United Nations Division for Sustainable Development 2001).This resulted in the publication of a book, Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guide-lines and Methodologies, in 2001. Its purpose was to stimulate and support furtherwork, testing, and the developing of indicators at national government levels.

Indicators can provide important guidance for decision making in a number ofways (United Nations Division for Sustainable Development 2004). They can trans-form physical and social science knowledge into manageable units of informationthat permit informed decision making in environmental governance. Indicators alsoassist in measuring progress towards achieving stipulated sustainable developmentgoals. They can provide early warnings where environmental disasters might occur,thereby preventing social and economic losses. No set of indicators can be final anddefinitive, and are adjusted over time.

As early as 1992, the UN’s Agenda 21 called for the need for national govern-ments to draw up indicators to measure their progress towards achieving sustainabledevelopment (UN 1992). The 2001 UN indicator framework for measuring sus-tainable development draws on four pillars of sustainability: social, environmental,economic and institutional (United Nations Division for Sustainable Development2001), identified in the earlier work on indicators by the Commission on SustainableDevelopment (United Nations Division for Sustainable Development 1999). Suchindicators were grouped as the driving force, state and response characteristics.Driving force denotes human activities, processes and patterns that impact on, ei-ther positively or negatively, and shape, sustainable futures. The state indicators givea measure on the condition of sustainable development. Response indicators repre-sent societal actions targeted at moving towards achieving sustainability in varioussectors (United Nations Division for Sustainable Development 2001). Although thethemes and sub-themes from the indicators were designed to guide national govern-ments, the first three pillars have been widely used to develop themes and sub-themes for company level sustainability indicators and reporting initiatives.

One hundred and thirty-four indicators were developed between 1996 and 1999,and administered on a voluntary basis to twenty-two countries (United Nations Di-vision for Sustainable Development 1999). The pilot-testing country feedbacks andsubsequent work on the indicator framework suggested forty-six key thematic indi-cators across the four pillars mentioned earlier (Table 10.1).


Sustainability Reporting 165

Table 10.1: Key Thematic Indicator Areas

Social Education

Employment

Health/water supply/sanitation

Hounsing

Welfare and quality of life

Cultural heritage

Poverty/income distribution

Crime

Population

Social and ethical values

Role of women

Access to land resources

Community structure

Equity/social exclusion

Environmental Freshwater/groundwater

Agriculture/secure food supply

Urban

Coastal zone

Marine environmental/coral reef protection

Fisheries

Biodiversity/biotechnology

Sustainable forest management

Air pollution and ozone depletion

Global climate change/sea level rise

Sustainable use of natural resources

Sustainable tourism

Resctricted carrying capacity

Land use change

Economic Economic dependency/indebtedness/ODA

Energy

Consumption and production patterns

Transportation

Mining

Economic structure and development

Trade

Productivity

Institutional Integrated decision-making

Capacity building Science and technology

Pillar Key thematic indicators



Public awareness and information International conventions and cooperation Governance/role of civil society Institutional and legislative frameworks Disaster preparedness Public participation

From the key indicator themes, sub-themes and measurable indicators are drawn.For example, taking land as an environmental theme, the sub-themes would includeagriculture, forest, desertification and urbanisation. Under agriculture, the sub-themesmeasures would be arable and permanent crop land area, use of fertilisers and useof agricultural pesticides. From the forest sub-theme, we would measure forest areaas percentage of the total land area, as well as wood harvesting intensity. This is thekind of framework that the UN sustainable development indicators seeks to achieve.The framework has also been adopted and applied in specific sectors to measuresustainability. This has been the case with its new application within the energysector by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), as briefly outlined in thefollowing section.

In 2005 the IAEA, in collaboration with the UN Department of Economic andSocial Affairs, the International Energy Agency, Eurosat, and the European Envi-ronmental Agency, published work on energy indicators (International Atomic En-ergy Agency 2005). The work provides guidelines and methodologies along the linesof the UN framework of indicators for sustainable development, but focuses onthree pillars: the social, the environmental and the economic. The core set of En-ergy Indicators for Sustainable Development (EISD) provides information on cur-rent energy-related trends in a form that assists decision making at a national level.Thus nations are aided in assessing the effectiveness of policies for action towardsachieving sustainability in the energy sector. These energy indicators providebenchmarks for the WSSD Implementation Plan energy targets, which includethe need to:

integrate energy into socio-economic programmes

combine more renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced energy tech-nologies to meet the growing need for energy services

increase the share of renewable energy options

reduce the flaring and venting of gas

establish domestic programmes on energy efficiency

improve the functioning and transparency of information in energy markets

reduce market distortions and assist developing countries in their domesticefforts to provide energy services to all sectors of their populations (Interna-tional Atomic Energy Agency 2005: 6; UN, 2002).

Source: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2001: 22).



The energy indicators for sustainability incorporate social sub-themes such as acces-sibility, affordability, disparities and safety. Some of the indicators include the shareof households (or population) without electricity and the share of household in-come spent on fuel and electricity. The economic sub-themes include overall use,overall productivity, supply efficiency, production, end use, diversification (fuel mix),prices, imports and strategic fuel stocks. Some of the indicators include percapita energy-use, and per unit of gross domestic product (GDP), and the ratioof resources to production. The environment sub-themes cover climate change,air quality, water quality, soil quality, forest as well as solid waste generation andmanagement. Some of the indicators include greenhouse gas emissions from energyproduction and use per capita and per unit of GDP, and the ratio of solid wastegeneration to units of energy produced. The energy indicators continue to be modi-fied as per the dictates of new technology and information regarding energy. Read-ers are encouraged to trace new work and references.

Yale University Environmental Sustainability and Performance Indices

Work on Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) and Environmental Perform-ance Index (EPI) by Yale University and its collaborating partners started in 2000. Itresulted in the publication of ESIs and EPIs in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2006.For our purposes, the indices for the three most recent years are discussed.

In 2002 a pilot EPI was designed to measure environmental stewardship at anational level. Four core indicators were used and measured: air quality, water qual-ity, greenhouse gas emissions and land protection/degradation. Only seven Africancountries appeared in the top fifty countries, out of the 142 countries assessed.Botswana was ranked thirteenth, Namibia, twenty-sixth, Zimbabwe, forty-sixth, andSouth Africa, seventy-seventh (Esty, Levy et al. 2005).

The 2005 ESI improved on the previous versions. This work was still directedby the Yale University’s Centre for Environmental Law and Policy and the Centrefor International Earth Science Information Network of Columbia University incollaboration with the World Economic Forum and the Joint Research Centre ofthe European Commission (Esty, Levy et al. 2005). The 2005 ESI aimed atbenchmarking national environmental stewardship for the next decades. The 2005ESI benchmarks countries by integrating seventy-six data sets that trace naturalresource endowments, past and current pollution levels, environmental manage-ment efforts and the capacity of nations to improve their environmental perform-ance. The seventy-six data sets were aggregated into twenty-one indicators of envi-ronmental sustainability. From the authors, the twenty-one indicators allow directcomparison across five broad themes: environmental systems; reducing environ-mental stress; reducing human vulnerability to environmental stresses; societaland institutional capacity to respond to environmental challenges; and globalstewardship.

The higher a nation’s ESI score, the better its chances of maintaining favourableenvironmental conditions in the future. Interestingly, out of the 146 countries in-



cluded in the 2005 ESI, none of the forty African countries came in the top ten.Africa’s top country, Gabon, was ranked twelfth, and was the only one in the toptwenty. In terms of African countries ranked, the top ten were: Gabon, followed byCentral African Republic, Namibia, Botswana, Mali, Ghana, Cameroon, Tunisia,Uganda and Senegal. The bottom ten were: Egypt, followed by Sierra Leone, Libe-ria, Angola, Mauritania, Libya, Zimbabwe, Burundi, Ethiopia and Sudan.

Work on the ESI continued in 2006, resulting in another publication on Environ-mental Performance Index (EPI). EPI is pivoted on twin broad environmental pro-tection objectives: (1) to reduce environmental stresses on human health, and (2) topromote the vitality and sound natural resource management of ecosystems (Estyet al. 2006: 1). These objectives were formulated to address, in particular, some ofthe concerns that were raised against the lack of measurability of the environmentalobjectives of the Millennium Development Goals. The 2006 Pilot EPI, as it iscommonly known, measured environmental health and ecosystems viability usingsixteen indicators grouped into six well-established policy categories recorded by theauthors as: environmental health, air quality, water resources, productive naturalresources, biodiversity and habitat, and sustainable energy.

The top five nations from the EPI, in a survey of 133 countries, were NewZealand, Sweden, Finland, the Czech Republic and the UK. The lowest rankedcountries were Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Chad and Niger (Esty et al. 2006), allAfrican countries. Indicators across the six major categories, cited above, includedchild mortality, indoor air pollution, drinking water, adequate sanitation, urbanparticulate matter, regional ozone, nitrogen loading, water consumption, wildernessprotection, timber harvest rates, agricultural subsidies, over-fishing, energy efficiency,renewable energy and carbon dioxide per GDP. Given the focus of this book onenvironmental management in Africa, the entire rankings and scores for thirty-eightAU member countries, involved in the survey, are presented in Table 10.2.

Table 10.2: EPI for AU Countries, 2006

Rank Country Score Rank Country Score Rank Country Score

1 Gabon 73.2 14 Malawi 56.5 27 Guinea 49.22 Algeria 66.2 15 Namibia 56.5 28 Madagascar 48.53 Ghana 63.1 16 Kenya 56.4 29 Guinea-Bissau 46.14 Zimbabwe 63.0 17 Zambia 54.4 30 Mozambique 45.75 South Africa 62.0 18 Cameroon 54.1 31 Nigeria 44.56 Uganda 60.8 19 Swaziland 53.9 32 Sudan 44.07 Tunisia 60.0 20 Togo 52.8 33 Burkina Faso 43.28 Tanzania 59.0 21 Gambia 52.3 34 Angola 39.39 Benin 58.4 22 Senegal 52.1 35 Mali 36.710 Egypt 57.9 23 Burundi 51.6 36 Mauritania 33.911 Ivory Coast 57.5 24 Liberia 51.0 37 Chad 32.012 Central Afr. 57.3 25 Sierra Leone 49.5 38 Niger 30.513 Rwanda 57.0 26 Congo 49.4

Source: (Esty et al. 2006:19).



The authors note that all the top global performing nations invested heavily inprotecting the environmental health of their citizens. However, of concern is thatAfrica’s highest ranked, Gabon is ranked forty-sixth globally. The other top five areranked sixty-third (Algeria), seventy-second (Ghana), seventy-fourth (Zimbabwe)and seventy-sixth (South Africa). Such statistics show that we, as a continent, stillhave much to do in terms of the EPI and sustainability reporting.

Sustainability in Business: A Historical Perspective

During the 1960s and 1970s the world, including corporations, continually deniedtheir negative impacts on the environment. However, a series of severe and visibleenvironmental disasters, such as the death of Lake Erie in the US, the Rhine river inEurope, and people dying of mercury poisoning in Japan forced a change of mindset(Hart 2004). Sustainability issues in business and industry were placed on the globalagenda in the mid-1990s (Timberlake 1992). This emerged from an initiative by theUN Conference on Environment and Development Secretary-General aimed atraising environmental awareness to businesses during the Earth Summit of 1992.The result was the establishment of the Business Council for Sustainable Develop-ment (BCSD), and the subsequent publication of a book entitled Changing Course: AGlobal Business Perspective on Development and the Environment. The book became part ofthe Rio summit proceedings. It was published in seven languages prior to the Riosummit. The BCSD was made up of representatives from chief executives fromEurope, North and South America, Asia, Africa and Australia.

According to Timberlake (1992:29), eco-efficiency was agreed on as the keyfeature of future sustainable businesses. Eco-efficiency was described as the ‘pro-duction of goods and services whilst reducing resource consumption and pollution’.The eco-efficiency principle is drawn from of Principle 8 of the Rio Declaration,stipulating that to achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for allpeople, states should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production andconsumption, and promote appropriate demographic policies (UN 1992).

To raise awareness of the need to integrate developmental issues and the envi-ronment, the principles of eco-efficiency were promoted through the BCSD bookin twenty countries, particularly to those in the developed world. The BCSD unani-mously agreed that the future winners in business will embark on improving theireco-efficiency because:

customers were now demanding cleaner products and services;

insurance companies were becoming more amenable to covering clean companies;

employees, especially the best and the brightest were preferring to work forenvironmentally responsible entities;

environmental regulations were getting tougher and would continue doing so inthe future;



new economic instruments such as taxes, charges and trade permits were re-warding clean companies; banks were more willing to finance companies thatconserve the environment and prevent pollution rather than having to pay forclean-ups (Timberlake 1992).

The last point was basically a wake up call to businesses, geared towards end-of-pipemeasures in managing the environment, to move over to pro-active, anticipatoryentities when dealing with environmental concerns. Overall, eco-efficiency was deemedto help, rather than hurt, profitability.

Company Level Sustainability Reporting Guidelines

Many companies now use the Global Reporting Initiative’s (GRI) Sustainability Re-porting Guidelines (SRG), when reporting on sustainability issues. The GRI waslaunched in 1997 as a joint initiative of the US NGO Coalition for EnvironmentallyResponsible Economies and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).Its major goal was to enhance the equality, rigour and utility of sustainability report-ing globally (Global Reporting Initiative 2002). By 1999, the first GRI SRG docu-ment was ready. The second was published in 2000. Currently, the 2002 edition isbeing used, and over 500 organisations, world-wide, were reported to have beenusing the guidelines by September 2004 (ACCA 2004).

The GRI initiative of 2002 provides twin sets of indicators: core and additionalindicators (Global Reporting Initiative 2002). The core indictors are relevant tomost reporting organisations and their key stakeholders; whilst the later may beconcerned with issues such as leading practices in environmental, social and eco-nomic measurement.

The sustainability reporting guidelines are divided into four major parts. Part Acovers aspects pertaining to using the GRI guidelines, Part B focuses on the report-ing principles, Part C, looks at the report content, and Part D, comprises the glossaryand annexes. The contents of the parts under review will each be considered brieflyin turn.

The reporting principles focus on transparency, inclusiveness, auditability, com-pleteness, relevance, sustainability context, accuracy, neutrality, comparability, clarityand timeliness (Box 10.1).



Box 10.1: GRI Sustainability Reporting Principles

P1-Transparency: Is the report providing full disclosure of the processes, pro-cedures, and assumptions in report preparation?

P2-Inclusiveness: Is the reporting organisation systematically engaging itsstakeholders to help focus and continually enhance the quality of its reports?

P3-Auditability: Is the reported data and information recorded, compiled, ana-lysed, and disclosed in a way that would enable internal auditors or externalassurance providers to attest to its reliability?

P4-Completeness: Is the report including all information that is material to usersfor assessing the organisation’s economic, environmental, and social perform-ance in a manner consistent with the declared boundaries, scope, and timeperiod?

P5-Relevance: Is the report clearly defining the degree of importance assignedto particular indicators, including the threshold at which the information be-comes significant enough to be reported?

P6-Sustainability Context: Is the report providing an overview of the contextin which the data is reported relative to the larger ecological, social or eco-nomic constraints?

P7-Accuracy: Is the report achieving a high degree of exactness, or a low marginof error, such that users can make decisions with a high degree of confi-dence?

P8-Neutrality: Is the report avoiding bias in selection and presentation of infor-mation, and provide a balanced account of the organisation’s performance?

P9-Comparability: Is the report maintaining consistency with previous reports inthe boundary and scope of indicators? Alternatively, are any changes ofboundary or scope, or re-statements of previously disclosed information,adequately disclosed?

P10-Clarity: Is the report making the reported information available in a mannerthat is responsive to the maximum number of users while still maintaining asuitable level of detail?

P11-Timeliness: Is the report being released in a manner that is consistent witha regular schedule that meets user needs?

Source: Modified after Global Reporting Initiative (2002:23–31).



Source: Global Reporting Initiative (2002:36).

Table 10.3: Suggested Categories of Reporting IndicatorsCategory Aspect

Customers

Suppliers

Direct economic impacts Employers

Providers of capital

Public sector

Materials

Energy

Water

Biodiversity

Emissions, effluent and waste

Envionmental Suppliers

Products and services

Compliance

Transport

Overall

Employment

Labour practice and decent Labour/management relations

work Health and safety

Training and education

Diversity and opportunity

Strategy and management

Non-discrimination

Freedom of association and collective

Human rights bargaining

Child labour

Forced and compulsory labour

Disciplinary practices

Security practices

Indigenous rights Community

Bribery and corrutpion

Society Political conditions

Competition and pricing

Product responsibility Custom health and safety

Products and services

Advertising

Respect for privacy

Soci

al

E

nvi

ron

men

tal

Eco

nom

ic



The report content captures variables such as vision and strategy, profile, govern-ance structure and management systems, the GRI content index and performanceindicators. The performance indicators include the pillars of sustainability reportingthat embrace economic, environmental and social sustainability. The annexes in-cluded are: an overview of the GRI, linkages between sustainability and financialreporting, guidance on incremental application of the GRI SRG, credibility andassurance, GRI indicators, and the GRI content index. Further details regardingelements discussed above and more on sustainability reporting can be obtained fromthe main document and Table 10.3 gives a summary of indicators recommended bythe GRI.

Corporate responsibility has become a major issue in Europe. Some countrieshave passed legislation to this effect, or are being pressed to do so by lobby groups.Some of the recent bills on corporate responsibility from European countries in-clude on social labelling (Belgium), sustainability reporting (Netherlands and France)and pension fund disclosure (the UK and Germany).

Sustainability Reporting: A Global Overview

Since publication of Our Common Future, the trend for better corporate governanceand accountability has placed emphasis on the responsibilities of organisations to-wards all stakeholders, the environment and societies in which business is conducted(ACCA 2004). The practice of sustainability reporting has emerged from this dou-bled quest for greater organisational transparency. Since the concept of sustainabilityreporting is relatively new, selected definitions for some of the fundamental termsare provided here. An ‘indicator’ refers to a measure that can either be qualitative orquantitative in nature. Such measures are used to compute an index or indices. An‘index’ is usually denoted as a single value that takes into consideration differentweightings and aggregates from the indicators. ‘Baselines’ and ‘benchmarks’ are otherterms. A baseline should be taken as the starting point. For example, since manycompanies were not reporting on sustainability issues earlier on, their very firstreports are baseline reports. A benchmark is a standard against which organisationscan assess compliance. For example, set national effluent standards for a pulp andpaper mill are used as benchmarks before effluence is disposed of in a public watersystem or municipal sewer network. Jonah and Pienaar (2004) have developed addi-tional concepts, adopted here for clarity. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) fo-cuses on the socio-economic, ethical and moral responsibilities set in response to thechanges and demands of society at large. Corporate social investment (CSI) in-cludes the funding of and involvement in socio-economic upliftment. But it ex-cludes employee benefits. Examples include education, housing, health, welfare, jobcreation, community development or empowerment. Corporate citizenship includesaccountability for social, environmental and economic impact; engagement withstakeholders; and integration into mainstream business. Although the concept ofsustainability reporting is still in infancy, in many African countries, the practice wasfirst recorded in the early 1990s. In 1993, fewer than 100 sustainability reports were



produced. By 1999, the figure increased more than five-fold. In 2003, over 1,500reports were recorded globally (Jonah and Pienaar 2004). A comparison ofsustainability reports produced on the global scale is presented in Graph 10.1.

Graph 10.1: Reports Produced, 1990–2003 (n=6,619)

Source: Compiled from ACCA (2004:9).

The types and formats of the sampled reports produced between 2001 and 2003(n=3,637) varied (ACCA 2004). The list and proportions were distributed as:sustainability reports (14 per cent), corporate responsibility (8%), annual with sub-stantive non-financial sections (6%), community (3%), social (5%), environmentand social (8%), environment, health and safety (14%) and environment (42%).From 3,637 reports produced between 2001 and 2003, Europe had the largestshare, with 54 per cent, followed by Asia and Australasia with 25 per cent. The Ameri-cas had 19 per cent, and lastly Africa and the Middle East had a mere 2 per cent.

Given the growing concern and need for companies to report on non-financialmatters, ACCA launched the world’s first environmental reporting awards in 1990.The awards opened up spaces for engagement within corporate accountability. Theawards achieved a number of things. They:

highlighted the business community’s role in sustainable development

raised awareness and understanding of environmental reporting issues, andpromoted the need for this type of discourse

demonstrated the need for all business to be accountable for all their impactson society

showed that it was not just the shareholders who were interested in corporateactivity, but that other stakeholders, too, had information needs (which werenot being met)

encouraged a number of organizations to prepare environmental reportingguidance material

ultimately, by rewarding best practice and providing feedback via judges’ re-ports, they helped to improve both the quality and the quantity of reporting wesee in the world today (ACCA 2004:11).

54%

2

19% 25%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

%

Europe The

Americas

Africa andMiddle East

Asia andAustralia

The AmericaEurope



Since 1990, mandatory environmental reporting has been introduced in some coun-tries: Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway and Hong Kong. In Africa, SouthAfrica is the sole country to have worked out a code of corporate governanceethics, and the only country in the world to have mandatory sustainability reportingfor listed companies (African Institute of Corporate Citizenship 2004; UNEP FI2005).

Sustainability Reporting in Africa

The first sustainability reports appeared in 1993, with external assurances first ap-pearing in 1998 (ACCA 2004). Since 2002, there has been an exponential growth inreporting. This is due to many reports emerging from South Africa, according to theKing II Report (Wixley and Everingham 2002; IDSA 2002) (for further details, seebelow), and the Johannesburg Stock Exchange requirements (Johannesburg StockExchange 2003). Out of the ninety-seven sustainability reports sampled for Africa,South Africa accounted for 75 per cent (ACCA 2004). The top five typology of thesustainability reports were ranked as: sustainability; environment and social; envi-ronment, health and safety; corporate responsibility and social. The remaining per-centage was shared between Algeria, Gabon, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,Nigeria, Uganda and Zimbabwe.

The Sustainability Reporting Nexus

The nexus between corporate governance, the pillars of sustainable developmentand triple bottom line (or sustainability) reporting, technological advancement and asustainable organisation should already have been grasped. Various models can beused to depict these linkages. Figure 10.2 is an example.

Figure 10.2: Sustainability Reporting Nexus

A SUSTAINABLE ORGANISATION

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

Technological Advancement

Eco

nom

ic

Sust

ainab

ility

Envi

ronm

enta

l

Sust

ainab

ility

Soci

al

Sust

ainab

ility

Triple Bottom Line Reporting



Figure 10.2 reveals that, like a real house roof, a sustainable organisation restsupon the strengths of the three pillars of sustainability: the economic, the environ-mental and the social. In addition to the pillars, African organisations, or businesses,that will survive into the future must have their roots founded on firm ground, builton technology, particularly research and development, and the principles of corpo-rate governance. The four directional arrows within the figure indicate the manymulti-dimensional relationships and the nexus that emerges in the realm of corpo-rate governance and sustainability reporting. Further deliberations concerning theconcepts introduced above are made within this chapter.

Understanding the ‘Triple Bottom Line’ Metaphor

The triple bottom line (TBL) of sustainable development seeks to account for eco-nomic prosperity, environmental (ecological and/or ecosystems) quality, and socialjustice (Elkington 2004). Environmental quality and social justice have been ne-glected by business and industry for a long time. Each of the three pillars can bediscussed in their relationship to accountability, accounting, auditing and reporting.Traditionally, a company’s bottom-line is associated with the profit figure, resultingfrom the deductions of cost and depreciation of capital. This is part of standardaccounting practice. Hence in line with the TBL concept, there should be an equalaccounting (the pulling together, recording and analysis) of a wide range of environ-mental and social data, including figures.

Hart (2004) maintains that pollution, depletion of natural resources and povertyare the key challenges to attaining sustainability. These key challenges are manifest invarying degrees in countries from the developed economies, emerging economiesand what he refers to as the survival economies. Many African countries still fallwithin the survival category. Many others, that had shown signs of becoming emergingeconomies, are, for various reasons, degenerating back into survival economies.Table 10.4 summaries some of the challenges to sustainability.

Table 10.4: Sustainability Challenges

Source: Hart (2004:11).

Taxonomy Pollution Depletion of natural resources Poverty

Developed

economies

Greenhouse gases

Use of toxic materials

Contaminated sites

Scarcity of materials

Insufficient reuse and

recycling

Urban and minority

unemployment

Emerging

economies

Industrial emissions

Contaminated water

Lack of sewage treatment

Overexploitation of

renewable resources

Overuse of water for

irrigation

Migration to cities

Lack of skilled workers

Income inequality

Survival

economies

Dung and wood burning

Lack of sanitation

Ecosystems destruction

due to development

Deforestation

Overgrazing

Soil loss

Population growth

Low status of women

dislocation



Hart (2004) also identifies three key strategies to overcome the problems associ-ated with unsustainable behaviour, globally. He outlines sequential stages that startwith the prevention of pollution (RSA 1998), the institution of product stewardship(Fishbein 1994) and clean technology (Pauli 1997). These three strategies can beintegrated into what he terms as a ‘sustainability portfolio’, which examines com-pany issues of the day and the future, from the internal and external perspectives.The green, or environmental, bottom-line becomes paramount.The green bottom-line requires that environment-related management accounting be undertaken (Bennettand James 2004). The environmental bottom-line mainly applies at company level,starting with the organisation itself, and progresses to its supply chain and relation-ship with the community. Accounting in this respect should focus on both financialand non-financial issues, within this specific bottom-line. Six domains are visiblewhen dealing with the green-bottom-line (Table 10.5).

Table 10.5: Company Level Environment-related Management AccountingScale/Focus Organisation Supply chain Society

Financial Focus Environment-related Life-cycle Cost Environmental externalitiesFinancial Management Assessment Costing

Non-financial Focus Energy and Materials Life-cycle EnvironmentalAccounting Assessment Impact Assessment

Source: Bennet and James (2004:127).

Such environment-related management accounting is carried out to inform andsupport decision making processes, influenced by environmental factors. Some ofthe main objectives of this form of accounting include the need to: demonstrate theimpact on the income statement of environment-related activities; prioritise envi-ronmental actions; enhance customer value; and support sustainable business (Bennettet al. 2004). Overall, the triple bottom line aims to achieve:

transparency and effectiveness: allowing people to assess or ensure that organi-sations are doing the right thing in terms of their core business;

accountability: allowing organizations to take responsibility for their actions andto report this honestly to their stakeholders;

consultation and responsiveness: enabling organisations to ensure positive rela-tionships both internally and externally and responding to the feedback fromstakeholders through informed and appropriate decision making;

impact assessment: allowing organisations to identify the nature and scope ofimpact of actions they take particularly across and between the three bottomlines;

information and communication (including public relations): enabling organisa-tions to use the results of their processes for future decision making and toconvey, as and when appropriate, these results to the public (Mahoney andPotter 2004:154).



The Triple Bottom Line in South Africa

The triple bottom line reporting (TBLR) concept in South Africa calls for integratedsustainability reporting (ISR) in the corporate world. Sustainability from the King IIReport (IDSA 2002) entails a focus on previously sidelined non-financial aspects ofcorporate practice, which have been found to influence the ability of an enterpriseto survive and prosper in the communities in which it conducts its business. TheKing II Report noted that many companies in South Africa were not reportingcomprehensively on the environment. The King II Report recommended that theenvironment be considered as a stakeholder in its own right. Where a companyoperates in a foreign land, where higher environmental standards apply, these stand-ards should be implemented in South Africa. Meanwhile, the ‘best practice environ-mental option’, which has most benefits, or causes least damage, to the environmentat a cost accepted by the society, should be applied to all decisions taken by abusiness entity.

For South African companies, TBL reporting became effective for the financialyears beginning on or after 1 March 2002. It is applicable to listed companies,banks, financial and insurance entities and certain public sector entities (Wixley et al.2002). Although it is a voluntary practice, the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)requires that all listed companies adhere to the TBL reporting system. In addition,the Code of Corporate Practice and Conduct, spelt out by the King II Report,contains a clause that places a duty and responsibility on all boards and individualdirectors to make sure that its provisions are adhered to.

The King II Report deals with Corporate Governance issues (IDSA 1994; IDSA2002) and outlines a Code of Corporate Practice and Conduct (Wixley et al. 2002)for South African business and industry. The King II Report is made up of sixmajor sections that deal with: boards and directors, risk management, internal audit,integrated sustainability reporting (key focus area), accounting and auditing, andcompliance and enforcement.

In 2002, Ernest and Young started incorporating sustainability reporting aspectsinto the adjudication process, as part of its Excellence in Corporate Reporting (ECR)survey initiative. The ECR survey initiative, pioneered in 1997, originally focusedon encouraging excellence in the quality of financial reporting by South Africa’s top100 companies to investors and other stakeholders (Ernest and Young 2004). Theshift in emphasis from excellence in financial reporting to excellence in corporatereporting has been necessitated by the need to evaluate company annual reportsfrom the perspective of the broad community of stakeholders. The 2003/4 adjudi-cation reflected, for the first time, the response to the King II Report on corporategovernance and sustainability reporting.

Potentially 400 points can be obtained by companies, the annual reports, ofwhich, are assessed. These points are given the following weighting: performancereview (approximate weighting, 35%), financial disclosure (35%), forward-lookinginformation (20%), and presentation (10%). It is important to note that elements



related to corporate governance and sustainability disclosures fall within the per-formance review category. Further details and free copies of the 2003/4 and pastECR survey initiatives can be obtained from www.ey.com/za.

There has been a growing commitment by South African companies to fulfilcorporate social responsibility requirements. Companies cannot account for profit-ability alone, without taking cognisance of CSR. A corollary of the rising interest inCSR has been the growth of socially responsible investment (SRI). Investors arebecoming attracted to CSR as a business approach, because it creates long-termshareholder value by embracing opportunities, maximising efficiencies and manag-ing risks derived from economic, environmental and social developments that arenot necessarily addressed by short-term financial analysis. This reflects the so-calledtriple bottom line approach.

To this effect, the FTSE/JSE have come up with a SRI index as a benchmark tofacilitate investment in companies with good records of CSR. The SRI Index, draw-ing heavily on the GRI SRG, is to be constituted from companies that form part ofthe FTSE/JSE All Share Index, and which meet the selection criteria set out in theSRI Index Philosophy and Criteria (Johannesburg Stock Exchange 2003; Johannes-burg Stock Exchange 2004). The selection criteria, meeting both local and interna-tional requirements, cover three areas of principle: environmental sustainability;positive relationships with stakeholders; and upholding and supporting universalhuman rights.

In order to assess listed companies against the JSE SRI Index, in October 2003,the JSE circulated a 56-page launch questionnaire investigating major SRI issues. Inaddition to filling in the questionnaire, companies were requested to provide addi-tional information or documentation, such as annual reports, the text of relevantpolicies, brochures to customers, or any other communication to stakeholders orthe general public (Johannesburg Stock Exchange 2004). From the questionnaire,the following major sub-themes of TBLR were identified.

Economic Sustainability

Covers the sub-themes of policies (generic for all the three pillars), governance andmanagement (generic for all the three pillars), ownership of the company, salariesand remuneration, knowledge management, human resources (generic for all thethree pillars), contractors (generic for all the three pillars), reporting, auditing andaccounting (generic for all the three pillars), insurance and contingency plans, cus-tomers and products and compliance.

Environmental Sustainability

This includes sub-themes such as impact assessment, environmental managementsystems, biodiversity, natural resources and genetically modified organisms, emis-sions and discharges, energy, waste, water, accidents and incidents, auditing, ac-counting and reporting, compliance, standards and certification/de-certification andawards.



Social Sustainability

Addressing the following sub-themes: black economic empowerment (BEE), healthand safety, HIV/Aids and other chronic occupational diseases, human rights, com-munity relations, corporate social investment and awards. Social questions also cov-ered, in much depth, parameters such as corporate governance, ethics, corruption,bribery and money laundering, stakeholder engagement, BEE, human resources(including skills development), health and safety, HIV/Aids, employment equity,diversification and transformation, human rights, community development, andconsumer groups. In order to be included in the JSE SRI Index, companies had toachieve an overall score of at least seventy points, and surpass individual thresholdsthat varied from category to category, for high impact, medium impact or low im-pact entities. The scoring method is based on the extent to which a company adoptsand/or implements the four sustainability pillars indicators of corporate govern-ance, environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and social sustainabilityas follows:

None: Nothing in place and only sporadic or ad hoc activity takes palace, if any(score of 0)

Partial or efforts: Objectives/systems are in place, but do not meet the level setby the Criteria; or evidence exists that regular/systematic efforts are beingmade to set objectives/implement a system (score of 1)

Full or complete: Objectives/systems are in place and are reported on, fullymeeting the level set by the Criteria (score of 2)

Exceeding: Objectives/systems are in place exceeding the level set by the Crite-ria (score of 3) (Johannesburg Stock Exchange 2005:5).

However, participants of the round-table discussions highlighted a number of con-cerns, including: a request for more definitional clarity on issues surroundingsustainability reporting, and the lack of expertise within organisations around non-financial reporting. The outcome of the 2003 SRI index is represented in Box 10.2.

Box 10.2: Press Release – Launch of JSE Socially Responsible Investment Index

19 May 2004

The JSE Securities Exchange South Africa today announced the names ofthe constituents of the JSE’s first Socially Responsible Investment Index (‘SRIIndex’). Calculation of the Index will commence tomorrow.

JSE Deputy CEO, Nicky Newton-King said: ‘The last few years have seen anincreasing awareness of and need to measure sustainable business practices.In South Africa, in particular, the Second King Report on Corporate Govern-ance urges companies to embrace the triple bottom line as a method of doingbusiness. The JSE has been working with people across society’s spectrum aswell as the JSE SRI Advisory Committee to create the SRI Index as a means



of helping to focus the debate on triple bottom line practices, in addition torecognising the tremendous efforts already made by South African compa-nies in this area.’

The ‘SRI Index measures companies’ policies, performance and reporting inrelation to the three pillars of the tripple bottom line (environmental, econmicand social sustainability), as well as corporate governance practice.

All the companies in the FTSE/JSE All Share Index were invited to partici-pate in the process which lead to the JSE SRI Index on a voluntary basis. 74listed companies participated and 51 companies met the criteria. Their namesare attached to this release in alphabetical order. The SRI Index is the firstindex of this nature in an emerging market and the first in the world to belaunched by an exchange. Newton-King said that ‘the JSE is delighted that somany listed companies participated in the process and that 51 companies arenow part of the first SRI Index. A notable aspect of the constituents of theSRI Index is that 17 of the constituents are part of our MidCap Index and 3are part of the SmallCap Index which reflects the fact that sustainability is abusiness issue for companies of all sizes.’

Data collection and analysis was done by Sustainability Research & Intelli-gence, and KPMG performed independent assurance of the analysis process.

In launching the SRI Index, the JSE announced that Graca Machel and ReuelKhoza had agreed to be the Patrons of the SRI Index. Newton-King said theJSE was honoured by their involvement which was very important for theJSE.

Constituents of the first JSE SRI Index (in alphabetical order)

ABSA Group Ltd Iscor LtdAfrican Bank Investments Ltd Johnnic Communications LtdAfrican Oxygen Ltd Kumba Resources LtdAfrican Rainbow Minerals Ltd Liberty International PlcAlexander Forbes Ltd Massmart Holdings LtdAllied Electronics Corporation Ltd Medi-clinic Corporation LtdAllied Technologies Ltd MTN Group LtdAmalgamated Beverage Industries Ltd Murray and Roberts Holdings LtdAnglo American Platinum Corporation Ltd Nampak LtdAnglo American plc Nedcor LtdAnglogold Ashanti Ltd Network Healthcare Holdings LtdAveng Ltd Northam Platinum LtdAVI Ltd Old Mutual plcBarloworld Ltd Pick n Pay Holdings LtdBHP Billiton plc Pretoria Portland Cement Company LtdThe Bidvest Group Ltd Remgro LtdCity Lodge Hotels Ltd SABMiller plcDimension Data Holdings plc Sappi LtdEdgars Consolidated Stores Ltd Sasol LtdFirstRand Ltd South African Chrome and Alloys LtdGold Fields Ltd Standard Bank Group Ltd



Gold Reef Casino Resorts Ltd Telkom SA LtdHarmony Gold Mining Company Ltd The Tongaat-Hulett Group LtdIllovo Sugar Ltd Venfin LtdImpala Platinum Holdings Ltd Woolworths Holdings Ltd

Investec Ltd

Source: http://www.jse.co.za/news/sri_launch.doc, accessed 1 April 2005.

The SRI index criteria have changed since its launch in 2003. The overall aggregatepoints have been increased from 70 to 78 for the 2004 and 2005 reporting periodsrespectively. Similarly, the other criteria have been adjusted upwards with corporategovernance moving from 12 to 16 points; social sustainability from 22 to 25 points;and economic sustainability from 18 to 21 points (Graph 10.3).

Graph 10.3: Environmental Sustainability Criteria, 2003–2005

The criteria for environmental sustainability were also adjusted upwards. In 2004and 2005, low impact companies were expected to score 9 points, instead of theoriginal 8 points, established in 2003. Medium impact companies were expected toachieve a score of 16, up from 14, and high impact companies had to garner 22points, instead of 20 (Graph 10.4).

Graph 10.4: Environmental Criteria Points

20

22

22

14

16

16

8

9

9

0 5 10 15 20 25

2003

2004

2005

Points

Environmental sustainability -Low impact companiesEnvironmental sustainability -Medium impact companiesEnvironmental sustainability - Higimpact companies

7 0

12

2 2 18

7 8

162 5

21

7 8

162 5

21

01 02 0

3 04 0

5 06 07 08 09 0

O v e r al s c or e( inc lu d ing

e nv ir o nm e nta ls u s t aina b i li ty )

C or p or a tego v e r na nc e

S oc ia ls u s ta in ab il it y

E c o no m ics us taina b i li ty

poin

ts

20 03

20 04

20 05



In addition, a score of at least a point, in relation to the core criteria of each pillarand category, was stipulated, starting from 2004. Core criteria are those the JSEconsiders fundamental, and not negotiable. The details regarding some specifica-tions are as follows: at least five out of nine core criteria are in corporate govern-ance; at least five out of eight core criteria relate to the environment; at least fourout of six core criteria fall under the economic pillar; and at least seven out of tencore criteria are social (Johannesburg Stock Exchange 2004, 2005).

Sustainability Banking in Africa

This last section deliberates issues pertaining to sustainability banking in Africa. Fi-nancial institutions are increasingly being called on to safeguard against fundingprojects with negative environmental consequences. Much of the information pre-sented here has been drawn from the 2004 landmark study by the African Instituteof Corporate Citizenship (AICC), and ACCA’s 2004 report entitled Towards Transpar-ency: Progress on Global Sustainability Reporting 2004 (ACCA 2004). The AICC surveyincluded four countries (Botswana, Kenya, Nigeria and Senegal) and over fifty fi-nancial institutions (UNEP FI 2005). The AICC is a centre of excellence in corpo-rate social responsibility ‘committed to strengthening responsible growth and com-petitiveness in Africa through research, advocacy and network building’ (AfricanInstitute of Corporate Citizenship 2004:83). The AICC describes sustainability inthe banking sector as ‘ensuring long term business success, while contributing to-wards economic and social development, a healthy environment and a stable soci-ety’. In this regard, sustainability has three broad components: people (socio-sphere),planet (enviro-sphere) and prosperity (econo-sphere). The need to address all thethree spheres has been highlighted elsewhere.

The AICC has established that a number of sustainability banking practices weretaking place in the continent, particularly from the case study countries. These in-cluded initiatives around pricing assets and exercising ownership, providing new fi-nance, risk management, and savings and transactions.

Conclusion

This chapter has discussed issues pertaining to sustainability reporting as one of theemerging environmental management tools. Landmarks, including the Global Re-porting Initiatives Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, were covered. An historicalaccount of sustainability in business linked up company level sustainability report-ing. The sustainability reporting nexus that harnesses concepts around corporategovernance and sustainable development was also discussed, leading to further insightsinto the triple bottom line concept. A case revolving around the Johannesburg StockExchange Socially Responsible Investment Index was detailed. The final sectiongave an overview of sustainability banking in Africa.



Revision Questions1. What is sustainability reporting?2. Why should businesses account for environmental damage?3. What are the fundamental provisions of the Global Reporting Initiative in terms of

sustainability reporting?

Critical Thinking Questions1. How has the concept of sustainability reporting assisted companies and governments in

your country to holistically manage local and national environments?2. Can the Johannesburg Stock Exchange Socially Responsible Investment Index model

be replicated in your country? If not, what aspects could be amended to suit localconditions?

3. Has sustainability reporting compelled companies in your country to go beyond pre-senting a good public image in terms of good environmental stewardship?

ReferencesACCA, 2004, Towards Transparency: Progress on Global Sustainability Reporting 2004, London:

Certified Accountants Education Trust for the Association of the Chartered CertifiedAccountants.

African Institute of Corporate Citizenship, 2004, Sustainability Banking in Africa, Johannes-burg: African Institute of Corporate Citizenship.

Bennett, M. and James, P., 2004, ‘The Green Bottom Line’, in R. Starkey and R. Welford,eds., The Earthscan Reader in Business & Sustainable Development, London: Earthscan,pp. 126–57.

Elkington, J., 2004, ‘The Triple Bottom Line for 21st-Century Business’, in R. Starkey and R.Welford, eds., The Earthscan Reader in Business & Sustainable Development, London:Earthscan, pp. 20–44.

Ernest & Young, 2004, Excellence in Corporate Reporting, Johannesburg: Ernest & Young.Esty, D. C., Levy, M.A., Srebotnjak, T., et al., 2005, 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index,

New Haven: Yale Centre for Environmental Law & Policy.Esty, D. C., Levy, M.A., Srebotnjak T., et al., 2006, Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index,

New Haven: Yale Centre for Environmental Law & Policy.Fishbein, B.K., 1994, Germany, Garbage and the Green Dot: Challenging the Throwaway Society,

New York: Inform.Global Reporting Initiative, 2002, Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, Boston: Global Report-

ing Initiative.Hart, S. L., 2004, ‘Beyond Greening: Strategies for a Sustainable World’, in R. Starkey and R.

Welford, eds., The Earthscan Reader in Business & Sustainable Development, London:Earthscan, pp. 7–19.

IDSA, 1994, Corporate Governance King I Report – 1994, Parklands: Institute of Directors inSouth Africa.

IDSA, 2002, Corporate Governance King II Report – 2002, Parklands: Institute of Directors inSouth Africa.



International Atomic Energy Agency, 2005, Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Guide-lines and Methodologies, Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.

Johannesburg Stock Exchange, 2005, JSE SRI Index Background Selection Criteria, Johannes-burg: Johannesburg Stock Exchange.



Jonah, D. and Pienaar, K., 2004, Introduction to Corporate Citizenship and Defending the BusinessCase: JSE Topical Seminars, Pretoria: Centre for Corporate Citizenship.

Mahoney, M. and Potter, J.L., 2004, ‘Integrating Health Impact Assessment into the TripleBottom Line Concept’, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol. 24, pp. 151–60.

Pauli, G., 1997, ‘Zero Waste: The Ultimate Goal of Cleaner Production’, Journal of CleanerProduction, Vol. 5, pp. 109–113.

RSA, 1998, National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998). Pretoria: Govern-ment Printer.

Timberlake, L., 1992, ‘Changing Business Attitudes’, in J. Quarrie, ed., Earth Summit ’92: TheUnited Nations Conference on Environment and Development Rio de Janeiro 1992, London: TheRegency Press.

UN, 1992, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, New York:United Nations Secretariat.

UN, 2002, World Summit on Sustainable Development Plan of Implementation, New York: UNSecretariat.

UNEP FI, 2005, [pamphlet] CEO Briefing: A document of the UNEP FI African Task Force.UNEP FI Sustainability Banking in Africa Report, Geneva: UNEP FI.

United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, 1999, Work Programme on Indicatorsof Sustainable Development of the Commission of Sustainable Development, New York: UnitedNations Division for Sustainable Development.

United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, 2001, Indicators for Sustainable Devel-opment: Guidelines and Methodologies, New York: United Nations Division for SustainableDevelopment.

United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, 2004, Assessment of SustainabilityIndicators, New York: United Nations Division for Sustainable Development.

Wixley, T. and Everingham, G., 2002, Corporate Governance, Cape Town: SiberInk.



Chapter 11

Promotion of Formal and Non-formalEnvironmental Education

Introduction

One important characteristic of environmental education is the employment of awide variety of methods. This chapter considers some approaches and methods thatcould be employed in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of formal orschool-based, and non-formal or community-based, environmental education in anygiven setting. It begins with a delineation of the key paradigms that inform theformulation of environmental education approaches.

Some Paradigms of Environmental Education

Both formal and non-formal environmental education programmes and their vari-ous approaches will be discussed. It is therefore necessary to delineate some envi-ronmental education paradigms in order to consider those that inform the formula-tion of each of the approaches under discussion. Firstly, what is a paradigm? Lynch(2005) defines it as a lens through which we view the world. Accordingly, differentlenses entail different assumptions about the nature of the world and the ways inwhich we should attempt to understand it. There are many different lenses that existfor viewing and understanding it. Interpretivism, eco-centricism, anthropocentricismand ecofeminism are some of the paradigms that have emerged to shape and influ-ence approaches to environmental education at both formal and non-formal levels.

Interpretivism

Lynch (2005) provides a succinct description of the interpretivist paradigm. In thisparadigm it is considered impossible to separate facts from values. Inherent subjec-tivity in any research conducted in relation to people or the social world is accepted.Since knowledge is socially constructed, rather than an independently existing reality,the notion of causality is defined differently. From the interpretivist perspective,causal relationships are simply another, possible explanation for certain aspects ofthe social world that is being researched. They are not taken to be universal laws thatgovern people and their actions. Rather than following the notion of causality as onevariable preceding and causing another, interpretivism sees relationships as morecomplex and fluid, with directions of influence being mutual and shifting, rather



than uni-directional and fixed. Relationships within the social world are external andindependent of our attempts to understand them. Therefore, rather than seeking a‘true’ match between our research observations and reality, the interpretivist para-digm understands reality as being constructed in and through our observations andpursuit of knowledge.

Eco-centricism

Eco-centricism (ecologically-centred) claims moral values and rights for ecological proc-esses and systems, as an alternative to the biocentric view, which concentrates on thevalues and rights of individual organisms (Cunningham et al. 2003). In the eco-centric paradigm, the whole, for example, an ecological area or a species, is consid-ered to be more important than its component parts, for example, an individualorganism. A simple illustration given in support of this alternative view is that if youkilled an individual organism you have only denied it a few months or years of life.But, if, on the other hand, you eliminated a whole landscape, you will have destroyedwhat has taken millions of years to create.

Anthropocentricism

This human-centred approach places the human above all other species, by virtueof the human being’s intelligence, foresightedness and creativity (Cunningham et al.2003). By extension, humans have dominion over all other species, and nature as awhole. This paradigm has its roots in the Bible. It is misinterpreted to mean that manhas the right to exploit and treat nature as he pleases. It follows, therefore, that hecan choose to protect only the species that serve his religious, cultural, scientific,economic and other interests. Of course, this has generally been applied. We mayrecall how often an insect, unfortunate enough to find itself on your arm, is crushed,even though you know very well that it can cause you no harm.

Eco-feminism

According to Cunningham et al. (2003), eco-feminism is a proposed alternative tothe last two paradigms, which promote patriarchal systems of domination. Ratherthan concentrating on values, rights, obligations, ownerships and responsibilities, itencourages care, appropriate reciprocity and kinship. The rationale is that ‘whenpeople see themselves as related to others and to nature they will see life as bountyrather than scarcity, as cooperation rather than competition, and as a network ofrelationships rather than isolated egos’ (Cunningham 2003:44).

According to Birkeland (1995), eco-feminism is a paradigm that is as broad asthe patriarchal ones it seeks to supplant, positing nearly as many interpretations asthere are eco-feminists. In a nutshell, however, it is the application of feminist theoryto the ecological crisis. The basic notion is that social oppression and environmentalexploitation are inextricably linked to fundamental social constructs that have co-evolved with patriarchal power relations. For example, in Western patriarchal thought,reality has been construed in terms of dualisms, such as culture/nature, reason/


Promotion of Formal and Non-formal Environmental Education 189

emotion, subject/object, science/art, public/private, hard/soft, mind/body, and soon. These basic dualisms are gendered and hierarchical, one side of each oppositionbeing associated with the feminine, and devalued in the culture. From an eco-femi-nist view, replacing this patriarchal, dominating culture with one of equality andmutual respect would yield greater benefits for all.

Formal Environmental Education Programmes

A formal or school-based environmental education programme considers results inthe long- rather than the short-term. It is based on the assumption that the targetpopulation may grow up to become wise resource users, or informed policy- anddecision-makers.

Where there is no syllabus for environmental education, the programme shouldstart by involving some schoolteachers in the examination of existing curricula, witha view to identifying subject areas with environmental contents; that is subjects thathave environmental issues. After this exercise, a syllabus or scheme of work shouldbe prepared. At least one workshop should be organised to review the materials ofthe early draft, and an education authority should approve the final draft before it isput into use in schools. The approval of an education authority is to ensure thatteachers are committed to the teaching of the subject. This brings us to anotherconsideration: training workshops for teachers. It is generally bemoaned that envi-ronmental education is a new subject, which requires some level of teacher trainingin order to guarantee the effective teaching of the subject.

One fortunate thing about school-based environmental education programmesis the fact that it targets two controlled target audiences: the schoolteachers and thelearners. These groups have a common interest, and a common position to defendtheir interests. The schoolteachers’ interest is to ensure the success of the learnersby doing effective teaching. The learners, on their part, struggle to succeed by study-ing hard. Many experts stress the need to carry out intensive environmental educa-tion programmes at primary school level. This is based on the fact that the primaryschool is a nurturing ground for children who are the future resource-users, as wellas decision- and policy-makers. It is at this level that the teacher can inculcate properenvironmental behaviour in children, who may then grow up to be wise resource-users. When placed in decision making positions, the children could make decisionsthat help conserve rather than destroy the environment. The primary school teacher,therefore, has a crucial role to play in improving the quality of the environment. Shehas the responsibility, and the ability, to mould children into citizens who are envi-ronmentally conscious, environmentally literate and environmentally responsible.

Approaches to formal environmental education

Although implementers of environmental education dispute the goal of this subject,since they often find themselves in situations that require different definitions, theytend to adopt one of the following approaches.



Separate subject approach

This means treating environmental education as a subject in its own right. Thesubject is included on the school timetable, and teachers prepare lessons and teach itas they do any other subject on the curriculum. The problem with this approach isthat only few teachers are sufficiently well trained and informed to handle the sub-ject. Another problem is that of curricula in many countries, that are already toocrowded to permit the introduction of another subject.

Cross-curricular approach

This is known as the multi-disciplinary approach. It is the teaching of environmentaleducation through all the subjects on the school curriculum. Existing school subjectsare screened for topics of relevance to environmental education. Some Westernexperts advocate this approach. It satisfies those who see environmental educationtreated in a piecemeal and arbitrary manner in schools. Teaching the subject usingthis approach depends upon the interest of individual teachers and upon the imagi-nation they bring into the interpretation of their subject syllabi (WWF 1988). If thisbecomes the popular approach, it should be noted that it involves a great deal ofcoordination with every subject teacher understanding their role, defining their inputand ensuring that what each teacher complements the lessons of others, forming anoverall coherent learning experience (Living Earth 1998).

Carrier subject approach

This is an abridged version of the cross-curricular approach. It uses one or twosubjects to teach environmental education. It shares similar constraints with thecross-curricular approach.

Thematic approach

This is the teaching of environmental education through environmental themes,applied to the different school subjects. This approach can be quite demanding andneeds highly skilled teachers, capable of developing, designing and managing a cur-ricular content in an interdisciplinary fashion.

Project approach

This entails carrying out projects designed either to raise general environmentalawareness or address identified environmental problems. Examples include the de-velopment of tree nurseries and the establishment of crop rotational farm plots, in thecourse of which relevant discussions relating to environmental care are carried out.

Methods for the promotion of formal environmental education

As has been noted elsewhere, environmental education ought to be all-embracing.This is reflected in the multiplicity of methods employed in the implementation of



the subject, even at the level of the school. The following methods, discussed below,are by no means the only ones that can be used; the author has limited himself tothose he has personally tested in schools.

Lesson presentations

As is the case with any other subject on the school curriculum, lesson notes areprepared on environmental topics and delivered to children using any of the ap-proaches discussed earlier. Examples of lesson notes are included at the end ofchapter four. A lesson presentation, or teaching, consists of a number of basic skills:communicating, explaining, questioning and organising (Farrant 1980). Each of thesecan be improved through constant practice. Demonstrations, illustrations and useof audio-visual materials are very important aspects of teaching, and there is in-creasing emphasis on student participation in the process.

Informal discussions

Teachers can discuss with the children in small groups or individually during breaks.This enables the children to develop the habit of free expression. It also helps buildconfidence in the children. Through informal discussions, the teacher can gain insightsinto children’s personal values, attitudes, behaviour and potential. This is also auseful means of exchanging ideas and information on environmental issues.

Debates

It may be argued that, given the nature of most of our primary schools, this methodmay only be applicable at the secondary school level. But it should be noted thatchildren of the senior primary classes can communicate freely and will have devel-oped their own points of view by that stage. They often engage in arguments ontheir way to and from school and during breaks. This is a form of debate. Debatesare an expression of opinion or position. Through debates, children learn to respectthe views of others and to look at things from different perspectives. This is a goodway of preparing them to grow into adults who can make sound judgements andinformed decisions on environmental issues.

Drama

The students could be organised to perform short and simple environmental plays.Drama is an effective and entertaining way of putting across messages. It is the re-enactment of stories and presentation of situations, which makes the audience learn,as if by direct experience, and then draw conclusions by themselves. At the end ofa drama performance, the audience should be asked questions in order to reinforcethe meaning of the play, and prevent misinterpretations.

Games

Games, like drama, present messages in an entertaining and practical way. The rulesof the game should be carefully explained, and instructions should be short and



simple. As with drama, the children should be asked questions at the end of thegame in order to reinforce the meaning, and avert misinterpretations.

Songs

Some groups of children could be organised to compose songs that convey specificenvironmental messages. These songs could be presented to the class during speciallessons, to the entire school on special occasions, or to a wider audience duringnational and international day celebrations.

Nature clubs

Clubs provide a useful opportunity to not only develop environmental awareness inthe children, but also to inspire them to take an active role in environmental conser-vation. The clubs could be organised to carry out activities such as clean-up cam-paigns, tree planting, and so on. Debates and drama could be organised by the clubsto raise environmental awareness in the entire community. Arrangements could alsobe made for the clubs to participate in national and international day celebrations,for example World Environment Day, during which simple but extremely importantenvironmental messages displayed on placards and read aloud to the audience

Field visits

Field visits are an interesting means of bringing the schools in meaningful contactand dialogue with the environment. They provide opportunities for the pupils topurposefully explore and investigate some aspects of the environment, as well asappreciate its aesthetic values. They could be organised as follow-ups of lessonsstarted in the classroom, or as bigger ventures involving members of school clubs,to explore themes of general interest.

Competition

Competitions can be a good way of encouraging or stimulating the expression ofsensitivity towards the environment, and of developing skills that are useful forenvironmental conservation. They could eventually lead to spontaneous participa-tion in environmental conservation activities. Competitions could be on environ-mental essay writing, environmental music, tree nursery establishment, tree planting,or even take the form of a quiz to test knowledge about the environment andenvironmental issues. Vefonge (2000) reports how a theatre competition on ‘actingfor the environment’ was organised by the Mount Cameroon Project-Buea, to iden-tify theatre troupes with the potentials to perform plays for the sensitisation of ruralcommunities and the general public on environmental issues. Competitions couldalso be organised in the form of school projects. Projects are special activities car-ried out for particular purposes. They could be for fundraising, or to address orprevent common problems such as soil erosion. In the course of executing the



projects, children acquire the knowledge and skills that would be useful to them inlater life.

Non-formal environmental education programmes

Most conservation projects vouch for non-formal or community-based environ-mental education. This is due to the fact that these programmes directly targets theusers of the natural resources to be conserved. It is also common for such pro-grammes to be limited to conservation, hence the name ‘conservation education’that some projects adopt. The programme aims to achieve short-term results, sincemost of them are carried out by short-term conservation projects, with no long-term commitments or agenda. This is an eco-centric (or wildlife-centred) approach,which may be misinterpreted as placing wildlife and their habitats before humans.Experience has shown that a programme that stresses this approach, more oftenthan not, meets with total failure, as communities, sooner or later, start questioningwhether wildlife is to be conserved at the expense of the human community. Thisbrings us back to the necessity of a holistic approach, which should be a subtle blendof anthropocentricism (or people-centred-ness) and eco-centricism, in consonancewith the definition of ‘the best environmental policies’ (Cunningham et al. 2003).This is shown in Figure 11.1. An anthropocentric approach includes elements thathave an immediately direct benefit to the human species and are seen as such. Thismay include income generation or development activities, which could be employedas a strategy for encouraging the acceptance and participation of the target commu-nities. The local people are more likely to participate if an activity is closely linked tothe perceived benefits, and will continue to participate with even greater interest andenthusiasm if they started enjoying direct benefits from the effort.

In view of the above, it is advised that a community-based environmental edu-cation programme should include a reasonable balance of materials drawn fromareas such as ecology, natural resource management, agriculture, health and com-munity development. There should also be political and economic dimensions, butthese should be handled with care, in order not to generate problems that mayescalate beyond control.

The role of an environmental educator in community sensitisation, is more chal-lenging than implementing a formal environmental education programme. For theeducator to succeed with the communities, she must exercise tolerance, tactfulnessand time-consciousness, since the programme targets a wide range of uncontrolledtarget audiences, each with an array of common and conflicting interests, and oftenwith strong and unflinching positions to defend their interests. Providing motivationto move a community as a target audience from its present ‘position’ (which couldbe uncooperative or antagonistic) to one supporting and participating in the neweffort seriously begs a definition. It is different from with school pupils, where theexpected change is inevitable, since they know, from what and how they are taught,that they will be assessed on the basis of their demonstration of change in knowl-edge and attitude, and their ability to ‘act’ skilfully and responsibly towards the



environment. Furthermore, they may be as yet too young to find themselves underthe sort of economic and other pressures that could make such changes in behav-iour difficult.

Figure 11.1: Best Environmental Policies

Source: Cunningham et al. 2003.

Approaches to Non-formal Environmental Education

As has been noted earlier, community environmental education programmes gener-ally seek to address local environmental problems. This strategy of local problemsolving presents an opportunity to face real environmental problems, since the envi-ronmental educator can prioritise the most pressing problems faced by the commu-nity and avoid undue emphasis on global problems, which are so distant from dailylocal reality that they provide little or no motivation for action (Laryargues 2000).The local problem solving strategy permits two types of approach: it may be appliedas an activity end-in-itself, or as a theme generator.

Activity End-in-itself Approach

This approach aims to resolve a given environmental problem, after considering theassociated ecological aspects. But, as Lary (2000) argues, it might foster a pragmatictype of education that provokes an attitude of problem solving, just to see the endresults, rather than achieve the aim of stimulating a broader discussion of the prob-lem. The power to mobilise resources and confront an environmental problem doesnot necessarily guarantee that the target participant understands the complex inter-actions of the ecological aspects of the problem with the political, economic, socialand cultural aspects. The danger is that this will hinder reflection on the need to

Ecosystem health policy

Human needs policy

Environmental policy

Sustainable economic policy



change society’s cultural values. Put simply, there is no guarantee that once an envi-ronmental problem has been resolved by this approach, that he cause of the prob-lem will not be repeated; since from this perspective, the ability to criticise the statusquo has not been developed. This clearly supports Reigota’s (1994) assertion thatenvironmental education should prepare citizens to understand why something needsto be done, and, not merely, how to do it.

Theme Generator Approach

This approach evaluates the problem in a broader perspective. Instead of focusingonly on ecological aspects, there is consideration of the political, economic, culturaland social factors inherent to the environmental problem. Although an understand-ing of how ecological systems work is necessary, if people are to understand theenvironment, a whole array of human factors, such as values, politics, culture, his-tory and economics, must be explored if the current condition of the environmentis to be properly understood (Martin 1990).

Methods for the Promotion of Formal Environmental Education

Meetings

Meetings are organised forums for discussions. They provide useful contacts withthe target population. Once the first contact has been made, this should be main-tained, regularly, as it helps to establish a solid foundation for mutual understanding,mutual trust, and good rapport, and to ensure a good working relationship with thetarget population.

Every meeting should have a purpose: it could be for planning, for sensitisation,for clarification of certain points, or simply for follow-up. Equally important is forevery meeting to have something new to discuss, because discussing the same topicover and over again can be boring and may result in a drop in attendances duringsubsequent meetings. Discussions during meetings should, as much as possible, beparticipatory. Time should be given for participants to ask questions, or make com-ments, where necessary or indicated. Some questions asked can be thrown back atother participants to answer. This ensures active participation and reduces the ten-dency of some participants trying to place the educator as always in the answerableposition.

Timing is a very important factor in scheduling meetings. The time of day, whenit is most convenient for a wide range of participants to attend, should be taken intoconsideration. Organising meetings during periods when the communities are mostbusy, for example, when everyone is engaged in activities such as income generationor cultural events could be futile. The frequency of meetings during such periodsshould be reduced, and activities selected should serve to facilitate, or complementthe current community activities. Furthermore, the purpose of the meeting shouldbe clearly explained in a circular note, which should reach the target village at least a



week in advance of the scheduled date. These circulars should be clearly addressedto the appropriate authorities in the community.

One-to-one Communication

There are some members of the community who are shy or afraid to express theirviews in the presence of others, especially in front of those with some level ofinfluence and social status. One-to-one or individual communication provides a use-ful means of procuring information. But tact is necessary in order to avoid theimpression of being intrusive. One-to-one discussions should take place in a friendlyand fun atmosphere in order to ensure a free-flow of information. An educatorwho speaks in a condescending fashion, for instance, will normally not obtain ad-equate and reliable information, or feedback. Firstly, he will make the target personfeel that he or she has nothing to contribute. This happens where the individual isshy and withdrawn. In the case of some bold and aggressive member of the com-munity, the condescending attitude of the educator may generate a protracted argu-ment that may gradually degenerate into a quarrel. Once this happens, the educatorshould be careful, because further similar incidents may seriously jeopardise thefuture of the programme. It is important to obtain feedback through the method ofone-to-one meetings, because what may be seen as popular opinion may be theopinion only of a few influential members of the community. This may not beuseful in achieving the intended goal of mass education, but influencing thebehaviour of an individual at this level of interaction could have enduring effects.

Focus Group Discussions

Focus group discussions involve a group of people who share a common interest,for example farmers, to talk about a particular topic. This sort of discussion takesadvantage of group dynamics, and allows respondents to be guided by a skilledmoderator to explore key issues in greater depth (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998).

Workshops and Seminars

A workshop is an interactive kind of meeting devoid of preaching or lecturing.Each participant actively, or passively, contributes to and gets involved in the discus-sions and activities. It should be stressed that a workshop should be more or lessactivity-based, with the educator or any other competent person simply acting in therole of the facilitator. The discussions should be properly and carefully controlledand directed so that the workshop does not lose focus. The activities chosen shouldbe meaningful and relevant to the workshop. This ensures that the intended andmore revealing results are obtained.

A workshop could either be for training or for sensitisation. Whatever the pur-pose, there must be a well defined theme or topic. This should be communicated tothe participants well in advance because they, too, have to make their own contribu-tions. A good workshop should be able to expose participants to practical and logical



ways of obtaining or understanding important facts and concepts, and also todeveloping basic skills necessary for the implementation of possible solutionsto be identified

A seminar is a forum for delivering lectures or papers with a view to sensitisingand educating the participants. An important role of the educator in this regard is inidentifying good and competent guest speakers or lecturers. She also acts as a mod-erator, introducing the seminar topics and the speakers. She may or may not have todeliver a lecture herself, but has the significant role of overall coordination.

It is important for every presentation to be followed by a discussion sessionduring which participants are free to express their own views, make comments orask questions. Discussions should be controlled and directed. This should be donetactfully; questions or views that have no relevance to the topic should be discardedpolitely.

Communication and Information Resources

A successful education programme requires adequate and appropriate materials.These are useful in disseminating information and raising awareness. Some mayserve to maintain communication links between the target populations, especiallywhere the educator finds it difficult to make regular visits. Some commonly pro-duced materials are newsletters, brochures, fact sheets, calendars, t-shirts, fez caps,and keyholders. All of these should be communicative, and the language and con-tent should be appropriate to the level and nature of the target audiences. In thecase of calendars, each month of the year could carry a specific environmentalmessage in the form of short phrases translated into local languages, or artisticdrawings and pictures. The latter would be most useful for illiterate members of thepopulation.

Use of the Media

There is no doubt that the media have played a major role in raising public aware-ness of environmental issues (Boulton and Knight 1996). It may be advisable tocollaborate with local newspapers, as well as with radio and television stations, forthe release of articles and news items, respectively, on the environment. This, how-ever, should be considered after the results of a survey, conducted to find out thepercentage of the target population that makes use of these media forms, andabout their frequency of use. This is to ensure that the effort is not wasted.

Mount Cameroon Project-Buea, in Cameroon, established what was known asGreen Page in a newspaper, which served as a forum for debates and exchanges onenvironmental issues. Technical staff on the project opened up the debate with anintroductory article that attracted reactions and contributions from the public, in theform of comics, cartoons, comments and poems. Those with knowledge of a giventopic shared this with the readership. Those who were less informed about it simplyasked questions to get information. The strategy was to gradually reduce the cost



attached to the method, by making newspapers understand that environmental is-sues are interesting items for publication (Vefonge 2000). Radio and televisionsstations have been known to independently report environmental issues. This can beused also to measure and monitor the increase in public interest about environmen-tal concerns. For example, a survey could be conducted to find out how many itemsare being released on environmental issues monthly, and how many people listen tosuch programmes. This applies equally to the print media.

Use of the Arts

Some public awareness programmes make use of the arts, including street theatre,puppetry, fine arts, music and drama. Street theatre has been employed with tre-mendous success in India. It has been tried by the Cross River National Park envi-ronmental education programme in Nigeria, but with emphasis on the use of pup-petry. Mount Kupe Project, Cameroon, is known to have employed fine arts.Paintings were made on the walls of an important building, depicting the localenvironment, where passers-by could see, admire, interpret and gain knowledge. Apeace corps volunteer undertook a similar project by depicting various types ofenvironmentally unfriendly activities on the wall of a nursery school building inNguti, Cameroon. It was interesting to see how even passers-by, in a rush, stoppedand spent time observing, especially if they were encountering the painting for thefirst time. The Wildlife Conservation Society in Cameroon once employed the tal-ents of a local musician who composed and published conservation songs. Thiseffort was emulated by Mount Cameroon (Vefonge 2000), and the Korup Projects;however their impact has not been assessed to reach any definitive conclusions as toits efficacy. However, given the role that music has played in political and racialcampaigns, there is no doubt that the same results could be achieved in envi-ronmental education.

Of all the art forms, drama is by far the most widely used. Drama is a way ofavoiding preaching that is either boring, or may breed suspicion, especially that ofan obviously dogmatic nature. Drama provides a subtle and entertaining, but effec-tive, way of communicating environmental messages. It is a way of re-enacting astory, real or imagined, not merely through words, but also with actions. This helpselevate the story to a concrete level, thus making the audience learn by direct expe-rience, heightening their concentration (Figure 11.2).



Figure 11.2: Audience ‘a’ and ‘c’ Watching a Performance of The Sacred Forest by theForest Pipers Drama Group of Nguti

(a) (b) (c)These photographs were taken at Sumbe village in Southwest Cameroon.

Members of the audience may identify themselves with some of the characters andissues raised in the play. This can lead to a deeper understanding of the issues andmessages conveyed. Inyang (2001) notes that communities have a strong motivationto attend drama, as most people see this as an opportunity for them to receive a rareform of entertainment; hence it is characterised by high attendances that include awide range of target audiences. Similarly, it could have a positive impact on thecommunity, since it provides an opportunity for a collective experience, which couldlead to prompt, collective action.

An environmental play should not be too long, in order not to tire the audienceand discourage them from attending subsequent performances. Also, the structureof the play should be simple and straightforward. There should be ample use oflocal idioms and metaphors; proverbs, songs, dance, and other traditional conven-tions (Inyang 2002) to give the play local colour and flavour. This facilitates commu-nication and encourages audience participation. In terms of structure, the play shouldend in such a way that the ‘possible worlds’ encountered in the performance arecarried back by the audience into the ‘real’ world, in ways which may influencesubsequent action (Kershaw 1992). In other words, the play should permit andmotivate the audience to ‘complete’ the performance, by implementing an actionthat they feel the performance has left undone (Inyang 2002). This is in violation ofHegel’s and Aristotle’s idea of a quiet somnolence at the end of the spectacle. Itconforms to Brecht’s vision that the end of the spectacle should be the beginning ofaction (Boal 1974).



The Use of Mobile Education Units

Mobile education units, though not very common, due to the costs involved, are aninnovative method of taking environmental messages to the local communities andthe general public. A vehicle is equipped with film, slides and/or video projectionequipment, as well as with other educational and informational materials that couldbe carried or displayed on the vehicle for people to collect or view. Other equipmentof the unit includes a small generator to provide electricity for the operation of thefilm, slides and video appliances.

Involvement of Local Communities

Commonly owned resources, in open access regimes such as forests, lakes andrivers, are difficult to manage, as each individual strives to maximise their profitfrom the common pool, with the concomitant destruction or degradation of theresource base (Hardin 1968). In such a situation the use of enforcement as a regu-latory mechanism is often proposed (Lewis 1996). But using this strategy in theabsence of other incentives would almost certainly result in ‘passive’ rather than‘active’ conservation (Ferraro and Kramer 1995). Passive conservation means thatthe local communities might themselves desist from carrying out the illegal activities,for fear of being prosecuted. But they would not report cases of, let alone takeaction against, any such activities. This leads to the conclusion that many environ-mental problems cannot be solved without the participation of the local communi-ties. Participatory approaches have the incredible advantage that they give the envi-ronmental educator a better understanding of local values, knowledge and experience.They win community backing for project objectives, and communities can help withthe implementation of activities and resolution of conflicts over resource-use (WorldBank 1992).

One important approach to community involvement is facilitating the formationof clubs and committees in village communities, with functions ranging from com-munity health and sanitation to natural resource management. Inyang (2003) warnsthat in order for the communities to assume full responsibility for all major deci-sions about group formation, the allocation of tasks and implementation of activi-ties should be based on their own careful reasoning. Furthermore, it is advisable forthese committees to work under traditional councils, and in close collaboration withother traditional institutions, as well as with relevant local government institutions.This arrangement guarantees that the committees are recognised, empowered andsupported in every way possible, especially if and when it is necessary for them toimplement law-enforcement, or carry out activities such as tree planting and otherenvironmental campaigns.

When members join a club, or any other type of organization, they have givenup some personal freedom of action, as part of the price of membership. They areobliged to adhere to established norms, usually defined by internal rules and regula-tions. These, together with other tools and mechanisms, facilitate socialisation, which



Buchanan and Huczynski (1991) define as a process through which an individual’spattern of behaviour and their values, attitudes and motives are shaped to conformwith those considered desirable in a particular organisation or society. Exposure toworkshops and seminars is a good way of equipping the club or committee mem-bers with the necessary techniques and skills. The environmental educator might berequired to assist in the drawing up of programmes. This ensures that the pro-grammes are drawn to reflect the environmental situation, and that the activities arechosen take into account the needs of the target communities, as well as the objec-tives of the overall programme. Only this approach guarantees solutions with long-term results.

Membership of the clubs and committees should be voluntary. But it would notbe a wrong approach to do some campaigning, by explaining the functions andimportance of the clubs and committees. No one will join an organisation whosefunctions are not understood. There should be a registration fee, however small.This serves as a sort of pledge for active membership and commitment. It is rec-ommended that membership cards be made, and every member given one uponregistration, if possible. It may also be advisable to register the clubs and commit-tees with the relevant government institutions, in order to give them legal backing.Once a club or committee has attained an appreciable level of development, itshould be allowed to operate independently. This guarantees continuity. But engen-dering this independence requires maximum care; hence the need to monitor theprogress of the club or committee for a reasonable period of time, after the firstsigns of its ability to operate independently. This is the stage in the club or commit-tee’s development, when some inherent problems will be brought to light, as we shallsee below.

Unlike economic interest groups whose efforts directly benefit group members– since they offer private or individual goods that must be paid for by non-mem-bers, the efforts of non-economic groups such as environmental clubs and commit-tees discussed above largely benefit everyone in the community. This is so becausethese groups more or less offer public or collective goods, giving rise to what isreferred to as the free-rider problem (Patterson 1993; Baden 1998; O’Toole 1998).This describes a situation where some group members become inactive since they,like non-members, can benefit from the goods provided, without paying for thecosts. By withholding their contributions to the group’s efforts, these free-ridingmembers are likely to be ahead of the other members since they can invest theircontributions of time and effort in some other personal business (Baden 1998). Inorder to deal with the free-rider problem, there should be powerful incentives foractive participation. Such incentives include opportunities for active members toenjoy the privileges of securing jobs, or being appointed to some important posi-tions in the community (Patterson 1993).



Monitoring and Evaluation of Environmental Education Programmes

Monitoring and evaluation is an important aspect of many programmes, albeit of-ten neglected or inadequately developed. It is like setting an alarm warning system toalert when things are going wrong or moving in the wrong direction. In order for aprogramme to succeed, a monitoring and evaluation system should be incorporatedinto it at the planning stage. At this stage, the goal and objectives of environmentaleducation and the indicators of success should be clearly defined. All the activitiesof the programme should together achieve the five environmental education objec-tives, already discussed. Therefore, it is important to know which activities serve toachieve which objectives. In many cases, environmental education programmes havefailed to be convincing to donors and managers of projects and institutions, largelybecause of the absence of well developed and well defined monitoring and evalua-tion programmes.

Policy-making stakeholders tend to place much emphasis on tangible results fromenvironmental education initiatives, as justification for their usefulness, without nec-essarily considering how long it might take for such results to materialise. But, asEncalada (1992) warns, the effectiveness of environmental education cannot beonly perceived in relation to direct changes in the environment. It must be observedin the way individuals and institutions are applying methods, procedures, and mobi-lising actions, known to bring changes in the environment.

It is important to note that although monitoring and evaluation are two sides ofthe same coin, they each serve slightly different purposes. Monitoring is a continu-ous and systematic process of checking whether activities are carried out as planned.It is a regular or periodic collection, by the staff, of information that can be used tomake incremental adjustments to the programme or project (Stone 1997). Evalua-tion, on the other hand, is a process through which information is collected andanalysed with the purpose of judging how well programmes have achieved, or areachieving, their objectives. It occurs usually in the middle, or at the end, of a project.Baseline information is necessary, as this provides the basis for determining changes.It is conducted either by the staff, or people outside the organization. It is based, toa large extent, on the results of monitoring. Its aim is to make major changes to theprogramme. The following are some of the methods commonly used in carryingout monitoring and evaluation of environmental education programmes.

Literature Review

Depending on the availability of relevant literature on the area, conducting a litera-ture review is the first important step in information gathering. Information fromthe literature may give a fair picture of the biophysical situation of the area: soil andvegetation types, the drainage system, the wildlife resources, etc.; the socio-politicalstructure and nature, including the important traditional institutions and their func-tions; and the predominant economic activities, such as farming, hunting and har-vesting of timber and non-timbers forest products. In a school setting, this may



consist of collating records such as teachers’ lesson notes, and students’ progressreports. It is also of absolute necessity to find out the types of questions that thestudents are asked, or about the activities in which they are engaged, for the assess-ments because numerical scores alone are not sufficient to give the sort of pictureneeded to draw informed conclusions.

Information gathered from literature points to what is expected, and not neces-sarily what prevails, at the given moment, because, depending on the age of theliterature, events and time will have changed the picture. Conclusions cannot bedrawn based entirely on information obtained from literature. It is expedient tocross-check this information with firsthand experiences, before drawing definitiveconclusions. Another important piece of advice is that no matter how much you willhave learnt about the area from literature, you should endeavour to approach yourtarget community with an open mind, in order to have the opportunity to gatherinformation that reflects the status quo.

Observations

Observation can be defined as a personal assessment of a situation, activity orbehaviour in order to obtain basic information. This may take as long as a couple ofyears, and as little as a few minutes, depending on the type of information beinggathered. There are two types of observation: direct observation and participantobservation. Direct observation refers to independent assessment carried out with-out probing anyone for facts. This is usually done without the knowledge of theperson or thing being observed, and usually happens by chance. It provides suitablemeans of obtaining information that is reliable, because of its potential to uncoverthe real situation, as those observed are going on with their activities naturally.

Participant observation depends on the collaboration of others to obtain thenecessary information. The observer arranges to accompany the person to be ob-served to their area of activity, and observes how the activity is carried out. Usuallythe person under observation is informed about it, in the hope that this mightprevent any modification of behaviour or activity, due to suspicion. The observerposes a series of probing questions in order to obtain additional, relevant informa-tion about the activity. Again, this should be done tactfully in order not to raisesuspicion. However skillfully the observation is carried out, there is always the dan-ger that, being aware of what is happening, the person being observed may still alterhis or her behaviour: to appear more competent, more enthusiastic, more diligent,just to help the observer. As a result of these ‘reactive effects’, observations may beartificial, or unreal, and, therefore, a false reflection of the true nature and behav-iour of the observed (Buchanan and Huczynski 1991).

In carrying out any of the two forms of observation, it is advisable that theobserver is open-minded and unbiased. There should be no application of precon-ceived ideas, when drawing final conclusions. Furthermore, in planning the exercise,consideration should be given to the seasonality of activities in the communities,which form part of the monitoring units. This is to ensure that it is the right moment



to conduct the observations. Seasonal events and activities calendars, which can beprepared during Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) sessions, with the communi-ties, are useful tools in guiding planning decisions in this regard.

Questionnaires

A questionnaire is similar to an interview, since it is concerned with getting feedbackfrom target audiences. The only difference is that questions are written or typed onsheets of paper, which are then distributed to the members of the target audiencefor whom the questionnaire is intended. It might be advantageous to bring themembers together in a group, and explain the raison d’être of the questionnaire, be-fore distributing the papers to them. Where there are illiterate members, some trust-worthy literate members could be asked to assist. But care should be taken to ensurethat the responses are sincerely those of the respondents. Some questionnaires areprepared and administered in a special way, with a view to assessing environmentalattitudes, and are generally referred to as attitude surveys. For a questionnaire to beadministered effectively, the questions should be simple and straightforward, requir-ing choices from a list of options, or for short answered to be provided, and shouldhave variety in type and structure. The sequencing of the questions is also of vitalimportance, and should be well thought through. This is to ensure that, as much aspossible, the respondent is encouraged to give honest and clear answers, which donot present difficulties in data analysis.

Semi-structured Interviews

This is an informal type of interview, conducted to gather useful information on agiven subject. It takes place in a cordial and fun atmosphere, and allows for the freeexpression of the interviewee. Starting with an ice-breaker, to bridge the gap be-tween the interviewer and the interviewee, could help create a conducive and ena-bling atmosphere.

The interviewer may make use of a set of open-ended questions, referred to asan interview guide. But this should not be used in a manner that destroys the pur-pose of the interview. An interview should be allowed to progress in a natural andconversational fashion. Some people are often tempted to record interviews ontape; this can be dangerous in certain situations. If the atmosphere becomes tooformal, the interviewee may become nervous, inhibiting reasoning and impedingeffective communication. It may also raise the suspicions of the interviewee, therebypreventing him or her from giving honest answers, or accurate facts. Informationcollected from interviews is usually more in-depth and richer, but more difficult toanalyse, than information collected from questionnaires.

Written Tests

These mostly apply to the formal environmental education programme. A set ofenvironmental questions can be developed, and the pupils are asked to provideanswers in an examination setting and atmosphere. This is mostly used where envi-



ronmental education is a free-standing subject on the school timetable, and is one ofthe subjects in which the students are being officially assessed. However, even wherethis is not yet the case, conservation or other projects in the area that help with thepromotion of the subject could encourage teachers of participating schools to con-duct periodic written tests. Depending on the techniques used in setting the ques-tions, tests can provide a useful means of measuring not only pupils’ knowledge, butalso their attitudes and behaviour towards environmental concerns.

As a general principle, tests may be administered at the beginning of the schoolyear (pre-test) to obtain baseline information about the target classes, and at the end(post-test) to measure how much the participants have learned. However, in-between, periodic tests are necessary for the purpose of monitoring progress.

Practical Tests

These are applicable to formal education programmes. They are exercises designedto test the student participants’ new knowledge and skills in a real, or quasi real,context. They can take place during field visits, or through simulations in the class-rooms or school compounds. The examinees may be asked to perform tasks rang-ing from, for example, enumeration of some of the natural habitats, and identifica-tion of the associated environmental problems, to analysing the problems, andsuggesting and describing practical activities to address the identified problems. Thesimplicity or complexity of the tasks involved in the practical tests depends on thelevel of the examinees. As with written tests, practical tests could be used also toassess environmental attitudes and behaviours. If conducted in atmospheres free ofthe, often inhibiting, ‘examination fever’, the students will be able and motivated toexpress and conduct themselves in ways that portray their level of passion for theenvironment. However, assessing attitudes using this means is rather subjective forany conclusions to be drawn; and needs to be supplemented with the results ofrecent attitude surveys.

Revision Questions1. Differentiate between a non-formal and formal environmental programme, and discuss

the approaches and methods of each.2. What tools can be used in the monitoring and evaluation of an environmental educa-

tion programme?

Critical Thinking Questions1. What measures can you propose to bring about the integration of environmental edu-

cation into the school curriculum?2. Discuss how the following environmental education approaches are influenced either by

eco-centric, anthropocentric and ecofeminist paradigms:a) project approach, b) theme generator approach, activity-in-itself approach, and d)cross-curricular approach.



ReferencesBaden, J.A., 1998, ‘A New Primer for the Management of Common-pool Resources and

Public Goods, in J.A. Baden and D.S. Nooman, eds., Managing the Commons, Bloomingtonand Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

Boal, A., 1974, Theatre of the Oppressed, London: Pluto Press.Boulton, M.N. and Knight, D., 1996, ‘Conservation Education’, in Spellberg, I.F., ed.,

Conservation Biology, London: Longman, pp. 69–79.Buchanan, D. and Huczunski, A., 1991, Organisational Behaviour: An Introductory Text, Essex:

Pentice Hall.Birkeland, J., 1995, ‘Disengendering ecofeminism’, Trumpeter Vol. 12, No. 4.Cunningham, W.P., Saigo, B.W. and Cunningham, M.A., 2003, Environmental Science: A

Global Concern, New York: McGraw-Hill.Encalada, M.A., 1992, ‘EDUNAT: The Environmental Education and Awareness RaisingExperience of Fundacion Natura in Ecuador’, in Schneider, H., Vinke, J. and Weekes-Vagliani,

W., eds., Environmental Education: An Approach to Sustainable Development, Paris: Organisa-tion for Economic Co-operation and Development, pp. 215–26.

Farrant, J.S., 1980, Principles and Practice of Education, Essex: Longman.Ferraro, J. and Kramer, A., 1995, A Framework for Affective Household Behavior to Promote

Biodiversity Conservation, Arlington: Environmental and Natural Resources Policyand Training Project.

Hardin, G. 1968, ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’, Science, Vol. 162, pp. 1243–48.Holden, P.J. and Inyang, E., 2001, Drama for the Sensitisation and Mobilisation of Local Commu-

nities for Conservation: Lessons from the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary Project, an unpub-lished paper prepared for the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary Project.

Inyang, 2002, Community Drama: An Alternative to the Troupe-Dependent Environmen-tal Drama at the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in Southwest Cameroon, an unpub-lished paper presented at the University of Strathclyde.

Kershaw, B., 1992, The Politics of Performance: Radical Theatre as Cultural Intervention,London: Routledge.

Layrargues, P.P., 2000, ‘Solving Local Environmental Problems in Environmental Educa-tion: A Brazilian Case Study’, Environmental Education Research, Vol. 6, No. 2,pp. 166–78.

Lewis, C., 1996, Managing Conflicts in Protected Areas, IUCN Biodiversity Programme.Living Earth Cameroon, 1998, A Teachers’ Foundation Unit on Environmental Education, Living

Earth Foundation.Lynch, B.K., 2005, The Paradigm Debate, <www.iltaonline.com/newsletter>Margoluis, R. and Salafsky, N., 1998, Measures of Success: Designing, Managing, and Monitoring

Conservation and Development Projects, Washington DC: Island Press.Martin, P., 1990, First Steps to Sustainability: The School Curriculum and the Environment, Surrey:

WWF.O’Toole, R., 1998, ‘The Tragedy of the Scenic Commons’, in Baden, J.A. and Nooman, D.S.

eds., Managing the Commons, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.Patterson, T.E., 1993, The American Democracy, New York: McGraw-Hill.



Reigota, M., 1994, O que é educaçáo ambiental, Sao Paulo: Brasiliense.Stone, R., 1997, What’s Your Role? Training for Organisational Impact. A Guide for Training

Officers in Protected Area Management, Africa Biodiversity Series, No. 5, Washington DC:Biodiversity Support Program.

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Vefonge, N., 2000, Environmental Communication in Mount Cameroon Project–Buea andthe Need For Collaboration with Other Conservation Projects in the South West Prov-ince, a paper [unpublished] presented at the South West conservation projects environ-mental educators meeting held in Kumba, Cameroon.

WWF, 1988, A Common Purpose: Environmental Education in the School Curriculum,Surrey: WWF.



PART III

EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES



Chapter 12

Conclusion: Emerging Issuesand the Way Forward

We may recap that there still remain highly sensitive discourses on how best theAfrican continent can speak in one voice in order to address some of the keyenvironmental problems. An example is the importation of hazardous waste, withAU members having ratified the rival Basel and Bamako conventions. Africa hasembraced the concept of sustainable development as a development paradigm forthis century. Sustainability, or sustainable development, embraces politics, the envi-ronment, economics, culture and society. However, there is need to view sustainabledevelopment as an open question requiring continuous deliberations and debate. Tothis end, the issues that need to be addressed concern ways in which the AU shouldset up institutions and funds aimed at addressing continued environmental decay.

The issue of climate change appears remote, compared with such immediateproblems as poverty, disease and economic stagnation. Development planners areoften unsure whether, and how, to mainstream climate change considerations intodevelopment objectives (Agrawala 2005). It should be emphasised that the objectiveof the framework convention on climate change convention stresses the need toensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic developmentto proceed in a sustainable manner (UN 2005).

The ratification of the UN framework convention on climate change was moti-vated by strong concerns that human activities are substantially increasing the at-mospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, and that this will result, on average,in additional warming of the earth’s surface and atmosphere, with potential adverseeffects on natural ecosystems and humankind (UN 2005). In spite of evidence insupport of climate change, this issue has remained one of the most controversial ininternational negotiations since the 1980s (Shimada 2004). While assessments ofpast and present emission patterns strongly influence the debate over internationalclimate policy, the central challenge is to limit future emissions (Baumert, Pershinget al. 2004). The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) gives developing coun-tries an opportunity to get involved in the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol,with the aim of meeting the emission reduction targets of the polluting Annex Icountries, and the development needs of the developing countries. However, manymethodological and other issues regarding the implementation of CDM activities,including the role of afforestation and reforestation projects, remain unresolved.



Given the prevailing stable investment climate in Africa, particularly in Morocco,Mozambique and South Africa, CDM projects will remain an attractive venture.However, due to various threats associated with the CDM – risks, uncertainty,ignorance in some sections of community and indeterminacy – Rio’s precautionaryprinciple should be applied in all dealings with the investing Annex 1 countries. Thefollowing suggestions are therefore set out: There is a need to enact firm and flex-ible stakeholder-driven CDM regulations at national, provincial and local govern-ment levels. The continent still has varying views regarding the best way forwardconcerning the CDM. Inter-ministerial and departmental coordination at countrylevel remains chaotic and very weak, with regard to CDM project implementation.

The use of CDM project quota system is needed to safeguard biased investmentin sectors considered ‘low hanging fruit’, of easy carbon credit picking, such aslandfill gas and hydropower.

Capacity building and sustained awareness raising programmes are required at alllevels of government, including traditional and community leadership. More localfinancial resources must be mobilised. For countries like South Africa this could bedone through the King II Report and the JSE Socially Responsible Investment In-dex, whereby government and other local players earn ‘carbon credits’ for the ben-efit of the environment and future generations even outside the CDM. Dialogue isneeded to continuously engage with the CDM and raise questions.

Although they cover only between 6 and 7 per cent of the earth’s landmass,rainforests provide a habitat for about 50 per cent of all known species (WorldBank 1992). The tropical rain forests are disappearing at rates that threaten theeconomic and ecological functions they provide. Shifting cultivation is considered tobe the major cause of deforestation in Africa (Bundestag 1990), followed by log-ging, to meet the extremely high rates of timber consumption by the industrialisednations (Struhsaker 1998; Durning 1992). Tropical countries often struggle undermassive debt loads, which drain their viability and encourage them to liquidate theirforest capital more quickly to raise foreign exchange (WRI 1992). Additionally, log-ging offers an easy means of providing access roads to the rural areas, and easilywins rural community and national support.

Wildlife-human conflict, characterised by crop raiding by wildlife, is becoming anincreasingly serious problem in Africa. This conflict can be attributed in large part torapid human population growth, and poor land-use management strategies, whichimpose increasing demand on land. This demand results in an ever-increasing en-croachment on wildlife habitats by agricultural activities and the development ofhuman settlements. This phenomenon is explained by Hunter (1996), who postu-lates that the geometry of natural habitat fragmentation, induced by agriculture,indicates that as the wildlife range contracts in the face of human expansion, theinterface of potential wildlife-human contact increases. Inyang (2002) observes thateven hunting, which communities often employ as a strategy for addressing theproblem of crop raiding by wildlife, instead helps to perpetuate it, as the targeted


Conclusion: Emerging Issues and the Way Forward 213

species are forced to disperse wildly, and find refuge in farmlands, due to the in-creased disturbance in the forest. Furthermore, the land question remains unre-solved. Countries like Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe are still battling withhow best to resolve the land question.

Over-exploitation is characteristic of open-access regimes. It results in economicwarfare, which, at the micro-level, forces individuals to increase their rate of exploi-tation in order to maximise profits (Hardin, 1998). At the macro-level, economicwarfare is orchestrated by 1) the struggle by the developed countries to maintaintheir position at the top rungs of the economic ladder in order to continue to enjoytheir dignity as super powers; 2) the struggle by developing countries to also reachthe top rungs of the global economic ladder in order to gain recognition as superpowers; and 3) the struggle by the undeveloped countries to get out of poverty inorder to seek ways of developing and liberating themselves from an aid-dependentmentality.

Natural resource management (NRM) has become an important preoccupationof NGOs and governments around the globe. The role of NGOs in encouragingthe devolution of power to rural communities by reluctant governments, and inbuilding the capacities of the communities, in NRM is enormous. But despite alltheir efforts, problems still abound in the management of natural resources in manyparts of Africa.

It is increasingly acknowledged that the success of natural resource management(NRM) depends on the involvement and active participation of the communitiesthat traditionally have rights of access to, and use of, the resources to satisfy theirbasic necessities; hence the term community-based natural resource management.However, as Inyang (2005) warns, community participation is closely linked to per-ceived or tangible short-term and long-term benefits, not only to the entire commu-nity, but also to actively participating community members.

Gender issues are gradually, but steadily, taking centre stage in natural resourcemanagement, especially because the livelihoods of rural women and men are inti-mately linked to natural resources. Whereas men are more prominent in activitiessuch as hunting and fishing, women are the primary exploiters of non-timber forestproducts such as Invingia gabonensis, Gnetum africanum and Ricinodendron heudelotin,for both domestic consumption and income generation. Women are also engaged intrade in these and other non-timber forest products, like game meat which is alsosold by some women as pepper soup. The interactions of women with the environ-ment are in no way less important than men’s interactions, in terms, particularly, oftheir impact on both the environment and the human community. Therefore, theexclusion of women from environmental and natural resource management canhave negative impacts at both household and community levels (CommonwealthSecretariat 1996).

The African continent has made significant strides towards addressing sustainabilityprinciples through the application of EIA as one of the key decision making toolsfor approving development projects. Significant gains have been recorded in terms



of establishing legislation, specifically addressing EIA requirements, in various coun-tries. However, the following still remain slippery issues as regards the fine tuning ofEIA procedures in the continent (El-Fadl and El-Fadel 2004; Kakonge 1993, 1994,1998; SAIEA 2004).

Public Participation

The public still needs to be made aware of their environmental rights; governmentsneed to open up when it comes to debating issues of good governance, so as toencourage participation in dealing with environmental matters in the EIA process.

Local Government Blackouts

Many local authorities are not directly responsible for EIAs. Yet most developmentsare implemented within their jurisdiction. In addition, local authorities have tradi-tionally controlled development through various regional, town and country plan-ning acts, which by their nature comprise considerable elements of EIA. In thisregard, we recommend that efforts be made towards decentralising EIA permittingauthority to local authority, so that harmonisation might be worked out betweentown planning and EIA laws; lastly, to cut red tap.

Harmonisation of EIA Legislation

At national, sub-regional and AU levels: the key challenge for Africa governments toharmonise EIA legislation at all levels still remains, culminating into an AfricanUnion ‘mother’ EIA legislative framework. EIA laws at national levels are still highlysectoral. Yet sub-continental frameworks, in eastern, central, northern, southern andWest Africa, can be put in place, and can eventually feed into one EIA legislativeframework within NEPAD, or at AU level, as an EIA convention.

Selective Sectoral Application

Most EIAs are applied to specific development sectors and even, specific projectswithin the sectors that are perceived to have severe negative impacts (Tarr 2003).Sectors traditionally exposed to EIA in Africa include mining, petroleum and gas; aswell as agriculture, but mainly limited to dams. Agricultural policies seldom receiveEIA attention, yet these have potential to harm the environment. Zimbabwe’s 2000Fast Track Land Reform Programme is an example of an environmentally harmfulagricultural policy. Fisheries and tourism projects receive limited attention, likewise.

Expertise in EIA

As of June 2002, the whole of SADC had only eighty professionals managing EIAinstitutions (SAIEA 2004). Most tertiary institutions do not have courses addressingenvironmental management in general, and EIA specifically. Furthermore, govern-ment departments have experienced severe ‘brain drain’ on a national, regional andinternational scale. Experienced EIA professionals often switch jobs to join better



paying private and NGO sectors. Therefore, more effort should be made to en-courage the establishment of courses in this area. Resource pooling can also assist inutilising the available limited EIA expertise through initiatives, which seek to formcoalitions between governments, NGOs, private sector, universities and other re-search institutions. As in the health profession, issues pertaining to the environmentand EIA must also be prioritised.

Enforcement

Most legal documents do not stipulate clear monitoring and auditing procedures forEIAs, nor prescribe resultant penalties to offenders thereof, additional to the lackof monitoring and auditing of EIA (Ahmad and Wood 2002). This area needsurgent attention. Regular monitoring is necessary (Tarr 2003) to ensure that devel-opers implement agreed management plans. South Africa (DEAT 2004) is one ofthe countries to have taken issues of compliance and enforcement seriously, estab-lishing for example Environmental Courts in 2004.

Under-resourced EIA Institutions

Many in positions of authority, in politics and business, still consider EIA to beanother unnecessary hurdle that delays development, job creation, and ultimatelypoverty eradication in the continent. There is therefore a need for continued lobby-ing, particularly from peers who realise the benefits of engaging in EIA.

Sectoral Orientation to EIA

EIAs are still undertaken and driven from sectoral point of view. Hence manygovernment ministries and departments consider EIA to be solely the responsibilityof the ministries responsible for environment and tourism. A cross-cutting para-digm is therefore being advocated in this book.

Logistics and Team Management During EIA Preparation

Drawing from a large-scale EIA for the proposed Dune Mining at St. Lucia in SouthAfrica, Weaver et al. (1996) note that EIA teams need to complement each other,not only technically, but also in their purpose. Expectations and approach to the EIAshould also be mutually understood, and all members should be mutually account-able for their joint efforts. Logistical issues, particularly around public participation,are usually seen as delaying the process.

Recognition of Potential Sub-regional EIA Promotion Initiatives

Governments should recognise and resource sub-regional EIA initiatives. One goodcase example is the initiative by the Southern African Institute of EnvironmentalAssessment (SAIEA), an indigenous NGO based in Namibia. SAIEA is dedicated topromoting EIA as a tool to achieve sustainable development and eradicate povertyin southern Africa. Through partnerships, SAIEA has been supporting government,



development agencies, other NGOs and the private sector in the field of EIA.Some of the support mechanisms offered by SAIEA include: developing terms ofreference for EIAs, independent reviewing, monitoring implementation, training (in-cluding hosting student attachments or interns), and research and assisting with EIAlegislation reform and formulation.

Environmental education is recognised not only as one of the instruments in thefight against environmental problems, but also as a precondition for introducingrational management of environmental resources needed for human survival (Touré(1993). Despite this recognition, the subject has hardly been given the scope anddimension it deserves in any single situation, due largely to disputes that exist aboutits goal. Schneider (1993) attributes this to the fact that in any given local or nationalsituation, environmental concerns of individuals, groups of people, and even insti-tutions, tend to be limited, rather than all embracing. For instance there is a tendencyin site-specific situations to limit environmental education to areas such as agro-forestry, conservation education and hygiene. This is contrary to Martin’s (1990)guiding principles that advocate for environmental education to consider the envi-ronment in its totality, thus, as natural and man-made, ecological, political, eco-nomic, technological, social, legislative, cultural and aesthetic. Environmental educa-tion should enable people to develop an understanding of the ecological processesthat govern life on earth, and the geo-morphic and climatic patterns that influenceliving things and human activities; appreciation of the social, economic and culturalinfluences that determine human values, perceptions and behaviour; and awarenessof an individual’s personal relationship with the environment, as a consumer, pro-ducer and a sentient member of society (WWF 1988).

While awareness raising engenders consciousness of the existence of environ-mental problems and the causes, sensitisation leads to the cultivation of positiveenvironmental attitudes, which can translate into positive environmental behaviour.Cultivating positive environmental behaviour depends on the level of sensitisationof the individual. This increases with age, not merely in biological terms, but withrespect to an accumulated attachment to particular ideas and values; as well asthrough the powerful influences of the family and peer groups, rigorous norms andbelief systems of the community, patterned indoctrination through programmes ofthe mass media, schools and similar institutions, or emerging economic and relatedopportunities (Patterson 1993).

Environmental education has developed significantly in southern Africa, spear-headed by the formation of the Environmental Education Association of SouthernAfrica (EEASA) in 1982. Since then, the grouping has grown from strength tostrength, leading to the hosting of regular annual conferences throughout the re-gion. The EEASA also hosts the Journal of Environmental Education, the only suchjournal from the African continent published regularly on an annual basis. Lastly,the concept of sustainability reporting remains one ot the new environmental man-agement tools with which Africa is still grappling. This concept has been significantlydeveloped in South Africa, resulting in the launch, in 2004, of the Johannesburg



Stock Exchange Socially Responsible Investment Index. It remains to be seen whether,beyond its public relations benefit, this new concept will propel companies to trulyaddress environmental concerns.

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Documents

Framework and Tools for Environmental Management in Africa