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Foundations of Secondary Education: EDSC 3900

Reading Assignment 1

A Brief Overview of the History of Education in America

Preface Many of the ideas, practices, concerns, and issues that are discussed by educators today have their roots in the past. Throughout American history, educators have debated the primary purposes of schooling, discussed the most effective instructional practices, fought for educational reforms, and examined important policies relating to educating children. This reading includes information about some of the important historical events, trends, policies, practices, people, and issues that pertain to education in America. The reading concludes by providing a brief synopsis of relatively recent issues relating to America’s system of public education. As you read the information below, consider your own schooling, your views on public education, the connections between the past and present, and the changes that have been made to the educational system in America over time. Note: This reading contains some generalities to provide the overall main ideas on certain topics.

The Foundation of Secondary Education in Early America (Mid-1600s – Early 1800s)

Background During the colonial period of American history, the types of educational opportunities that were available to children varied by location. However, in general, the prestigious formal educational opportunities were reserved for children from wealthy families. This was particularly true for boys from wealthy families. In the colonial era, boys from elite families were typically expected to receive a prestigious formal education so that they could maintain their family’s upper class social standing, prepare to study at universities, and be able to hold prestigious jobs. Boys from wealthy families typically studied classical languages, literature, history, mathematics, science as well as other subjects that were considered to be important. This allowed boys from wealthy families to pursue advanced educational opportunities.

Examples of Early Types of Education in America

Latin Grammar Schools Latin Grammar Schools were one of the earliest types of “secondary” schools to emerge in colonial America. These schools began to surface in America as early as the 1600s with the opening of the Boston Latin School. Latin Grammar Schools were designed to prepare wealthy boys for advanced educational opportunities. Latin Grammar Schools were considered to be exclusive: they were for the wealthy upper class, they were only for boys, and they were only for families who could afford to pay the tuition.

Latin Grammar Schools were based on the British model of education, which involved a curriculum consisting of classical subjects such as Latin, Greek, literature, mathematics, history, and natural sciences (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010). Students were expected to read and recite works of literature in both Latin and Greek and the instructional activities typically consisted of disciplined memorization.

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As a note, today the term “grammar school” is often associated with schools for young children. Over time, as secondary schools were developed in America, the name "grammar school" was adopted by elementary schools for younger children (Dorn, 2004). Private Tutoring

In the southern colonies, wealthy families typically ran the plantations and in many cases these plantations were widely spread out across a large amount of territory. As a result, the easiest way for wealthy families to ensure that their children received a quality formal education was to have them work with private tutors. In southern colonies, boys from wealthy families worked with private tutors to study subjects such as math, Greek, Latin, science, history, fencing, social etiquette, and plantation management. They also spent time reading the Bible and learning material from religious scriptures. Paper and textbooks were scarce so children often recited their lessons until they were memorized. As they grew older, boys from wealthy southern colonial families were often sent to boarding schools and to universities in England for a more advanced-level education. In England, students had the opportunity to study areas such as law and medicine. However, it was not uncommon for the sons of wealthy families to return to America to help their fathers run plantations or businesses (Chesapeake College – Online Resource).

Wealthy families in southern colonies were often also able to afford to educate girls privately, but the education for girls was different than it was for boys. Girls typically were taught privately by a governess, who helped them to learn basic skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Girls also typically studied social etiquette, needlework, spinning, weaving, and cooking and other skills that could be used to run a household. These skills were considered to be important for girls to acquire so that they would be prepared to effectively manage a household (Chesapeake College – Online Resource).

Academies During the 1700s, many people began to consider alternatives to the structure of education in America. With the growth of the middle class, there was an increasing demand for some type of secondary education for the children from middle class families. Since Latin Grammar Schools were designed for children from elite upper class families, reformers began to advocate for another type of school that would be affordable and effective for children from middle class families. Educational reformers argued that there should be secondary schools in America that provided a more practical curriculum, which would ultimately lead to children from middle class families becoming better prepared for the workforce.

Leaders, such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, were among the most prominent promoters of developing more opportunities for education in America. Franklin advocated for opening schools that would offer practical training for students to help children from middle class families prepare for careers. These ideas were developed with the opening of schools in America that were known as academies. In general, academies were designed to provide children from middle class families with a practical type of education in order to better prepare them for careers in America.

Franklin was involved in the development one of the first academies in the mid 1700s, which opened in Philadelphia. This academy offered a variety of practical subjects such as bookkeeping, engineering, navigation, and business. The idea of a more practical education was appealing to many Americans and led to an increase in the number of academies (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010). Over time, some academies offered different alternatives to meet the needs of different students. For example, some academies enabled certain students to prepare for an advanced level of education at a university, while other students focused on more practical vocationally-based skills that were needed for jobs (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010).

Overall, academies increased educational opportunities in America and helped to meet an increasing demand for

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children from middle class families. Despite the growth of academies, many families in America could not afford to have their children receive any type of formal secondary schooling.

Apprenticeships

While the academies provided opportunities for middle class children to receive a type of secondary education, poor families typically could not afford to provide their children with formal secondary schooling. In early America, children from poor families could learn basic reading, writing and arithmetic skills, but they typically did not have access to education beyond this. Instead, male children from poor families took on apprenticeships, which involved working with a mentor to learn a specific trade that would enable them to gain the skills needed to have a job.

Boys could begin serving as apprentices as young as age 6. Being an apprentice was not an easy life and apprenticeships varied in length. In return for labor, the mentor agreed to help the apprentice learn the skills that were needed for a trade. Typically, child apprentices earned little or no money, but the mentor provided them with food and lodging (Deming, 2009). In the end, the goal was for the apprentice to learn a trade, which would allow him to work and ultimately survive in America. There were fewer opportunities for girls, but some girls were able to obtain apprenticeships, while others learned important skills from a parent/guardian. Colonial Education for African American Children and Native American Children During colonial times, the opportunities for Native American children and African American children to receive a formal education were very limited. Native American families were often methodically pushed out of their native territory, which limited their ability to influence educational practices in early America (Gelbrich, 1999). However, many Native American tribes were able to develop systems of education as well as educational traditions that involved passing on knowledge from one generation to the next. African American children were sometimes given the opportunity to learn to read, so that they could read religious scriptures, but they were often prohibited from learning to write as this was seen as a mark of status. In certain locations there were also legal limitations placed on the type of education African Americans children could receive. Despite legal restrictions on education, African-American families worked hard to teach children folktales, art, music, craftsmanship, and other cultural as well as practical information (Sambol-Tosco, 2004). The Common School Movement In the 1830s, the Common School Movement began to take shape under the leadership of Horace Mann. The aim of the Common School Movement was to make education available to all children regardless of economic status. While there were some public schools in America in colonial times and in the early 1800s, there were many locations in which children from poor families did not have access to significant formal schooling. In 1837, Horace Mann was chosen to be the leader of the newly formed Massachusetts Board of Education. He used this position of leadership to enact major educational reforms. He pushed for the idea that every child should receive a basic formal education that was funded by public tax dollars (Harris et al., PBS Only a Teacher website, 2000). Mann advocated for the development of a system of public education in which tax dollars could be used to enable children to attend school without paying a tuition fee. He believed that local communities and states should provide the opportunity for children to receive a formal education regardless of economic status. Mann believed that a nonsectarian education should be available to children from all families: rich or poor (Henley et al., 2009). Historians consider Mann to be an outstanding proponent of education for the common person (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010).

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Mann led a movement to develop a system of publically funded (tax supported) schools that were open to all children regardless of economic class. These schools became known as common schools. The development of common schools served as a foundation for the tax-supported public school system that developed in America. The following were attributes of common schools:

• Common schools were free for students to attend so that parents did not have to pay tuition or fees for their children to be educated.

• Funding for common schools came from local and/or state tax dollars (public funding) so that all children could attend school for free.

• Common schools were open to a variety of economic classes including children from poor families. • Common schools helped children learn about democracy and other core values of American society (Sadker and Zittleman,

2010).

The opposition to the Common School was initially powerful. Mann along with his allies had to work hard to gain support for the acceptance of public education. Some taxpayers did not want to pay the additional taxes that were needed to support public education. In addition, some business leaders were concerned about the idea of taking away the children that worked for them (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010). However, Mann along with other leaders made compelling arguments about the reasons that a public education system was necessary. He saw public education as an investment for individuals and for the country (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010). Mann argued for tax-supported common schools and the importance of providing a free public education based on ideas that included:

• Increasing access to education would lead to more political stability and social harmony along with a decrease in crime. • Educating children in public schools would promote good citizenship, democratic participation, and societal well-being. • Business and industry would benefit from having educated workers, which would result in a more productive economy. • An education system that was open to all would help nurture the talents of both poor and wealthy children, which would

ultimately benefit society (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010). • Providing children with a free tax-supported public education would benefit society as whole.

As a result of Mann’s arguments and efforts, he was able to win support for common schools. This led to a system of state supported common schools across Massachusetts that became a model for other places in the country (Gelbrich, 1999). Mann’s influence and ideas soon spread beyond Massachusetts as more localities and states began to promote the idea of having publically-funded (tax supported) schools for children. Public schools began to emerge in areas across the country. By the 1860s, most states had established public schools for children to attend without having to pay a tuition fee.

Horace Mann

A teacher with her students at a common school

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The Common School Movement ultimately laid the groundwork for a system of universal public education in America. The current system of public education in the United States is based on the idea that every child should receive a free public education and that schools should be publically funded (tax-supported) so that all children can attend.

Horace Mann is often referred to as the Father of the Common School Movement because of his work to make common schools a reality, which opened the doors of formal education for many children. Mann is also known as the Father of American Public Education because his efforts to promote free tax supported public schools for children served as a foundation for the current system of universal public education in America.

The Expansion of Public Secondary Schools

The Common School Movement primarily focused on ensuring that there were public schools available to offer a free formal education at the primary (elementary) level. As the country became more industrialized, people began to view an elementary education as being inadequate to meet the needs of students. While there were some public secondary schools, the support for public tax-supported secondary schools increased over time. People began to view high school (secondary school) as a stepping-stone that could help students get better jobs and in some cases go on to attend college (Sadker and Zittleman, 2010).

The number of public secondary schools grew over the course of the 1800s. The growth of high schools was bolstered by a court case that occurred in Michigan in 1874 involving a challenge to the collection of tax dollars to support a public high school. The case became known as the Kalamazoo Case because the high school was in Kalamazoo Michigan. In this case, the Michigan Supreme Court ruled that taxes could be used to support secondary schools (Timmerman, 2012). Thus, the court ruled that town officials had the right to collect taxes to pay for a public high school.

The high school in Kalamazoo was not the first public school in America, but the ruling in the Kalamazoo case served to support the legitimacy of using public tax dollars to support public high schools in other cities, towns, and states. This led to public high schools becoming more widespread across the country.

While public high schools became more prevalent across America, some educational reformers believed that there should be some type of schooling in between elementary school and high school. These reformers were particularly concerned with the transition from elementary school to high school, which led to the establishment of junior high schools in the early 1900s. Junior high schools were designed to meet the specific needs of preadolescents and early adolescents (typically serving students in grades 7, 8, and 9). The core curriculum of junior high schools typically focused on the academic, social, and psychological characteristics of preadolescents and these schools served as a bridge between elementary school and high school. The concept of junior high school was further refined in some areas with the opening of middle schools, which often served students in slightly lower grades (i.e. grades 6 – 8). Middle schools were designed to ease the academic and social transition as students moved beyond elementary school.

Important Information about the Common School Movement

While the common school movement did open the doors of formalized public education for many children, it often depended on the state or local area with regards to the accessibility of formal education for children from

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varying racial, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds. For example, it should be noted that while the common school movement did play a role in the development of public schools for African American children, these schools were often segregated and unequal. According to historical reports, African American schools in Virginia, as well as in many other states, received less funding and had fewer resources. Additionally, in many cases, the school buildings/facilities for African American children were often in poor condition (Virginia Historical Society, 2004). For many years, laws and policies allowed for the segregation of schools. A landmark Supreme Court Case in the 1950s, known as Brown v. Board of Education, prohibited the legal segregation of schools. More information about this case is included below.

Normal Schools

As the number of common schools continued to increase, there was a growing demand for trained teachers. As a result, Normal Schools were established as institutions to provide systematic and formalized training for teachers. Normal Schools were designed to prepare teachers for effective classroom instruction and to ensure that teachers learned important instructional norms that would be used to teach classes in public schools (hence the term Normal School). Normal Schools prided themselves on their thorough training for teachers and were designed to help teachers improve their pedagogical skills. The first state-sponsored Normal School was established in Massachusetts in 1839. Although education courses and teacher training programs increasingly moved into colleges and universities, Normal Schools were important in setting the important precedent of providing teacher training for classroom instruction (Harris et al, PBS: Only A Teacher website, 2000).

Compulsory Attendance Laws

Compulsory attendance laws are formal regulations that require that children attend school (or receive a formal education). Although the age requirements varied from state to state, by 1918, compulsory attendance laws existed in states across the country (Education News, 2013).

Compulsory attendance laws played integral role in the development of a universal education system in America, in which all children receive an education.

A System of Universal Public Education in America

Overall, the common school movement, common schools, and compulsory attendance laws laid the groundwork for today’s system of public education in America. The public school system in America is tax-supported and enables students to attend a public elementary school, middle school, and high school without having to pay a fee. Thus, through the universal system of public schooling in American, all children are provided with the opportunity to receive a formal education.

Educational Tracking Despite the widespread growth of public schools, many elite families continued to send their children to private schools. However, as the twentieth century progressed, an increasing number of high-income families began to send their children to public schools.

Many public schools began to implement educational tracking, which involves the practice of having different curricular pathways for different students within the same school. Thus, many secondary schools adopted the practice of having separate educational tracks for different students. Using educational tracking, some children followed an academic curriculum that was designed to prepare them for higher education whereas other children had a curriculum that focused on vocational skills to prepare them for jobs. Different educational tracks can be found in many secondary schools today (Oakes and Lipton, 2007). For example, some students

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may follow an honors or advanced placement track, while other students at the same school may follow a more traditional or “standard” track.

Americanization in Schools

Around the turn of the 20th century, immigrants flooded into the United States. In 1907 alone, more than a million immigrants passed through Ellis Island in New York (Roberts, 2009). The movement to assimilate and “Americanize” immigrants became an important issue in America. Many Americans looked to schools to help with the Americanization Movement. Thus, schools were given the responsibility of teaching children, who had recently immigrated to the country, to speak, read, and write in English. In addition, schools were responsible for teaching children about the customs, values, and traditions that were considered to be important in America. This was significant because schools were seen as playing a critical role in maintaining the “American way of life”.

Regulation of Public Schools

As the 20th century progressed, free public education continued to become more prominent. Local and state governments played the largest role in controlling, regulating and running public schools. State and local governments also took on the primary responsibility for financing public education. The word ‘education’ is not mentioned directly in the United States Constitution. As a result, throughout much of the history of American education, the role of the federal (national) government remained relatively limited in comparison to the role of state and local governments. With the tradition of having state and local governments play a prominent role in making decisions about public education, there were often differences in educational policies, practices, and procedures from state to state (and in many cases from locality to locality). Differences in education on the local and state level continue to exist today, but there have been recent educational reforms that have been implemented in states and schools across the country. Early 20th Century: Teaching Conditions and the Formation of Unions At the beginning of the 20th century, many teachers were working extremely hard, but they were often disappointed by the conditions under which they worked. Many teachers felt that they were poorly paid, lacked sufficient benefits, and were not given appropriate job security. In addition, the conditions of some school facilities were overcrowded, dark, and poorly ventilated (Harris et al., 2000). As a result, many teachers began to come together to protest for change, which led to the formation of unions for teachers. Unions became particularly prevalent in larger cities. For example, in Chicago, Margaret Haley and Catherine Goggin of the Chicago Federation of Teachers rallied their peers for improved pay, retirement benefits and tenure. The popularity of teaching organizations and unions such as the American Federation of Teachers and National Education Association continued to increase over time. Teachers’ unions continue to advocate for better school conditions, important benefits, and helpful resources (Harris et al., 2000). Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas 1954 The issue of having separate schools for black children and white children was at least partially rooted in the Supreme Court Case known as Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), where it was ruled that public facilities may be segregated based on race (McBride, 2007). In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court established the ‘Separate but Equal’ doctrine, which gave states, cities, and localities the ability to maintain laws requiring separate public facilities for different races, including schools. Despite the name of the doctrine, “Separate but Equal”, in reality segregated schools for African American children were not equal.

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The segregation of schools in northern states and southern states was often justified in different ways. In the north, many schools were segregated based on De Facto segregation, which involves segregation due to the arrangement of neighborhoods and housing patterns. In the south, schools were segregated based on the law, which is known as De Jure Segregation. De Jure Segregation involves legally mandating segregation based on factors such as race. Although laws mandating segregated schools were often justified based on the “Separate but Equal” doctrine, in reality the facilities, resources, and funding in schools were not equal. In addition, some people argued that separating schools by race had significant emotional effects and ultimately this practice negatively impacted society as a whole.

In the fall of 1950, Linda Brown, a seven-year-old third grader, was denied admission to a local modern elementary school that was just blocks from her home in Topeka, Kansas. Under the segregation laws, Linda was forced to walk six blocks to catch a school bus to take her to a school that was designated for African American children even though there was a school for white children within only 7 blocks from her home. Linda's family, along with other families, joined forces with the NAACP to file suit against the school district (Cozzens, 1995). Linda’s case was combined with other school segregation cases. The case became known as Brown v. Board of Education. Thurgood Marshall, the lead attorney for the NAACP, argued before the court that separate schools for whites and blacks were inherently unequal (Linder, 2011). On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision that segregating schools based on race violated the Equal Protection clause in the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution (McBride, 2006). Thus, the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education outlawed De Jure racial segregation in schools in the United States. The case is widely known as one of the most significant Supreme Court cases in American history.

It should be noted that despite the decision in the Brown v. Board of Education case, desegregating public schools was a slow and difficult process. Additionally, equality, or lack thereof, in public schooling still remains a prominent issue in education today.

The Launching of Sputnik - International Pressure Impacts Education

During the 1950s, the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union became increasingly intense. The competition between the two nations was heightened in 1957 when the Soviet Union successfully launched a satellite into space, known as Sputnik. Many Americans worried about the new capabilities of the Soviet Union and there was considerable concern among the public.

As a result of the successful launching of Sputnik, questions arose about whether schools in America were doing enough to keep pace with the Soviet Union. People began to fear that America’s education system was falling behind on an international scale. According to Brent Maddin, a Harvard doctoral student, Sputnik served as a “focusing event” that put a spotlight on the issue of the quality of American education (Powell, 2007). The concern about education in the United States sparked a number of educational reforms, which particularly focused on the areas of math and science.

The National Defense of Education Act and Educational Reforms

Based on the concern over the launching of Sputnik, international pressure, and the competition with the Soviet Union, education in American was considered by many to be a matter of national security. This idea became increasingly more prevalent as Cold War tensions continued to grow. Americans wanted to ensure that the education system in the United States would lead to citizens being able to develop resources that surpassed those being produced in the Soviet Union. In 1958, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA)

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to provide federal funding for education at all levels to try to ensure that highly trained individuals would be able to help America outcompete the Soviet Union (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).

After the launching of Sputnik, educational reforms were made in schools across America. Educational reforms were made to math and science curricula and school boards across the country adopted new resources to try to improve educational achievement. In classrooms, educational tools began to change. Lab kits and hand-on activities became an important part of instruction in many schools (Abramson, 2007). One well-known educational reform was an initiative called new math. New Math was an attempt to emphasize important mathematical concepts and to increase student awareness of the underlying structure of the subject (Boyd, 2011; Adams, 2006). It promoted the importance of having a conceptual understanding of mathematical reasoning and the principles of the subject (Walmsley, 2003). This differed from the traditional methods of teaching math, which often relied on memorization and repetition. The popularity of new math was relatively short lived. While there were some successes, in the eyes of many Americans new math along with some of the other educational reforms did not live up to expectations. This ultimately led to a trend of going “back to the basics” in America education (Burris, 2010).

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965

In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson. This law aligned with Johnson’s “war on poverty” and it was considered to be the most extensive federal education law that had been passed and implemented in America (The Social Welfare History Project, 2013).

The ESEA increased federal funding in effort to improve the quality of education in the country. In particular, the ESEA included a significant provision, known as Title I, which provided federal funding to public schools based on the percentage of students from low-income households (The Social Welfare History Project, 2013). Title I is still in existence today and the funding is used to support significant educational programs and school initiatives.

Back to the Basics Movement

In the 1970s and early 1980s, many Americans called for a return to traditional methods of teaching in an attempt increase student achievement and educational performance. Despite the reforms to education that had been made in the 1950s and 1960s, many people felt that educational achievement had not sufficiently improved. As a result, many people pushed for public schools to go back to using traditional teaching methods, which placed an emphasis on teachers directly covering content and having students learn and memorize the “essential” information/skills. Thus, a movement spread across the country to go “back to the basics”.

The Back to the Basics Movement focused on ensuring that traditional skills and essential knowledge was taught in school. While the intent of the Back to the Basics Movement was to produce a significant increase in educational performance, student achievement did not increase at the rate that many had desired. As a result, Americans continued to remain concerned about the quality of the educational system and the competition from other countries. A Nation at Risk In 1983, a famous federal report called A Nation at Risk was released. A Nation at Risk focused on a pattern of low academic achievement in public schools in America and it warned that education in America was "being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity” (Toppo, 2008).

A Nation at Risk also indicated that American students were being outperformed by students from other industrialized nations. The report clearly suggested that the American educational system was not living up to expectations. The report increased the concern among the public about the quality of education in America.

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With concerns over the educational system, educational leaders began to promote the design and use of clear academic standards to try to increase educational performance. Many educational leaders felt that academic standards would be helpful because they would clarify what students needed to know (and be able to do) at different grade levels and in different subject areas. Teachers, parents, and students could focus on meeting the academic standards with the idea of increasing overall educational achievement. States began to implement reforms that involved designing and implementing academic standards along with developing assessments to determine the progress levels of students. In addition, the concerns about education in America opened the door for the federal government to play a larger role in trying to improve public education in the country.

Efforts to Improve Public Education

Goals 2000

In 1994, President Clinton signed the Goals 2000: Educate America Act. The act provided resources to states and communities to improve the quality of public education. Goals 2000 supported the efforts by states to develop clear and rigorous standards to clarify what every child should know and be able to do through public schooling. The act also promoted the development of plans by state leaders to improve their public schools (Goals 2000 Report, 1998).

No Child Left Behind The widespread support to improve the system of education in America helped to lead the way for new initiatives to increase achievement and accountability. President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act into law on January 8, 2002. NCLB was actually a reauthorization of the federal Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), but it was given a new name (No Child Left Behind) and it included new provisions that involved increasing accountability for public schools and particularly for public schools receiving Title I funds.

NCLB emphasized the importance of establishing grade level academic standards, measuring student performance using standards-based assessments, establishing measurable academic performance-related goals, and increasing accountability.

Key Ideas of NCLB

Increasing Academic Performance One of the centerpieces of No Child Left Behind involved increasing student performance on grade-level academic standards. In particular, a major goal of the legislation involved having all children reach proficiency with grade-level standards in language arts and math by 2014 (Yell and Drasgow, 2009). State standards-based assessments have been used to measure proficiency levels and to determine the performance levels of public schools.

Reporting Results NCLB emphasized the importance of public schools reporting the results of their efforts to promote student achievement. Performance levels of public schools and states have been reported via annual report cards based on student achievement using state standards-based assessments (Yell and Drasgow, 2009).

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Adequate Yearly Progress Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) is an important aspect of NCLB that relates to academic performance and accountability. To ensure that students were moving towards reaching the academic performance goals associated with NCLB, states were required to set specific targets to be reached annually. For example, states were required to set specific performance targets that would lead to students demonstrating grade-level proficiency in language arts and math (Yell and Drasgow, 2009). The performance results on annual statewide assessments have been used to determine whether schools were making Adequate Yearly Progress towards reaching the performance goals corresponding to NCLB (Education Research Center, 2011). In accordance with NCLB, states have been required to identify public schools that failed to meet AYP based on student performance results. The accountability provisions associated with AYP have been particularly important for schools that receive Title I funding.

The Obama Administration and Waivers In recent years, the Obama administration developed a plan to offer relief to states with public schools struggling to meet the requirements of NCLB. Based on the Obama administration’s plan, states applied to receive a waiver from certain provisions of NCLB and agreed to meet certain conditions in order to have a waiver granted (Webley, 2011). As of August of 2013, waivers had been granted to 39 states and the District of Columbia. As a state, California had not received a waiver. However, a group of eight districts in California (Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, Fresno, Oakland, Sacramento, Santa Ana and Sanger) submitted a waiver request that was separate from the state’s request. Arne Duncan, the U.S. Secretary of Education, announced in August 2013 that these districts would be granted a waiver from certain provisions of NCLB (Bidwell, 2013). The Future of Public Education and the Common Core

During the twenty-first century, new educational initiatives have been proposed, adopted, and implemented by states and local school districts. One of the most prominent and wide-reaching educational reforms has been the Common Core State Standards Initiative. This initiative has established a new set of standards for schools to focus on. The new Common Core Standards have been adopted by many states (including California) and these standards are currently being implemented in public schools across the country.

The new Common Core Standards are designed to better prepare America’s students for college and the workforce in the twenty-first century. The new standards emphasize skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, connecting academic content to real world applications, analyzing and evaluating information, examining content at an in-depth level, and formulating evidenced-based conclusions.

Additionally, the Common Core Standards emphasize the importance of students learning and utilizing literacy skills in subject areas across the curriculum. Overall, advocates of the Common Core State Standards Initiative believe that these new standards will help students to be better prepared for life in the 21st century.

As indicated above, public schools across the country (and across California) have begun to implement the new Common Core Standards. Teachers have been working to engage students in instructional activities that align with the new standards and that are designed to help students become college and career ready in the 21st century. The first official and full assessments based on the new Common Core Standards are scheduled to be given during the 2014-2015 school year.

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Conclusion

Education in America has undergone many changes over the years. There have been significant issues, events, concerns, policies, and achievements that have served to shape the system of public education in the United States. Educational change continues to occur today as educators work towards finding the best ways to maximize learning, promote the value of education, and prepare students with the skills that are needed to be successful in our society.

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