Foundations of Indian Philosophy

8/2/2019 Foundations of Indian Philosophy

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Heather DeLancett

Fall 2009

Dharma, Karma, Yoga: The Foundational Speculations of India

Due to the wide diversity of streams of thought and the holistic connection between religious and

philosophical beliefs in India, it is often daunting to approach any attempt at a summary of the

philosophical content of Indian traditions with conclusive sounding statements. Hinduism is an umbrella

term for the religion of the majority of people in India and Nepal, and of Indias approximate population

of 900 million people, 700 million identify themselves as Hindu.1

However, a definition of what

Hinduism is, or is not, becomes problematic because the term gathers together many related religions and

philosophies which do not share a single historical founder, a unified system of beliefs or a central

authority.2

Additionally, the issue of multiple and differing qualities of translations from Sanskrit, Pali, and

Hindi languages further complicate understanding. The Western student of Indian philosophy must even

shift the idea of category3 to accommodate the diversity and interwoven nature of the subjects involved in

this pursuit. Despite these challenges, we can identify some key commonalities and crucial differences

which have played major roles in the development of Indian thought and which continue to be significant

in our current time.

1Gavin Flood,An Introduction to Hinduism, (Great Britain and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pgs. 1, 5. This

estimate is taken from the March 1991 census of India.2

Ibid.3Gavin Flood (ibid. 7,) refers to prototype theory as being the most effective in describing degrees of category

membership where there is relation of family resemblance with very fuzzy edges, and where members of a category may

be related to one another without all members having any properties in common that define the category. This theory

was developed: George Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind(Chicago and

London: University of Chicago Press, 1987).


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The central philosophical questions of Indian philosophy, or darshana, (meaning vision or

worldview), began much as Western pre-Socratic philosophy did - with seeking the nature of absolute

reality. Is it changing? Is it eternal? Is it made of more than one thing, or is it a monism? Is it immanent

or transcendent, or both? Of all the diverse religious and philosophical beliefs ofBharat(the Republic of

India), the various traditions are primarily divided on how they approach this one central question.

During the period 600 200 B.C.E. especially, different interpretations of the nature of absolute reality,

the nature of self, and solutions to the problem of suffering arose. The most notable and enduring of

these philosophical deviances from the main stream are Jainism and Buddhism. The challenges raised by

Jainism and Buddhism were integrated into the Hindu foundations and responded to through the Epics

the most popular being a portion of the Mahabharatacalled the Bhagavad Gita. These enduring living

traditions Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism disagree about a few key philosophical issues, but largely

share many common concepts.

The history of Indian philosophy begins with the collection of sacred texts known as the Vedas.

The Vedas can be considered the backbone of Hinduisms spiritual and philosophical beliefs and

practices to this day. It is generally accepted that the earliest content within the Vedic collection is

primarily of the Aryan cultures influence mixed with elements of the Dravidian Indus Valley culture. The

Sanskrit speaking Aryan culture came to dominate the Indus Valley over time, and what we presently

know of these peoples is from the Sanskrit verses which were passed via oral traditions for many hundreds

of years prior to being recorded in any existing writing. These early Vedic writings are composed of

hymns to gods such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, as well as rituals for ceremonial sacrifices to gain the

blessings of these deities, which are primarily personification of features and forces in the natural world.

These earlier components of the Vedasare considered to be divinely transmitted and there is a great deal

of emphasis on the power of words and language employed to bring about the desired conditions. In the


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Vedas, brahmanmeans prayer or sacred word and the power that these contain.4

It was believed that

our human lives were dependent on the correct ritual interaction with the gods and goddesses, or devas

(shining ones), to secure order and balance in an otherwise hazardous world.5

Absolute reality in the

Vedicverses is regarded as a cyclical, changing, order which provides structure and rhythm to existence.

The cosmic order, rta/rita, is an important concept in all of Indian philosophy because it shapes a moral

interaction between humans and a type of divine justice which leads to the widespread acceptance of doing

ones duty to uphold and support existence itself.6

The concepts ofdharmaand karmaarise from this

moral interaction with the cosmic order. Dharma, a complex network of inter-related social and moral

duties was originally based purelyon ones place in the caste system and the family, but has changed and

expanded through time as Indian philosophers grapple with the question of how it is best to live.

Beginning around 800 B.C.E., a tradition of commentaries upon the hymns and rituals of the

earlier Vedicverses took a more philosophical turn. These increasingly philosophical commentaries are

known as the Upanishads. The Upanishadsare considered part of the Vedasand are acknowledged to be

inspired, but human in origin. The Upanishadswere the closely guarded secret teachings of the Vedic

tradition and were passed from aguru to student disciples only after extensive proper training. The

training prescribed by the Upanishadsincludes manana (reflection) for obtaining intellectual conviction,

and dhyana(meditation) for gaining direct experience.7

This dhyana/meditation is a form ofyogameant

to prepare the student for contemplating the ultimate truth - to enable him to grasp the unity of existence

as directly and compellingly as the multiplicity and diversity of the world is grasped and for that

comprehension to become a permanent influence on the disciples life.8

This form of meditation

4John Bowker, Beliefs That Changed the World: The History and Ideas of the Great Religions (London: Quercus Publishing,

2007), p. 1025

Ibid., p. 1006

John M. Koller,Asian Philosophies, 5th

ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), p. 127

M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Philosophy (Bombay: George Allen & Unwin (India) Private Ltd, 1973), p. 268

Ibid.


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demands detachment from selfish interests, which is a necessary prerequisite no one that has not

undergone a course of ethical training calculated to kill all egoistic impulses is qualified for serious study of

the Upanishads.9

The student signifies the completion of this ethical training by entering the fourth stage

of life and becoming asamnyasin a renunciant who dwells in forest hermitage seated near theguru.

In many ways, the teachings of the Upanishads seem to be essentially in opposition to the beliefs

inherent in the earlier Vedichymns and rituals. Amazingly, much like contradictory Christian doctrines

being canonized, the Upanishadsand the early ritual hymns are fitted together and are all considered parts

of the collection of Vedic sacred texts which compose the more orthodox Hindu views. As the

Upanishads teachings grew in social importance, new metaphysical realities emerged in Hindu thought

and society. The importance of the highest caste was shifted in a profound political-ideological sweep

which turned the functions of the Vedicscholar/priests and their societal functions on their heads, along

with the previous primaryVedicvalues of correct sacred words and exact rituals to gain favor and divine

communion with their beloved gods. New values emerged from the Upanishads values centered on the

axis of the goal of moksha (liberation) from samsara (continual rebirth into the world, wandering)

where words hold the power only of academic and intellectual interest,10

but lack the dynamic experience

of understanding reality. Where the previous Vedicvalues centered on affirmation and celebration of

abundance in lifes pleasures, the Upanishadsset forth a world renouncing philosophy concerned with

methods of release from the wheel of life. The ascetic samnyasin, and his yogamaster guru, who leave

behind the affairs of the community to seek enlightenment (moksha, liberation), were now the revered

spiritual authorities in replacement of the priests who memorized the holyVedicscriptures. Additionally,

this path of renunciation was open to many, and not merely the high caste.

9M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Philosophy (Bombay: George Allen & Unwin (India) Private Ltd, 1973), p. 28

10Ibid., p. 27


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Many different views and schools arose out of the question of howmokshais to be obtained. One

of the earliest movements in reaction to the Upanishads was that of the Jains. Rejecting the sacrificial

rituals of the Vedic Brahmans (ritual experts)as well as the varnas(caste system) and what they viewed as

the injustices and immoralities within society, they also withdrew into the forest, but due to their views

became outside of society altogether.11

The Jains accepted the goal of moksha and set themselves to

developing a highly sophisticated theoretical metaphysics of non-action with the aim of liberation via the

elimination ofkarma. The idea ofkarma, or the idea that ones present is affected by previous actions,

was common prior to the Upanishads, but the Jains took an extremely ascetic and austere approach to

burning off these accumulations as quickly as possible, believing that the original state of human being

(Jiva) is pure, and only the bondage of karma (action) holds us within matter and prevents us from the

realization of our own enlightened nature. Thus, the Jains sought to create a refining process to burn away

accumulated karmaby a path of progressive purification as gold (the souls inherent luminosity) can be

separated from ore (matter).12 This path of purification is focused on living a combination of the three

jewels of deep faith, right knowledge, and pure conduct which progresses towards complete self-restraint

and the elimination ofall passions until the soul attains disembodied eternal liberation 13 and becomes a

Jina, (Conqueror), also known as aTirthankara, (Ford-maker) he who has conquered material bondage

and made it to the other side as pure liberated soul (Jiva).

Unfortunately, it seems that the most recent Tirthankara, Mahavira, was born in 599 B.C.E. and

the Jain tradition has greatly embellished his story.14

Personally, this writer would prefer something with a

higher success rate but recognizes there is much to be appreciated in the Jains theory of truth and

philosophical developments. Pondering absolute reality, Jains posit the rich and complex many-sidedness,


2007), p. 12412


ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), pgs. 34-3513

Ibid., p. 3714

Ibid., p. 31


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or anekanta, of existence and affirms both permanence in substances and change in forms/modes of those

substances. This goes against the Upanishadsteachings thatBrahmanis absolute, unchanging reality, and

so Jainism, (along with Buddhism), is considered to be heterodox to the Vedanta(the settled conclusions

of the Vedastaken as a whole15). Though the view of absolute reality differs, Jainism shares the same goal

and essential methods prescribed by the Upanishadsteachings, but perhaps with a bit more enthusiasm,

intensity and eccentricity.

Indian philosophy, in general, is the pursuit of practical ways of living well and reducing suffering,

or dukkha. About a generation later, Siddartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha (the Enlightened

One, the Awakened One), presented another vision of absolute reality and the path to liberation. The son

of a king, Siddartha had rejected his life of worldly pleasures and joined the ascetic forest-dwellers and

studied with thegurus. Finding worldly indulgence and world renouncing to be but different sides of the

same coin, he sought the Middle Way and gained Enlightenment. Instead of taking his Enlightenment

as an opportunity to be liberated from the world of physical matter and rebirth, the Buddha returned to

teach what he had realized about the nature of suffering (dukkha) and a new goal concept ofnirvana.16

The Four Noble Truths taught by the Buddha are a metaphysical revolution in response to the previous

ideas of the Absolute (Brahman), the Self (Atman)and the problem of suffering (dukkha), based on the

assertion of a new metaphysical concept of Dependent Arising (pratitya-samutpada).

The Buddha taught that nothing exists separately by itself and nothing is permanent. There is no

absolute unchanging reality (Brahman) and there is no independent soul/self being reborn (Atman).

There is only a constant flow of moments of appearance, one giving rise to the next, with the

15M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Philosophy (Bombay: George Allen & Unwin (India) Private Ltd, 1973), p. 151

16Compare Hiriyannas discussion (Ibid., p 28) on the goal of the Upanishads also being liberation while still alive, known

asjivanmukti, for further reflection on whether the Buddhas nirvana/Enlightenment was truly a new concept/goal. The

primary difference in the concepts ofjivanmuktiand nirvana, historically, seem to do with orientation to participation in

the hermitage vs. larger society, respectively.


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consequences ofkarmaworking themselves out in sequences of reappearances.17

Born into a condition of

ignorance about the true nature of constantly changing interconnected processes, we desperately crave to

be or have a separate and permanent self.18

This craving for separateness and permanence due to

ignorance (avidya) is a wrong orientation and gives rise to all forms of dukkha (suffering, dissatisfaction).

By aligning ourselves to the true nature of Dependent Arising via the Eightfold Path, we can obtain

nirvana, the extinction of craving for a separate and permanent self. As this craving for separate

permanence is the root of all dukkha,when it is extinguished, then a life of peace and joy free of suffering

is attained.19

With the rise of Buddhism, the goal ofmoksha(liberation from the cycle of rebirth into the world)

was still seen as a goal, but shifted the focus back into spiritual participation within society. Buddhists also

rejected the varnas(caste system) and a response was needed from the Vedicauthorities to speak to and

lead the masses of people through these philosophical challenges while reasserting faith in the authority of

the Vedas. These responses came in the form of the Epics the Ramayanaand the Mahabharata which

are moral guides to life which focus on the issue of dharma. Dharma literally means that which holds

together and signifies the basis of all social and moral order. How is it that we should live? What is it

our duty to fulfill? These questions are the glue of the primary philosophical explorations of these two

great Epics.

A small section of the Mahabharata is known as the Bhagavad Gita, and it is one of the most

beloved stories of the Indian subcontinent.20

This story is about Arjuna, a man of the warrior caste, having


2007), p. 14818


ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), p. 5719

Ibid.20

John Bowker, Beliefs That Changed the World: The History and Ideas of the Great Religions (London: Quercus Publishing,

2007), p. 101


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a moral dilemma about whether there is ever a just cause for killing ones friends, family, and teachers just

because they are on the other side of the battlefield, and about what the karmicconsequences of such

actions might be. Krishna, as an avatar (manifestation) of the god Vishnu, guides Arjuna through this

dharmadilemma and posits that the key to life is to obey ones duty ofdharma(to act correctly within the

social order/caste system), but to do so without attachment to the consequences. Krishnas response

reflects the Upanishads teachings that Atman (Self) is Brahman (eternal, unchanging) within the

conditional samsara(continuous rebirth):

Arjuna, when a man knows the self to be indestructible, enduring, unborn, unchanging, how does

he kill or cause anyone to kill? As a man discards worn-out clothes to put on new and different

ones, so the embodied self discards its worn-out bodies to take on other new ones.21

Additionally, Krishna emphasizes the path of understanding throughyoga (Jnana yoga)in order to become

detached from the consequences of action, karma, through fulfilling ones duty ofdharma:

Understanding is defined in terms of philosophy; now hear it in spiritual discipline (yoga). Armed

with this understanding, Arjuna, you will escape the bondage of action (karma).22

Be intent on action (karma), not on the fruits of action; avoid attraction to the fruits and attachment

to inaction! Perform actions, firm in discipline (yoga), relinquishing attachment; be impartial tofailure and success - this equanimity is called discipline (yoga). Arjuna, action (karma) is far inferior

to the discipline (yoga) of understanding; so seek refuge in understanding pitiful are men drawn

by the fruit of action.23

Here we find a direct response and rejection ofthe Jains attachment to inaction which then leads into an

almost Buddhist styled approach in the recommendation ofRaja Yoga:

When he renounces all desires and acts without craving, possessiveness, or individuality, he finds

peace. This is the place of infinite spirit; achieving it, one is freed from delusion; abiding in it even

at the time of death, one finds the pure calm of infinity.24

21The Bhagavad Gita, translated by Barbara Stoler Miller (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), Chapter II, Verses 21-22

22Ibid., Verse 39

23Ibid., Verses 47-49

24Ibid., Verses 71-72


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While the goal of moksha is inherent to this text, this passage does seem to suggest, much like the

Buddhas teachings, that if our craving for individuality is extinguished, we may find peace and joy within

this life.

Later in the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna rejoins this goal to the social structure by means of making it

proper to a life-cycle (samnyasin/sannyasin)within the greater scope of ones dharma:

One who does what must be done, without concern for the fruits, is a man of renunciation

(sannyasin) and discipline, not one who shuns ritual fire and rites. Know that discipline (yoga),

Arjuna, is what men call renunciation (sannyasam); no man is disciplined without renouncing

willful intent.

Action (karma) is the means for a sage who seeks to mature in discipline (yoga); tranquility is the

means for one who is mature in discipline (yoga). He is said to be mature in discipline (yoga)

when he has renounced all intention and is detached from sense objects and actions.25

As the text goes on, Krishna advises to Arjuna a path of discipline (yoga) which is actually a progression

through the four traditional paths ofyoga. Beginning with Karma Yoga, the path of service to others and

mindfulness ofdharma/karmathrough action, Krishna describes how one advances through Jnana Yoga,

discarding false beliefs through introspection leading to conceptual understanding, and Raja Yoga,

confronting/transcending the minds contents.

Arjuna, aKshatriya, or member of the warrior caste, has received Krishnas advice regarding the

paths ofyoga, but still fears:

When a man has faith, but no acetic will, and his mind deviates from discipline (yoga) before its

perfection is achieved, what way is there for him, Krishna?26

Krishna responds by advising the fourth path ofyoga, Bhakti, the path of loving devotion:

Of all the men of discipline, the faithful man devoted to me, with his inner self deep in mine,

I deem most disciplined.27

25The Bhagavad Gita, translated by Barbara Stoler Miller (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), Chapter VI, Verses 1-4

26Ibid., Verse 37


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One who serves me faithfully, with discipline of devotion, transcends the qualities of nature

and shares in the infinite spirit (Brahman).28

Though there is disagreement29, this does not seem to suggest that the Bhaktipath will lead to moksha

from samsara. However, it is certainly recognized as a valid and valued path for the masses of those not

inclined to ascetic discipline and world-renouncing. This is a way for those living in society and

maintaining its functions to also participate in the spiritual ideals of Indian philosophy, and also reflects the

religious attitudes towards the deities of the earlyVedicscriptures.

There are endless interpretations of the Bhagavad Gita and its content, and it is difficult not to

question whether it is an opiate for the masses merely disguising political symbolisms, especially in regard

to Krishnas conclusion of advising Bhakti yoga as the highest path to the infinite spirit of Brahman.

Ananda Coomaraswamy urges us to not quickly dismiss this work, considering:

the Bhagavad Gitaas probably the most important single work ever produced in India; this book

of eighteen chapters is not, as it has been sometimes called, a sectarian work, but one universally

studied and often repeated daily from memory by millions of Indians of all persuasions; it may be

described as a compendium of the whole Vedic doctrine to be found in the earlier Vedas,

Brahmanas, and Upanisads, and being therefore the basis of all the later developments, it can beregarded as the focus of all Indian religion. To this we must add that the pseudo-historical Krishna

and Arjuna are to be identified with the mythical Agni and Indra.30

27Ibid., Verse 47

28The Bhagavad Gita, translated by Barbara Stoler Miller (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), Chapter XIV , Verse 26

29Gavin Flood,An Introduction to Hinduism, (Great Britain and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pgs. 126-127.

In writing of the importance of the Bhagavad-Gita, Flood asserts: Yet above action is the path ofdevotion (bhakti-yoga)

as a way of salvation. Indeed, even women and low castes can achieve liberation in this way, a statement in stark contrast

to the orthodox brahmanicalidea that only the twice-born have access to liberation through renunciation. This writer

finds many problematic issues with the above statement: primarily that this is a incredibly liberal interpretation of

liberation and does not really equal moksha in theory or practical application within societal interpretation (until,

perhaps, very recently), and secondly, the Upanishads had already opened up the path to moksha to a wider access than

the twice-born (Brahmin caste). Krishna councils Arjuna, a member of the kshatriya (warrior) caste regarding the yogic

path. There seems no strong evidence that the authors of the Epics had any intention of philosophically qualifying women

and lower castes for moksha, though they may be happy in their lot of life through merging with Krishna (the Preserver of

life and society) through theistic devotion.30

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Hinduism and Buddhism, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1943), pgs. 4-5


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It is common for exoteric religious canons to call on a sense of devotion and worship from the people to a

God-form. However, the idea that the inclusion ofBhakti, (as a superior form of discipline for those not

burning with desire to renounce the world to seek knowledge of God and Self), being a later addition to

the original text can be satisfactorily dismissed. The Four Traditional Paths of Yoga have long been

regarded as complimentary, as different aspects of the whole, like fingers on a hand:

It is popular these days for a teacher or institution to develop some approach to Yoga that

"synthesizes" or "integrates" these four paths ofYoga(along with other component aspects ofYoga).

However, that is misleading in that they were never really divided in the first place. It is not a

matter of pasting together separate units. Rather, they are all a part of the whole which is called

Yoga. Virtually all people have a predisposition towards one or the other, and will naturally want to

emphasize those practices.31

Additionally, as alluded to by Coomaraswamy, Krishna, the primary character of the entire Bhagavad Gita,

is a Bhakti deity, and certainly not a figure emanating out of the other discipline branches of Yoga.

Devotion to a Lord who is personal is the primary characteristic to Bhagavatas (those who worship a

composite God-form consisting of Vasudeva, Vishnu and Krishna) and this God-form is known as the

Preserver/Sustainer (of life, society, the world, etc.) and can also be recognized as a continuing form of

Vedic deities in charge of maintaining the order (rta) of the universe. Had the original intent of the

authors been to suggest the superiority of either Jnana (understanding/knowledge) or Raja (royal

meditation), the hero guide of the Epic story would have likely been Shiva due to that God-forms

association with ascetic world-renouncinggurusand samnyasin.

Perhaps the greatest commonality between the various darshanas, or worldviews, of India is the

relative tolerance and acceptance of differing beliefs. Here generalizations can get slippery and should

certainly not swing too broadly, but a foundational attitude within many Indian philosophical traditions can

31Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati, Four Paths of Yoga: Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, Raja,http://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-

yoga.htm. Accessed 08 Dec. 2009.
http://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htmhttp://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htmhttp://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htmhttp://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htmhttp://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htmhttp://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htm


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be found in application. Testimony, or shabda, as a separate and valid means of knowledge, is at home in

Indian philosophical traditions,32

though it is barely regarded beneath the all consuming focus on

perception in Western philosophy traditions. The idea that the mind and experience of another person

can always only be known as an object, (and therefore unknowable by the knowing subject of self), seems

to be a core belief across the Indian philosophical/religious spectrum. Though we cannot know the mind

of the other, the spirit of Indian philosophy seems to persuade that we are bound (due to moral dharma,

realization that we are all Brahman, compassion through wisdom, or need to practice ahimsa) to give due

reverence to the many streams, threads, paths, visions of truth which are relative and proper to each

persons understanding. To look at the differences in a hierarchical manner would be to miss the point.

The goal of Indian philosophy since the time of the Upanishadshas been one seeking liberation,

and this can be seen in the quest for enlightenment/moksha. A corresponding, but slightly less obvious

goal has been another sort of liberation freedom from the tyranny of words/language to have power over

our worldview. In the Vedas, the correct words of power were absolutely fundamental to the entire

worldview of the people. The Upanishads lower the importance of words and point to that which is

beyond. The Jains seek to analyze how words are bondage to false concepts and the Buddhists remind us

that words are empty of inherent existence and push beyond referential conceptions. Remember/Re-

member:

Symbols are only the vehiclesof communication; they must not be mistaken for the final term, the

tenor, of their reference. No matter how attractive or impressive they may seem, they remain but

convenient means, accommodated to the understanding. Hence the personality or personalities of

God whether represented in trinitarian, dualistic, or unitarian terms, in polytheistic,monotheistic, or henotheisitic terms, pictorially or verbally, as documented fact or as apocalyptic

vision no one should attempt to read or interpret as the final thing.33

32John M. Koller,Asian Philosophies, 5

thed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), p. 144

33Joseph Campbell, The Hero With a Thousand Faces, 2

nded. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 236


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In conclusion, I find there is no proper conclusion, only many questions and many streams to explore in

the mighty currents and tributaries of philosophical speculation.

Documents

Foundations of Indian Philosophy