Forty-five years later: The shifting dynamic of traditionalecological knowledge on Pantelleria Island, Italy

CASSANDRA L. QUAVE*,1,2,3 AND ALESSANDRO SAITTA4

1Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University College of Arts and Sciences, 550 AsburyCircle, Candler Library 107, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA2Emory Herbarium, Emory University College of Arts and Sciences, 1462 Clifton Rd NE, Room 102,Atlanta, GA 30322, USA3Department of Dermatology, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael St., Whitehead 105L,Atlanta, GA 30322, USA4Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 11, Bldg. ≠ 4,90128, Palermo, Italy*Corresponding author; e-mail: cquave@emory.edu

In 1969, Galt and Galt conducted an ethnobotanical survey in the community of Khamma on the volcanicisland of Pantelleria, Italy. Since then, a number of botanical studies concerning the local wild flora and cultivationof the zibibbo grape and capers have been conducted, but none have investigated traditional ecological knowledge(TEK) regarding the use of wild plants and fungi.We documented the current TEK and practices concerning wildplants and fungi on the island, focusing on uses related to food and medicine with 42 in-depth interviews in sixcommunities in June 2014. Our aim was to examine shifts in TEK, represented in terms of loss or gain of specificspecies uses, in comparison to the 1969 study. All interviews were conducted in person in Italian with priorinformed consent. We employed two primary means of eliciting responses concerning traditional practices;informants were asked to: 1) free-list the most commonly used plants for wild foods, general medicine, and skinremedies; and 2) view and discuss a booklet composed of photos of species reported in the Galt and Galt study. Intotal, 86 botanical and 19 fungal species representing 53 families were cited.Whilemany plant-based traditions havedisappeared from daily practice, especially those related to traditional fishing and hunting, they remain in thememories of the eldest subset of the population. For example, one of the most pervasive species in the landscape,Opuntia ficus-indica, has current day uses that persist as a food source, but its past applications were muchmore diverse, and included manipulation into hunting snares for birds. Other predominant flora included anumber of Euphorbia spp., whose toxic latex was regularly used as a fish poison. Fungi, on the other hand,nowadays represent an important source of wild food. In conclusion, we documented a decline inknowledge and practice of TEK related to ritual healing, livestock rearing, hunting and fishing practicesand an increase in TEK concerning newly introduced edible fungi.

Nel 1969, Galt e Galt hanno condotto un’indagine etnobotanica presso la comunità di Khamma dell’isolavulcanica di Pantelleria, in Italia. Da allora, sono stati condotti una serie di studi botanici riguardanti la floraspontanea locale e la coltivazione della vite zibibbo ed i capperi, ma nessuno ha eseguito indagini relative alleconoscenze ecologiche tradizionali (TEK) per quanto riguarda l’uso delle piante selvatiche e dei funghi. Abbiamodocumentato le attuali TEK e le pratiche sugli usi delle piante spontanee e dei funghi dell’isola, focalizzando

1 Received 17 March 2016; accepted 1 December2016; published online ___________

Electronic supplementary material The online versionof this article (doi:10.1007/s12231-016-9363-x) containssupplementary material, which is available to authorizedusers.

Economic Botany, XX(X), 2016, pp. 1–14© 2016, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

l’attenzione sugli usi come alimento ed in campo medico, grazie a 42 interviste approndite, condotte in seicomunità nel giugno del 2014. Il nostro scopo era di esaminare i cambiamenti nelle TEK, rappresentati in terminidi perdita o acquisizione dell’uso specifico di alcune specie, in confronto con lo studio del 1969. In totale, 86specie di piante e 19 specie fungine incluse in 53 famiglie sono state citate dagli intervistati. Nonostante moltetradizioni legate alle piante siano scomparse dalla pratica quotidiana, in particolare quelle legate alla pescatradizionale e la caccia, esse rimangono nei ricordi degli individui più anziani della popolazione. Ad esempio,una delle specie più diffuse nel paesaggio,Opuntia ficus-indica, viene oggi utilizzata esclusivamente come fontedi cibo, ma le sue applicazioni in passato erano molto più diversificate, e comprendevano anche lacostruzione di trappole per la cattura di piccoli uccelli. La flora comprende un rilevante numero di Euphorbiaspp., il cui lattice tossico veniva utilizzato come veleno per i pesci. I funghi, oggi rappresentanoesclusivamente una fonte di cibo naturale. In conclusione, abbiamo osservato un declino relativamente allaconoscenza e la pratica di TEK relative alla medicina rituale, all'allevamento, alla caccia ed alla pesca, ed unincremento delle TEK che riguarda l‘utilizzo di funghi eduli.

Key Words: Mediterranean, medicinal plants, Daphne gnidium, Malva arborea, Opuntia ficus-indica,edible fungi, Sicily.

Introduction

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has beenidentified as a key resource for community resiliencein the face of environmental change by both promo-ting capacity for coping with change and supportingcommunity cohesion in the face of extremes (e.g.,Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2012; Quave and Pieroni2015). TEK has been defined as Ba cumulative bodyof knowledge, practices, and beliefs evolving byadaptive processes and handed down through gene-rations by cultural transmission, about the relationof living beings (including humans) with one an-other and with their environment^ (Berkes 1993).It can play a crucial adaptive role in communityresponse to change (Berkes et al. 2000) and as suchhas been the focus of much research, especially inthe field of ethnobotany. A common theme inmany ethnobotanical studies has been an observa-tion of TEK loss due to the lack of transmission ofknowledge between living elder and younger gene-rations and trends towards adoption of Westernlifestyles following further integration into marketeconomies. For example, in Italy, TEK loss has beenreported for the domains of plant-based medicines(e.g., Pieroni et al. 2004; Savo et al. 2011;Tuttolomondo et al. 2014), foods (e.g., Pieroniet al. 2002; Vitalini et al. 2013), and agroecosystems(e.g., Savo et al. 2014). Investigations into TEK losshave focused on documenting this knowledgebefore it disappears from oral history, investigatingthe processes and drivers of TEK loss, and examin-ing the collateral impact on biocultural diversity(Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2012).

Here, we take advantage of a unique opportunityto examine TEK in an isolated island populationthat was previously studied nearly half a centuryago. To be exact, an ethnobotanical survey wasconducted in the community of Khamma on theisland of Pantelleria in 1969 with the aim ofdocumenting traditional practices in the domainsof food, agriculture, medicine, and maritime activ-ities (Galt and Galt 1978). Since then, a number ofbotanical and economic studies concerning the localwild flora and cultivation of the zibibbo grape andcapers have been conducted (e.g., Calò et al. 2013;Fici and Gianguzzi 1997; Galt 1979; Tudisca et al.2011), but none have addressed TEK of wild plantsand fungi on the island. Here, 45 years later, werevisit this topic, documenting the remaining TEKconcerning wild plants and fungi for food, health,and other economic and household applications.The central aim of this study is to investigate whichTEK of species uses have survived in both practiceand memory of native Pantescans. We hypothesizethat TEK loss over this period will be minimal andthat at least 80% of previously documented speciesuses will remain either in memory or practice today.

Methods

STUDY SITE

Pantelleria is a small volcanic island located in theMediterranean Sea, situated approximately 95 kmsouth of Sicily and 67 km north of Tunisia (NorthernAfrica), located between N 36° 44.03′–N 36° 50.20′andE11° 57.16′–N12°03.30′ (Fig. 1). Belonging to

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the Province of Trapani (Sicily), it is the largest ofthe Sicilian isles and populated by roughly 7,000inhabitants and visited by tourists who come to theisland to enjoy its numerous natural attractions suchas the Specchio di Venere, a geothermally heated lakewith healing muds, archeological sites such as theByzantine tombs, and local foods and beveragessuch as capers and the passito wine. Pantelleria isvery biodiverse with flora distributed across 73 fam-ilies, including several endemic species: Genistaaspalathoides var. gussonei Boiss., Helichrysumrupestre var. errerae DC., Limonium secundirameum(Lojac.) Greuter & Burdet, L. cosyrense Kuntze,L. parvifolium (Tineo) Pignatti, Matthiola incanasubsp. pulchella (L.) W.T. Aiton, Medicagotruncatula var. cosyrensis Gaertn., Senecioleucanthemifolius var. cosyrensis Phil., and Trifoliumnigrescens subsp. nigrescens var. dolychodon Viv.(Gianguzzi 1999). The territory can be divided intoth r e e d i f f e r en t b io c l ima t i c b e l t s . Theinframediterranean semiarid (0–200 m.a.s.l.), thethermomediterranean dry (200–450 m.a.s.l.), andthe mesomediterranean sub-humid. The last biocli-matic belt characterizes the highest part of Monta-gna Grande (>600 m.a.s.l.). The first belt is mainlycharacterized by maquis. The second belt includesevergreen broadleaves withQuercus ilex L. dominat-ed forests, Erica arborea L., and Arbutus unedo L.,and the third is dominated by pine forests (Pinushalepensis Mill. and Pinus pinaster subsp. hamiltonii(Ten.) Lindl. & Gordon (Gianguzzi 2003).

This study location provided a unique opportunityfor studying the role of TEK in an isolated andclimatically harsh environment. Some key

environmental factors that locals dealt with in the pastincluded scarce access to fresh water, with the onlysource in the past for personal use coming from verylimited rainfall collected using the roof architecturetypical of the dammuso, which is constructed instone and volcanic rock and features a white-rounded roof with connections to an undergroundcistern (Constantino 2010). Nowadays, freshwateris delivered to the island by ship. In all aspects oflocal cultivation, much effort is placed on optimiz-ing the use of limited rainfall and protecting plantsfrom the harsh winds and sun. In response to theseenvironmental factors, local TEK has developedover time and its implementation is visible acrossthe landscape. Volcanic rocks are stacked to formterrace gardens and vineyards, with once crucialcitrus trees protected from the winds by circulartowers of volcanic rock (Fig. 2). Olive trees areprotected from the wind by heavy pruning suchthat they grow low to the ground, never exceedingthe height of an adult person. Likewise, grapevinesare cultivated in individual conical trenches dug intothe ground, and each section of vineyard issurrounded by volcanic rock terrace walls. Certainwild plant species are collected and used to provideshade to seedlings, while others are used to deterpests that could damage fruit trees. Poisonousspurges were once used to fish, while other wildspecies were used to create hunting tools. Collec-tively, this body of TEK was crucial to humansurvival in this environment in the past, and acentral aim of this study was to document remain-ing TEK in the collective memory and practice ofnative Pantescans today.

Fig. 1. Map of the study area. Image adapted from Google Earth (https://earth.google.com/).

QUAVE AND SAITTA: ETHNOBOTANY OF PANTELLERIA2016]

FIELD STUDY

A total of 42 in-depth interviews (typically lasting2 h in duration) were conducted in June 2014 inthe city center of Pantelleria and several small com-munities located across the island: Khamma,Bugeber, Scauri, Sibà, and Rekhale. All interviewswere conducted in person in Italian by CLQ andAS. Study informants were recruited with the assis-tance of introductions by the Municipality of Pan-telleria and via snowball sampling methods. Weaimed to target a mix of informants from variouseconomic activities, based in agriculture, maritimepractices, household work, etc. One elderly femaleinformant was a traditional healer in the past. Inter-views were limited to native Pantescans who havelived the majority of their life on the island. Weincluded both individual and small group (two tothree informants) interviews in the study. In thecase of group interviews, special care was taken toaccurately document which informants spontane-ously cited species information and when there wasconsensus or disagreement concerning Pantescannames and uses of the cited species. Prior informedconsent was always verbally obtained prior toconducting interviews, and the ethical standards ofthe Society for Economic Botany and InternationalSoc ie ty of Ethnobio logy were fo l lowed(International Society of Ethnobiology 2006). Weemployed two primary means of eliciting responsesconcerning traditional practices; informants wereasked to do the following:

(1) Free-list the most common uses of wild plants orfungi for foods, general medicinal remedies,

remedies for the skin (infections, burns, or in-flammations), and diarrhea; this followed themethodology described by Quinlan (2005), inwhich informants were asked to list plants andfungi and their uses in narrow cognitive do-mains; and

(2) Participate in semi-structured interviewscomplemented with a booklet composed ofphotos of 28 fungi and 93 plants (74 of whichwere reported in the study by Galt and Galt1978) to elicit responses concerning localnames and uses across multiple cognitive do-mains (e.g., concerning agricultural practices,food, medicine, ethnoveterinary practices,hunting, fishing, etc.). This technique wasemployed to specifically capture any remainingknowledge of the previously reported plant usesreported by Galt and Galt (1978).

For the purpose of clarity, individual Buse citations^refers to each mention of a plant or fungus use by aninformant. Use citation data encompassed localname(s), part(s) used, mode(s) of preparation, mode(s)of application, intended use or purpose, and informa-tion concerning the folkloric value or relevance to localtraditions. The term Bspecies use^ refers to either aunique use citation by a single individual informant ora group of matching Buse citations^ given by multipleinformants. All use citation data were collated andorganized in Microsoft Excel into species use groupsfor statistical analysis described below.Digital photographs and voucher specimens were

taken for all available wild cited species. Voucherswere deposited in the Herbarium Lucanum

Fig. 2. Pantelleria is renowned for its Pantescan gardens. Volcanic rock towers protect citrus trees from strong windsand short walls cover the landscape as both a support for terraces and to protect grape vines from the wind. a A side viewof the volcanic rock towers for citrus trees with rock terrace vineyards in the background. b The towers are left open ontop for the trees to access sunshine and rain. Each tower has a small entryway for people to access the fruit.

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(HLUC) at the Università della Basilicata inPotenza, Italy, and the Emory University Herbari-um (GEO) in Atlanta, GA, USA. Specimens weredigitized by GEO and have been made available onthe SERNEC portal (Southeastern Biota 2016).Herbarium specimens of all cited plant species wereshipped to Emory under the USDA/APHIS permitPCIP-14-003388. Plant identification follows thestandard Italian flora (Pignatti 2002), and familyassignments follow the Angiosperm PhylogenyGroup III (Stevens 2012). Fungal nomenclaturefollows MycoBank (2016).

DATA ANALYSIS

Informant Consensus Factor

The categories selected for use in the informantconsensus factor (Fic) analysis are provided in Ta-ble 1 and follow the system described by Heinrichet al. (1998). Each species use was added to theappropriate category prior to analysis using the fol-lowing formula:

Fic ¼ Nuc−Nt

Nuc−1;

where Nuc is the total number of use citations ineach category and Nt is the number of species usedin that category. High Fic values (near 1.0) areobtained when one or a few species are reported tobe used by a large proportion of informants for aparticular category, whereas lower Fic values indicatethat informants disagree over which species to use.

Fidelity Level

The fidelity level (FL) percent measure was usedto identify the central role of each reported species(Friedman et al. 1986). The FL was defined as theratio of between the total number of informantsthat independently cited a specific species use (Nt)and the total number of informants (N) that citedthe species for any use:

FL ¼ Nt

N

� �� 100:

The primary limitation of this method is that forspecies with only a few citations (≤3), the fidelitylevel may appear to be artificially high. Thus, species

with three or less citations were excluded from thisanalysis.

Use-Value Citation Index

The use-value (UVc) citation index, which isuseful for evaluating the relative importance of eachspecies based on its cited uses, was calculated for allspecies (de Albuquerque et al. 2007). Briefly, it iscalculated as follows:

UVc ¼X

Uis

N;

where Uis is the sum of the total number of allindividual use citation reports concerning a givenspecies, divided by the total number of informants(N).

Results

A total of 95 plant species and 17 fungal spe-cies, representing 44 and 9 botanical and fungalfamilies, respectively, were cited by the 42 studyparticipants. The age of informants ranged from28 to 90, with a median age of 64 and genderdistribution of 59.5% male and 40.5% female.Data on 2,124 use citations were collected,representing a total of 297 distinct sets of com-munal knowledge regarding specific species (Elec-tronic Supplementary Material (ESM) Appen-dix 1). Here, we report the findings from ouranalysis of the ethnobiological data reported bystudy participants.

INFORMANT CONSENSUS ANALYSIS

Ethnobotanical use reports were divided into sixgeneral categories and six human medicine subcat-egories (Table 1). The greatest number of speciesreported for a single category was for food (52species), followed by household uses (41) and hu-man medicine (31), Table 2. The greatest numberof use citations was for food uses (795), followed byhousehold (497) andmedical uses (342). All generalcategories had relatively high levels of informantconsensus (>0.85), with the greatest consensusconcerning species used for food (Fic = 0.936),household (0.919), and medical (0.912) purposes.Importantly, categories pertaining to the direct useof plants or fungi as food or in the procurement offood (e.g., for fishing, hunting, or agricultural tools)

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exhibited the highest levels of informant consensusoverall.When the species cited for use in human medi-

cine were broken down into more detailed subcat-egories, however, differences in consensus levels

emerged. For example, Fic values for oral health(1.0) and gastrointestinal (0.919) subcategorieswere quite high, while consensus concerning mus-culoskeletal and neurological (0.727) and especiallyotolaryngological and respiratory (0.333) was much

TABLE 1. DIVISION OF ETHNOBOTANICAL USE REPORTS BY GENERAL CATEGORIES FORINFORMANT CONSENSUS FACTOR (FIC) ANALYSIS.

Examples of indications

General category of useFood Edible plants and fungi, cooked or raw ingredients, ingredient substitutes (e.g., coffee

substitute), and flavoring for liqueurs and grappa, snacks, and seasoningHousehold Games, cleaning tools, decoration (indoor and outdoor), fire starter, home construction,

window shade, baskets, agricultural tools, fencing, dyes, insect deterrent, ink, protectant,fiber source, and pest repellent

Maritime Fishing tools, fish poison, and boat constructionNuisance Pest plant (thorny, poisonous), problematic for people or livestock, cause of allergies, cause

of contact dermatitis, and skin irritantEthnoveterinary BHealthy^ fodder, forage, laxative, and digestive aide

Human medicinal usesDermatological Lacerations and bleeding wounds, weak hair, burn wounds, abscesses, skin and soft tissue

infections, skin inflammation, and hair lossGastrointestinal Constipation, stomachache, colic, digestive aide, intestinal helminths, and diarrheaGeneral health To strengthen constitution, general wellness, refreshing beverage, Bhealthy^ beverage or

food (folk-functional food)Musculoskeletal andneurological

Arthritis, rheumatism, and bruises

Oral health GingivitisOtolaryngological/respiratory Tuberculosis, cough, and coldsUrological Urinary tract infection, kidney stones, and diuretic

TABLE 2. INFORMANT CONSENSUS CONCERNING THE USE OF LOCAL PLANTS AND FUNGI.

Number of species (Nt) Number of use citations (Nuc) Informant’s consensus factor (Fic)

Category of local useFood 52 795 0.936Household 41 497 0.919Maritime 9 55 0.852Nuisance 22 160 0.868Ethnoveterinary 29 275 0.898Human medicine 31 342 0.912

Subcategories of human medicineDermatological 17 88 0.816Gastrointestinal 12 137 0.919General health 8 29 0.750Musculoskeletal andneurological

7 23 0.727

Oral health 1 2 1.000Otolaryngological andrespiratory

5 7 0.333

Urological 7 56 0.891Overall total 210 2124

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lower. Overall, the most species and use citationswere reported for dermatological (17 species, 88 usecitations) and gastrointestinal (12 species, 137 usecitations) subcategories.

FIDELITY LEVEL ANALYSIS

Fidelity level (FL) analysis is useful for iden-tifying the central role of each species. Thiscan be particularly useful when an individualspecies has multiple reported means of prepa-ration and use. For example, Rubus ulmifoliusSchott. was cited for both food uses and dermato-logical applications. Reports differed in how thefruits are used as food: 50% of use citations wereto eat the fruits raw, 40% to make marmalades, 7%to make liquors, and 3% to use the leaves to treatskin infections. FL percentages for each species arereported in ESM, Appendix 1.

TEK concerning food and tools for its procure-ment was most frequently cited by informants forindividual species. For example, fidelity levels forplants with citations in multiple use categories (e.g.,Rubus ulmifolius, Ferula communis L., Drimiamaritima (L.) Stearn, Arbutus unedo, and Euphorbiadendroides L.) were often highest for food andhousehold or maritime categories (related to foodprocurement). This observation highlights the im-portance of the local flora and fungi to Pantescans asa critical part of their food culture and major con-tributor to food sovereignty on the island.

USE-VALUE CITATION ANALYSIS

Use-value citation indices were calculated for allreported species, allowing for comparison of theoverall rank or importance of species for local people(ESM, Appendix 1). The mean UV score for fungalspecies was 0.335 and 0.464 for plants, with nostatistically significant difference between the twogroups. The most highly ranking species had UVcindices >1.8 and included Quercus ilex (UVc =2.548), Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (2.429),Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (2.143), and Malvaarborea L. (1.857).

Use-value indices provided critical insight intowhich species were most broadly cited by informants,and at the highest scores, they also reflect speciesimportance in terms of utility for multiple applica-tions. The highest ranking species were also abun-dantly available on the island, growing either wild orsemi-cultivated through periodic management (e.g.,see later discussion on Opuntia ficus-indica).

Discussion

COMPARISON WITH GALT AND GALT 1969SURVEY

Galt and Galt (1978) documented 107 specificuses of local botanical species in their 1969 survey.Of these, 45 (representing 42% of original speciesuse citations) were not quoted by any informants inour 2014 survey, refuting our hypothesis that atleast 80% of the previously documented species useswould remain in local memory or practice. Thoseuses that were documented in both studies areunderlined in ESM, Appendix 1.

Many of the previously reported species usesthat have disappeared from the memory andpractice of Pantescans today pertained to oneof three key cognitive domains: animal feed(often with ethnoveterinary implications),plants specific to war time (referring to WorldWar II), and spiritual illnesses (e.g., scantufright disease and malocciu evil-eye). For example,species previously indicated for livestock includedPolypodium vulgare L. (cow feed and galactagogue),Urtica pilulifera L. (chicken bedding and to stimu-late egg production), Silene nicaeensis All. (livestockfeed), Genista cinerea DC (goat feed), Lotuscorniculatus L. (livestock feed and eaten by childrenas snacks), Rhamnus alaternus L. (goat feed andgalactagogue), Chrysanthemum coronarium L. (Syn.Of C. segatum, livestock feed), and Calendulaarvensis L. (cattle feed). War time species includedCarpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E. Br. (camouflage duringWWII), Verbascum undulatum M. Bieb, andV. sinuatum L. (tobacco substitutes). Species previ-ously used to treat spiritual illnesses included Rutachalepensis L. (for scantu, fright sickness),Rosmarinus officinalis L. (for malocciu, evil-eye),and Marrubium vulgare L. (for scantu). This couldbe indicative of declines in practices related to thesethree domains. For example, WWII has long sincepassed and there is no need for camouflage ortobacco substitutes. The changes in TEK pertainingto livestock rearing could be the result of localeconomic shifts away from agropastoralism. Fur-thermore, disappearing practices concerning ritual-istic healing are likewise reflected in loss of TEK foringredients used in these ceremonies.

On the other hand, an additional 235 specificuses of local flora and fungi were recorded in thepresent work, which were not included in theoriginal study. This number of newly documentedspecies uses both attests to the robust nature of our

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investigation into local TEK and reflects differencesin methodologies between studies. A limitation inthe study design includes the lack of detailedinformation in the Galt and Galt (1978) reportregarding the original set of informants (number,gender, age, specialist, or non-specialist) and thelack of consensus analysis for the species reported,which would be useful to better understand howdiffuse TEK was among the study in the past.However, based on the existing data from bothstudies, we can approach the analysis from theperspective that while there was significant loss inTEK as evidenced by species uses no longer in thememory or practice of today, there were potentiallyalso some gains—especially regarding newly intro-duced fungi. Here, we delve into a few specificexamples of how TEK has shifted in this regionover the past 45 years.

SPIRITUAL ILLNESSES AND THE LOSS OF TEK

There is a local saying concerning the use of Rutachalepensis L.: BAruta ogni mal astuta,^ which trans-lates roughly to BThe ruta destroys every disease.^Interestingly, however, while several informants cit-ed this saying when shown images of R. chalepensis,they were unable to describe how aruta was used oreven for which illnesses it was once used for. Today,there is some knowledge of the use of aruta inflavoring grappa, but this is not a local practice asgrappa is not made in any great quantities by house-holds here, but rather represents an imported pieceof knowledge, likely brought here by the visitingtourists from northern Italy or other means, such astelevision programs on this topic.Likewise, while there is still knowledge of some of

the basic causative parameters concerning scantu, aspiritual illness which involves an event involving ashock to the person (such as fear or surprise from anencounter with a snake), little was known about themeans of treatment. Several informants cited thediagnostic practice of taking measurement of thebody with a string (from the head to the toe, andthen from the fingertip to fingertip), and if themeasurements do not match up, you may havescantu. The means of healing scantu, however, in-volved the intervention of specialist healers whoused prayers and rituals involving plants, and itwas reported repeatedly that all of these healers havepassed away, some as recently as 5 years ago.Interestingly, a similar diagnostic process involv-

ing body measurement with a string was document-ed for another folk illness, known as mal d’arco or

Brainbow illness,^ in the Basilicata province ofsouthern Italy (Quave and Pieroni 2005). In mald’arco, another species of Ruta (R. graveolens L.) isused in the treatment of the malady and involvesdrinking a tea of rue. Folk beliefs concerning cau-sation of mal d’arco differs from scantu, however, inthat it is believed to be transmitted by looking at arainbow while urinating outdoors and is not linkedto a fright event.

EDIBLE FUNGI

While the topic of fungi was not covered in theGalt and Galt (1978) study in Pantelleria, we nev-ertheless consider these findings important for in-clusion in the present work, as they provide anotherperspective on TEK of wild edibles. There are fivefungi that were readily recognized by the majority ofinformants: Agaricus arvensis Schaeff., Boletus aereusBull., Cantharellus lutescens (Pers.) Fr., Lactariusdeliciosus (L.) Gray, and Suillus collinitus Kuntze.The cited species are all frequently collected byPantescans. All the species cited belong to theecological category of ectomycorrhizal fungi,except the saprotrophic A. arvensis. Three of thesespecies grow exclusively in a pine forest: C. lutescens,L. deliciosus, and S. collinitus. All are used as food byPantescans, and with the recent institution ofcourses on fungi identification in the last 10 years,their use is gradually increasing. Based on currenttrends, we predict that in the coming years, moreedible species growing in Pantelleria will be appre-ciated as food, thanks to the interest showed byPantescans for the identification of wild fungi thatwas prompted by outreach activities of local envi-ronmental associations.

EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

There are a number of wild plants that serveas sources of food for the local population. Themost commonly free-listed wild foods includedFoeniculum vulgare ( Ufl = 21), Beta vulgaris subsp.maritima (L.) Thell. (13), Sonchus oleraceus L. (13),Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg (13), andRosmarinus officinalis L. (7). However, followingvisual cues of the photo book, other species emergedwith high frequency of citation: Foeniculum vulgare( Uis = 90), Rubus ulmifolius (58), Rosmarinusofficinalis (39), Myrtus communis L. (38), Boragoofficinalis L. (36), Arbutus unedo (34), Opuntia fi-cus-indica (25), Portulaca oleracea L. (25), Asparagusacutifolius L. (25), Castanea sativa Mill. (24), Beta

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vulgaris subsp. maritima (24), and Taraxacumofficinale (22).

Foeniculum vulgare was clearly the most citedwild food plant, both in the free-listing exerciseand in response to the visual cue. It was reportedas being eaten as a spice ingredient (seeds or flowers)or as a boiled vegetable when the plant is young.Rubus ulmifolius was the second most cited wildfood plant, but, interestingly, was not mentionedas a food source during the free- l i s t ingexercise—and only mentioned after seeing the visu-al cue. Food uses of these two species, along withseveral others (Spinacia oleracea L., Borago officinalis,Asparagus acutifolius, Cichorium intybus L., Opuntiaficus-indica, Arbutus unedo, Rosmarinus officinalis,Antirrhinum tortuosum Bosc. Ex Vent., Portulacaoleracea and Nicotiana glauca Graham), were alsoreported in the Galt and Galt (1978) study, provid-ing clear examples of wild food uses that havepersisted over the last half century.

One of the most interesting and common ac-counts concerning wild plant foods documentedduring our study concerned the fruits of Arbutusunedo (strawberry tree), locally known asmbriacula,which when pronounced in the local dialect soundssimilar to ubriaco, or drunken. Many cited this as afavored plant, whose fruits are eaten raw off of thetrees during the time of the olive harvest. Univer-sally, informants recounted that moderation wasnecessary when eating this fruit, because consump-tion of too many could result in drunkenness andeuphoria, but also digestive issues (stomachache anddiarrhea). This may be due to initiation of thefermentation process of the mature fruits while stillon the tree. Indeed, the fruits are used to createspirits in other parts of the Mediterranean (e.g.,Aguardente de Medronho in Portugal, Aguardientede Madroño in Spain, Corbezzolo in Italy, Koumaroin Greece, and Raki in Albania), but this use was notdocumented here (Botelho et al. 2015).

MEDICINAL PLANTS

BCiuri di marva^: Malva arborea

Of all species cited during the free-listingstage of the interview process, Malva arboreawas the most frequently mentioned (UVc = 1.857).The phrase Bciuri di marva^ translates to Bflowers ofmallow,^ and this species can be found both grow-ing spontaneously in the countryside and, mostfrequently, in family gardens or near the home.The most common preparation of this plant is to

harvest the flowers and dry them for storage andlater use in a variety of tisanes—either on their ownor in combination with other species, depending onthe medical ailment being treated. The most fre-quently cited use (FL = 54%) is as a tisane forstomachache and to relieve constipation. Anotherinteresting use came from accounts of Bpanuzzo dimarva,^ a practice recalled from childhood in whichthe seed coats were peeled off and sucked on as asweet snack. While other wild Malva species occuron the island (e.g.,M. nicaeensisAll. andM. sylvestrisL.) and have some similar reported uses,M. arboreais the overwhelming favorite.

BMastru Ggiuvanni^: Daphne gnidium

Daphne gnidium L. was another frequently men-tioned medicinal plant (UVc = 1.262), but whichalso had uses in other general categories(ethnoveterinary and household uses). This speciesgrows at higher elevations on the island and is mostcommonly collected on the centrally located volca-nic mountain, known as Montagna Grande. Themost common use (FL = 53%) is to peel off theflexible bark and use is to wrap minor lacerationsas a hemostatic (Fig. 3). Another interesting use is asan insect repellent, in which branches are tossedinto dog pens to rid them of fleas.

PLANTS FOR HOUSEHOLD USE

Agricultural Tools

Capparis spinosa subsp. rupestris L. (wild capers)are semi-cultivated across the island and then brinefermented both for personal use and for export andsale. The cultivated Vitis vinifera L. (zibibbo grapes)are also highly valued for both personal use and saleas value-added products (wine and raisins). Whileneither of these species appeared directly in ourinformant data (as both are considered by locals asa core part of agriculture on the island—and notBwild^), we did document a large number of plantsused to create tools for their cultivation and harvest.This is most evident concerning species used intraditional basket weaving. Various types of basketsare created with wild plants for such purposes:

& Panaro: basket with handle for collecting wildfruits and berries;

& Canistru: basket without a handle for collectingcapers;

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& Cuddino: a double handled basket for collectinggrapes;

& Cuffa: basket carried by a donkey; and& Cuffino di tartise: basket for carrying volcanic rocks(used to build protective walls around crops).

Certain species were used for specific baskets andspecific parts of the baskets, as each offer differentqualities of strength, weight, and flexibility. Some ofthe most commonly used species for this purposeincluded Arundo donax L., Phillyrea media L.,Daph-ne gnidium, Pistacia lentiscus L., Myrtus communisL., and Olea europaea L. (ESM, Table 1). Fishingnets and traps were also once made primarily withlocal plant materials. Unfortunately, knowledge oftraditional basket weaving is in decline, and only afew locals currently practice the art on the islandtoday (Fig. 4).

Maritime Uses

Traditional maritime practices have historicallyplayed a central role for Pantescans as inhabitants of asmall land mass surrounded by theMediterranean Sea.In the past, boats weremade fromwild plants found onthe island, as were many of the fishing tools, whichincluded nets, traps, and fish poisons. Today, the art ofweaving traditional fish traps and nets (Fig. 4b) hasnearly disappeared. The use of local plants as fishpoison is likewise no longer practiced, and infor-mants reported it to be illegal to practice this tradi-tion today. However, knowledge of these practices

was reported in the more elderly informants and wasbased on personal experiences from their youth.Pantelleria is abundantly populated with a number

of Euphorbia spp., collectively attributed with thefolk-generic name of tassu by local people. The latexof these species are widely recognized as toxic tohumans, with some considered more so than others.Indeed, two species are cited only for their recogni-tion as a nuisance (Euphorbia helioscopia L. andE. terracina L.) and this is due to skin reactions thatoccur after contact with them or damage to the eyesif exposed to the latex. E. dendroides and E. segetalisL., on the other hand, while being recognized as apoison (nuisance plant), are also valued for applica-tion as a fish poison. Both were reported as used bypounding the leaves and placing them in a closedcanal, then scooping up the stunned fish with abasket. E. dendroides has an additional (and morefrequently cited) use of weaving the branches withthe milky latex into fish traps for open sea fishing.The job of collecting and weaving the branches intothe traps was often delegated to boys (10–12 years old).TEK of fish poisons represents an important

knowledge reservoir for survival in times of foodshortages. In isolated island environments, this isexceptionally important should there ever be aninterruption of trade and exchange outside of theisland. Various Euphorbia species have also beenreported as fish poisons in other parts of the world,and are still used today by indigenous peoples inGuyana (van Andel 2000) and tropical Africa(Neuwinger 2004), for example.

Fig. 3. Daphne gnidium, locally known as Bmastru Giovanni,^ grows at higher elevations along the slopes of thehighest peak on the island. While known to be deadly if consumed by humans or animals, it is highly valued as amedicinal plant. a The whole branches are tossed into dog pens to repel ticks and fleas. b The pliable stem bark isremoved and used to wrap small lacerations for its hemostatic properties.

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Other Uses of Poisonous Plants

Some interesting uses were reported forDrimia maritima, locally known as scippudazzu.Similar to what was reported by Galt and Galt(1978), this species is still used as a means ofprotecting one’s garden harvest from would-be veg-etable and fruit thieves. The bulb juice of this speciesis extracted and smeared onto favored crops in effortto punish potential thieves (it is reported to havestrong laxative action and causes diarrhea). Other usesnot reported in the previous study include planting afew bulbs (two or three) at the base of each fruit tree(especially for figs) as a means of repelling insects androdents that would otherwise damage the fruit. Re-search into the phytochemistry of this species hasrevealed a number of cardiac glycosides (Knittelet al. 2015). It has a long history of use for variouspurposes, including medicine, and the earliest writ-ten reports date back to the Ebers Papyrus (1500B.C.E.). More recently, following its introductionto North America after World War II, it was exam-ined for potential as a rodenticide in California(Gentry et al. 1987).

MULTIFUNCTIONAL PLANTS

BBalluto^: Quercus ilex

Of all of the wild species cited in the study,Q. ilex received the highest use-value index score(2.548). This was somewhat surprising as it is notused as a human food or medicine. Instead, it ishighly appreciated due to a variety of other impor-tant applications; the most highly cited of which arethe following:

& Livestock fodder: the fruits are fed to livestock(especially pigs);

& Toy: the fruits are used as a spinning top, a toythat many adult informants commented on withfondness;

& Home construction tool: the durable wood is usedto make a mazzulo—a special tool used to createthe characteristic roofing of the traditional islandhomes (singular: dammuso; plural: dammusi),which were designed to collect rainwater into acistern (Constantino 2010). This form of

Fig. 4. Wild plants are used to make agricultural and maritime tools, such as a baskets and b fish traps. c Certaintoxic species (especially Euphorbia spp.) were once used as fish poisons by either being woven into the fish traps orpounded and the latex released into small canals.

QUAVE AND SAITTA: ETHNOBOTANY OF PANTELLERIA2016]

construction is incredibly important to the surviv-al of local people (especially in the past) as thereare no local sources of freshwater for drinking onthe island. Today, freshwater is brought in by shipand distributed to cisterns across the island; and

& Agricultural tool: the durable wood is used tomake handles for agricultural tools such as hoesand shovels.

Other lesser reported uses included applica-tions as firewood, charcoal, boat construction,and coffee substitute (during wartime) and asan environmental indicator on where to findedible mushrooms.

BFicudinnia^: Opuntia ficus-indica

Second only to Q. ilex, the prickly pear cactuswas highly ranked as a multifunctional plant (UVc =2.429). This plant is abundantly distributed acrossthe island and its reported uses were distributedacross four major categories: food, ethnoveterinary,household, and human medicine; this also includedfive subcategories for humanmedicine: dermatolog-ical, musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, respiratory,and urological. While the full description of prepa-rations and uses for this species is reported in ESM,Appendix 1, there are a few interesting uses tohighlight here that are specific to survival in theharsh environmental conditions of the island. Asreported by Galt and Galt (1978), the paddlescontinue to be used as a means of providing shadeand protection against the wind for young plants,especially tomatoes and eggplants. To achieve this, apartial depth slice is made from side to side of thepaddle, such that it can be folded and propped upon its side with the young plant in the center. Otherwidely reported uses of this species, which were alsoreported by Galt and Galt (1978), included use ofthe fruits as a source of food and the flowers as atisane for its diuretic properties. Interestingly, thereare very specific methods used to access the mostfavored fruits: the results of the first fruiting areknocked off the plant and fed to pigs as previouslyreported in Sicily (Barbera et al. 1992). The timingof this activity is staggered over a period of weeks inthe early summer so that the sweet fruits desired forhuman consumption mature over a period of weeksin September. In this way, TEK is being used toensure a longer period of access (and thus greaterfood security) to this managed wild food, which isconsumed raw.

Lastly, while not previously reported, an addi-tional use of the prickly pear that contributed tofood security was reported by 15 elderly informantsas a memory from their childhood. In the past,young boys used the paddle of O. ficus-indica alongwith the stems of Arundo donax to create a trap for asmall bird (pettirosso). This trap was built by cuttinga square hole into the center of the paddle andmaking a window with bars inside the hole usingstrips of split A. donax cane. A small hole in theground would then be dug, and the paddle trappropped over the hole with a stick or piece of caneholding it in place. At the bottom of the stick, aworm would be placed such that when the birdapproaches to eat the worm, it will be trapped inthe hole, with the paddle falling down, but able tosurvive (due to the caged window) until the boyreturns to check his trap. Today, informants saidthat the bird is protected and thus trapping is nowillegal, but fondmemory of the practice still survivesin the elder generation.

Conclusions

In this paper, we documented the current state ofTEK concerning the use of wild plants and fungi onPantelleria Island. We examined a report on theethnobotanical practices of 45 years ago to specifi-cally look for potential shifts in TEK. While werecorded a loss in a number of plant uses previouslydocumented in the 1969 study—specifically relatedto livestock rearing practices war time and ritualhealing—we also documented some practices thatwere not likely to have been in practice 45 years ago.This is most clear when considering the use ofedible wild fungi, which was widely reported as anew trend experienced during later adulthood ofmany of our informants. This set of TEK wasintroduced to the island via a number of avenues,including tourists and chefs from mainland Italy, aswell as by local educational workshops, books, andnational TV programs concerning food. On theother hand, there were a number of plant uses thatwere reported as a past practice (recalled from child-hood experiences) and these dealt primarily withforaging, fishing, and hunting activities. Some suchpractices have disappeared due to legal bans (e.g.,use of fish poisons and hunting of certain birdspecies is now reported by informants to beprohibited). These practices, however, were recalledwith great fondness and represent an important partof the cultural identity of the local population.

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Numerous specialized skills tailored to survivingin a physically isolated location are characteristic tothe body of TEK here. Self-reliance on the genera-tion or wild procurement of food and medicine forlocal people and their livestock under conditions oflimited fresh water, harsh sun, and wind forms thebasis of the adaptive cultural identity of thePantescans. Looking forward, a decline in TEKpractice could eventually lead to the loss of muchof this body of knowledge as the generations thathold this oral history pass on. Using the compre-hensive description of remaining TEK documentedin the present study, future work could furtheraddress the driving forces behind TEK shifts (bothin terms of loss and gain) and also examine the roleof TEK in promoting community resilience in theface of changing climatic and environmental factors.

AcknowledgmentsFunding support for this study was provided by

the Emory University Center for the Study of Hu-man Health. We would like to extend our heartfeltthanks to the Municipality of Pantelleria and allPantescan communities and people who agreed toparticipate in this study. We also thank MarcoCaputo for assistance with field collection of vouch-er specimens.

Compliance with Ethical StandardsPrior informed consent was always verbally ob-

tained prior to conducting interviews, and the eth-ical standards of the Society for Economic Botanyand International Society of Ethnobiology werefollowed.

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