Fortitudine Vol 34 No 1 - marines.mil Vol 34... · Fortitudine, Vol.34,No.1,2009 5 motedtolieutenantgeneralin1975and assignedtoHeadquartersMarineCorps asDeputyChiefofStaffforManpower

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FORTITUDINEHISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME 34, NUMBER 1 2009

IN MEMORIAM:GENERAL ROBERT H. BARROWCOLONEL JOHN W. RIPLEY

BULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGRAM

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution isunlimited.

PCN 10401220100

HISTORYDIVISION

PRESIDENTMARINE CORPS UNIVERSITY

MajGen Donald R. Gardner, USMC (Ret)

DIRECTORDr. Charles Neimeyer

CHIEF HISTORIANCharles Melson

HISTORIES BRANCHCharles Smith (Branch Head); Dr.Nathan Lowrey; Dr. Fred Allison;Paul Westermeyer

HISTORICAL REFERENCE BRANCHDanny Crawford (Branch Head);Robert Aquilina; Lena Kaljot; KaraNewcomer; Annette Amerman;Shelia Boyd

ORAL HISTORY PROGRAMRob Taglianetti

FIELD HISTORY BRANCHLtCol David Benhoff; LtCol LarryMcFall; CWO-4 Timothy McWilliams;GySgt Michael Coachman

EDITING AND DESIGN BRANCHKen Williams (Branch Head); SteveHill; Vince Martinez; WandaRenfrow; Jeannie Riffe; GregMacheak

Marine Corps History Division3079 Moreell Avenue

Quantico, Virginia 22134Telephone (703) 432-4877http://[email protected]

Motto of the United States Marine Corps in the 1812 era

Historical Bulletin Vol. 34, No. 1 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover: Cover drawing by WO-1 Michael D. Fay is of LCplRobinson while he was recuperating at Bethesda NavalHospital after sustaining injuries from an improvisedexplosive device.

Memorandum from the Director: Marines OwnDr. Charles P. Neimeyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

In Memoriam: General Robert H. Barrow, 27th Commandant of theMarine Corps

Robert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4In Memoriam: John C. Chapin and Samuel E. Stavisky

Robert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5In Memoriam: Colonel JohnW.Ripley,Former Director of Marine CorpsHistory and Museums Division

Dr. Charles P. Neimeyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6From the Chief Historian: Intelligence Community History

Charles D. Melson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8Book Review: “OnTarget”

Charles D. Melson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10National Museum of the Marine Corps: In the Wrong Hands: A ColtPocket Pistol

Alfred V. Houde Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Histories Branch: “Marines Have Always Believed in this Aircraft”:Marine Mechanics Helped Rescue the Osprey

Dr. Fred H. Allison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Histories Branch:Marine Innovators and the Creation of Bomb Racks

Dr. Fred H. Allison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Oral History: Women Marines Train the Sisters of Fallujah

Sara C. Pappa, Virginia E. Reynolds, Laura J. Thiessen . . . . . . . .16Field History: Marines and the Transformation of al-Anbar Province,2004–2008

CWO-4 Timothy S. McWilliams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Marine Corps Chronology: Highlights from the 2007 AnnualChronology

Kara R. Newcomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

This bulletin of the Marine Corps historical program is published for Marines, at the rate of onecopy for every nine on active duty, to provide education and training in the uses of military andMarine Corps history. Other interested readers may purchase single copies or four-issue sub-scriptions from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. The appro-priate order form appears in this issue.

“We can only know who we are by being certain ofwho we have been.” Gen Leonard F. Chapman Jr.

24th Commandant of the Marine Corps

2 Fortitudine,Vol. 34, No. 1, 2009

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FORTITUDINEHISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME 34, NUMBER 1 2009

IN MEMORIAM:GENERAL ROBERT H. BARROWCOLONEL JOHN W. RIPLEY

BULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGRAM

Fortitudine, Vol. 34, No. 1, 2009 3

Memorandum from the Director

Dr. Charles P. Neimeyer

Marines Own

The year 2008 will likely be remem-bered in American history as one of

turmoil and change. It was the year thatAmerica elected its first AfricanAmerican President and the year whenAmericans experienced more financialturmoil than at any time since the GreatDepression. In all the turmoil of theeconomy and excitement of the elec-tion, and little noticed outside theMarine Corps, two legendary Marinespassed away—General Robert H.Barrow, 27th Commandant of theMarine Corps, and Colonel John H.Ripley, former director of the MarineCorps History and Museums Division.Their heroism, service, and devotion tothe Corps will be remembered for yearsto come.I first met General Barrow when I

was a young first lieutenant recentlyassigned as the Head of the OfficerPromotion Branch at Headquarters,Marine Corps. At the time, the adminis-tration of the officer promotion boardswas an important but fairly mundanejob. What I did not know at the timewas that the Head of the OfficerPromotion Branch was required todirectly walk the board report to theCommandant for his signature, bypass-ing all the usual staff officers who nor-mally screened correspondence goinginto the Commandant’s office. Thinkingthat I would just hand off the report tothe Commandant’s military secretaryand wait for the signed report, I wassurprised when the “Mil-Sec” told methat the Commandant would see meimmediately.At the time, the Commandant’s office

was located in the corner of the seconddeck of the first wing of the NavyAnnex, known today as FederalBuilding 2. I walked in with the report,centered myself on the Commandant’sdesk, and announced that I had the lat-est officer promotion board report forthe Commandant to sign. I thought hewould simply sign the report, and Icould escape. However, General Barrowstarted to chat, and he motioned me tosit down in a chair next to his desk. Ithought I was in serious trouble and

was as nervous as I had ever been. ButGeneral Barrow had a way about him.He was a southern gentleman andimmediately put me at ease. As we chat-ted, it was clear that I was talking to agreat man. I never got over the com-mand presence that General Barrowseemed to naturally possess and decid-ed to research why he had this attribute.It didn’t take me long during my

research to determine the reasonsbehind General Barrow’s commandpresence. Quite simply, General Barrowhad done it all. He left college andenlisted in the Marines in 1942, doingsuch a fine job at boot camp that he wasretained as a drill instructor to trainother new recruits. Not long afterward,he won a spot at Officers CandidateSchool and was in combat in the PacificTheater, leading a team of Americanswho were assisting Chinese guerrillas inJapanese-occupied China. This assign-ment called for initiative and courage,which then-Second Lieutenant Barrowpossessed. During the Korean conflict,then-Captain Barrow led a companyashore at Inchon and was later awardedboth the Silver Star and Navy Cross forgallantry in combat. During Vietnam, hecommanded the legendary 9th MarineRegiment and led the unit to a numberof successes, including OperationDewey Canyon, for which he wasawarded the U.S. Army’s DistinguishedService Cross.For all of General Barrow’s courage

and combat leadership skills, his great-est contribution to the Marine Corpscame during peacetime assignments.While serving during the mid-1970s asCommanding General Recruit Depot,Parris Island, and later as Deputy Chiefof Staff for Manpower at Headquarters,Marine Corps, General Barrow contin-ued the reforms begun by his mentor,the 26th Commandant, General Louis H.Wilson Jr. His decision to continue thereforms was not overly popular withsome of the “old hands” at the time, buthe was ultimately proven correct by thelevel and quality of recruits the MarineCorps has produced since that time. AsCommandant, he and General Paul X.

Kelley were the driving forces behindthe creation of Maritime PrepositionedShipping. As a result of their foresight,Maritime Prepositioned Shippingenabled the Marine Corps to “get to thefight” during Operation Desert Stormquicker than anyone thought was possi-ble, including Saddam Hussein. In sum,General Barrow was a fearless, princi-pled commander who exuded a naturalcommand presence and immeasurablyinfluenced Marine Corps history.The recent passing of Colonel John

W. Ripley, a former director of theHistory and Museums Division, wasanother blow to the Marine Corps fami-ly. When I was a second lieutenantgoing through Basic School in the mid-1970s, I heard and remembered thetales of his combat record. At the time,Vietnam was still fresh in everyone’smind, and being new to the Corps, Iheard the older veterans tell storiesabout impressive Marine leaders whomthey knew during the war and after-ward. Names like then-GunnerySergeant Jimmy E. Howard, then-Captains G. Ron Christmas and MichaelP. Downs at Hue City, and then-CaptainRipley’s heroism at the Dong Ha Bridgewere frequent subjects of discussion.Years later, Colonel John Grider Millerprovided me with a signed copy of hisbook, The Bridge at Dong Ha, and afterhaving read it, I am still amazed at howconsistently the Marine Corps finds suchsuccessful combat commanders.Colonel Ripley was certainly one ofthose men, and may his story long betold to newer generations of lieutenantsand Marine recruits.

Both of these outstanding Marinesepitomize the best of the Marine

Corps, and they will be missed.However, for every generation of pass-ing warriors, another Marine emerges totake his place. Possibly the next GeneralBarrow or Colonel Ripley is goingthrough The Basic School right now orperhaps is already serving as a platooncommander in Afghanistan or Iraq. Letus hope to get such men for decades tocome. �1775�


In Memoriam

by Robert V. AquilinaAssistant Head, Reference Branch

General Robert H. Barrow, 27th Commandantof the Marine Corps

General Robert H. Barrow, 27thCommandant of the MarineCorps, died 30 October 2008 in

his home town of St. Francisville,Louisiana, at the age of 86. The BatonRouge, Louisiana, native enlisted in theMarine Corps in 1942 after attendingLouisiana State University. After gradu-ation from boot camp inSan Diego, California, heserved for a period as adrill instructor before hisselection to OfficerCandidate School. Hewas commissioned aMarine second lieutenantin May 1943. DuringWorld War II, Barrow wasawarded the Bronze Starwith Combat “V” for hisservice as the officer-in-charge of an Americanteam that served withChinese guerrilla forces inJapanese-occupied cen-tral China.After the war, Barrow

served for two years asaide-de-camp to theCommanding General,Fleet Marine Force,Atlantic, and then com-pleted the AmphibiousWarfare School, JuniorCourse, at Quantico,Virginia. From 1949 until1950 he served asCommanding Officer ofCompany A, 1st Battalion,2d Marines, at CampLejeune, North Carolina.During the Korean War, he ledCompany A, 1st Battalion, 1st Marinesduring the Inchon-Seoul operation andthe Chosin Reservoir campaign. For hisservice in the latter operation, he wasawarded the Navy Cross. The citationaccompanying his award lauded then-Captain Barrow’s “gallant and forceful

leadership, great personal valor and for-titude in the face of overwhelmingodds” in the bitter fighting near Koto-ri,Korea.Following the end of the war,

Barrow served as Officer In Charge,Infantry Desk, Enlisted Assignments,Headquarters, Marine Corps. He was

then sent on a classified assignment tothe islands north of Taiwan, near main-land China. In February 1956, Barrowbegan an 18-month tour with the 2dBattalion, 6th Marines, at CampLejeune. From the summer of 1957 tothe summer of 1960, he served as theMarine officer instructor at the Navy

Reserve Officer Training Course atTulane University, New Orleans. Hethen completed a tour with the LandingForce Development Center at Quantico,and in 1963, attended the Officer’sSenior Course.Barrow graduated in 1968 from the

National War College and thendeployed to the Republicof Vietnam, where hecommanded the 9thMarines, 3d Marine Divi-sion. During the ninemonths he served ascommanding officer ofthe regiment, the 9thMarines participated innumerous combat opera-tions in the vicinity of theDemilitarized Zone, KheSanh, and Da Krong andA Shau Valleys. For extra-ordinary heroism duringOperation Dewey Can-yon, he was awarded theU.S. Army DistinguishedService Cross. The cita-tion accompanying theaward noted that then-Colonel Barrow “continu-ously exposed himself todeadly enemy fire whileleading his regiment in aseries of rapidly executedcombat assaults.” He“repeatedly inspired histroops to maximumefforts, which resulted innumerous small unit vic-tories despite the enemy’sdetermined efforts to halt

his advance.”After promotion to brigadier general,

Barrow served as CommandingGeneral, Camp Butler, Okinawa. Onfurther promotion to major general, hewas appointed Commanding General,Marine Corps Recruit Depot, ParrisIsland, South Carolina. He was pro-


moted to lieutenant general in 1975 andassigned to Headquarters Marine Corpsas Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower.In 1976, he was named CommandingGeneral, Fleet Marine Force, Atlantic, atNorfolk, Virginia. General Barrowbecame the Assistant Commandant ofthe Marine Corps in July 1978 andserved in that billet until his promotionto general and appointment on 1 July1979 as the 27th Commandant of theMarine Corps.General Barrow was the first

Commandant to serve, by law, a regu-lar four-year tour as a full member of

The History Division was greatly sad-dened to hear of the passing of a

member of its extended family, CaptainJohn C.Chapin. He died 14 August 2008in Manchester, Vermont, at the age of87. A native of Grosse Point Farms,Michigan, Captain Chapin graduated in1942 from Yale University and accepteda commission the same year as a secondlieutenant in the Marine Corps. DuringWorld War II, he served as a rifle pla-toon commander in the 24th Marines,4th Marine Division, and was woundedin action during the assaults on Roi-Namur in the Marshall Islands andSaipan in the Mariana Islands.Returning to the United States,

Chapin was assigned duty atHeadquarters Marine Corps, where heresearched and wrote the first officialhistories of the 4th and 5th MarineDivisions. At the conclusion of the war,he transferred to reserve status andearned a master’s degree in history fromGeorge Washington University. In retire-ment, Captain Chapin was a volunteerfor many years at the Marine CorpsHistorical Center at the WashingtonNavy Yard. During this period, heauthored numerous monographs for thethen-History and Museums Division,including four booklets in the Marinesin World War II Commemorative Series,covering campaigns in the Marshalls,Saipan, Bougainville, and Marine avia-tion in the Philippines. He was also theauthor of the highly successful and

acclaimed Uncommon Men: TheSergeants Major of the Marine Corps.Captain Chapin was a tireless worker

for the Episcopal Church for 20 years,first at the Diocese of Michigan and thenat the Washington National Cathedral,where he served as communicationswarden. He was also a special assistantto the Secretary of Housing and UrbanDevelopment, George Romney, andwas active in the Republican Party inMichigan, Washington, D.C., andVermont.His many civic accomplishments

notwithstanding, Captain Chapin’s year-ly summer research visits to the MarineCorps Historical Center will be remem-bered fondly by remaining HistoryDivision staff. His formidable intellectand knowledge of Marine Corps historywas accompanied by a gentle sense of

the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He was instru-mental during his commandancy inacquiring approval for production ofthe Harrier aircraft. He also awakenedinterest in new and improved navalgunfire support, and in obtaining newamphibious ships in the Navy’s con-struction programs where Marines’equipment could be prepositioned inpotential combat zones. GeneralBarrow also instituted reforms andrevamped training methods at theMarine Corps recruit depots, whichhelped to attract and retain quality menand women.

General Barrow retired asCommandant on 30 June 1983 andreturned to his native state of Louisiana.In retirement, he continued to serve hisCorps and country by appointment byPresident Ronald Reagan to the ForeignIntelligence Advisory Board, and by ser-vice on the Packard Commission, whichfocused on defense management.General Barrow also served as Chair-man of the Board of the Marine CorpsCommand and Staff College Foundationand was active in numerous state andlocal organizations in Louisiana.

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humor and genuine interest in those ofus who had the good fortune to knowhim over the years. He will be missed.Mr. Samuel E. Stavisky, a noted

Washington Post newsman who servedas a Marine Corps combat correspon-dent during World War II, died 21September 2008 in Montgomery County,Maryland, at the age of 93. A native ofChelsea, Massachusetts, he was a gradu-ate of Boston University and laterworked for several newspapers beforejoining the Washington Post in 1938.Although rejected by the military ser-vices because of poor vision, he never-theless volunteered in 1942 to serve as aMarine combat correspondent. Mr.Stavisky’s personal accounts from thebattlefield during World War II broughthome to thousands of Americans theday-to-day realities of war as experi-enced by the average Marine “grunt.”His participation in a number of PacificTheater campaigns were later retold inhis 1999 book, Marine CombatCorrespondent: World War II in thePacific, which received excellentreviews.Following the war, Stavisky returned

to the Washington Post as a reporter,editorial writer, and columnist. He alsowrote articles for a number of maga-zines, including the Saturday EveningPost and Life. In 1954, he started a suc-cessful public relations firm, Staviskyand Associates, that he operated untilhis retirement in 1989. �1775�

In Memoriam

John C. Chapin and Samuel E. Staviskyby Robert V. Aquilina

Assistant Head, Reference Branch

Capt John C. Chapin


The sudden passing of legendaryMarine Colonel John W. Ripley

sort of caught everyone in the MarineCorps community by surprise. He hadpeacefully passed away in his sleepon the evening of 28 October 2008.Death had to sneak up on ColonelRipley because it never could havetaken him without a fight had he beenawake.Colonel Ripley was a native Virgin-

ian. A longtime student of militaryhistory, as a youth he enjoyed readingabout the exploits of Robert E. Lee’sArmy of Northern Virginia, whoselegions trod the land where he grewup. Joining the Marine Corps in 1957,it was not long before he received afleet appointment to the U.S. NavalAcademy. From that moment, Ripley

Vietnamese regular forces who hadrecently launched what becameknown as the Easter Offensive.Ordered to “hold and die,” Ripley rec-ognized that blowing up the bridgewould halt the North Vietnameseadvance. Swinging hand over handunder the girders of the bridge whileunder enemy fire, Ripley was able toplace and set off a series of demolitioncharges to destroy the bridge, stallingthe North Vietnamese column. For thisexploit, Ripley received the NavyCross.

Ripley received commendation forother exploits during the war. As

“Lima” Company Commander, 3dBattalion, 3d Marines, then-CaptainRipley was awarded the Silver Star for

demonstrated a lifelong affection forthat institution that culminated withhis widely attended funeral in theAcademy chapel and continuing withhis internment in the Academy’s ceme-tery overlooking the Severn River. Itwas a fitting resting place for anincredible Marine and warrior. JohnRipley had come home at last.Anyone who served in or was affil-

iated with the Marine Corps these past40 years is well aware of Ripley’s mostfamous exploit during the VietnamWar—blowing up Dong Ha Bridgeand stopping a column of NorthVietnamese armor and infantry. It wasEaster Sunday 1972, and then-CaptainRipley had been assigned as an advi-sor to a South Vietnamese Marine unitunder heavy attack by North

In Memoriam

Colonel JohnW. Ripley, Former Director ofMarine Corps History and Museums Division

by Dr. Charles P. NeimeyerDirector

Photo provided by Col John W. Ripley

A reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Dong HaBridge shortly after its destruction on 2 April 1972. To theleft is “The Triangle” road junction of Highway 1 and 9 andto the right is the Dye Marker bunker and the burning

bridge. At far right are communist armored vehicles pulledoff the road, exposed to air attack and unable to advancefurther.


gallantry against the enemy. On 21August 1967, Ripley’s unit becamepinned down by a vastly superiorenemy force. Leading a relief force,this group also came under intenseenemy fire. Disregarding his own safe-ty, Ripley mounted a vehicle and fireda machine gun at the concealedenemy and led a counterattack againstenemy forces for over three hourswhile also coordinating highly effec-tive artillery fire and air strikes. Hisbattlefield leadership enabled the suc-cessful extraction of his commandfrom its perilous situation. By the endof his Marine career in 1992, he hadbeen awarded the Navy Cross, theSilver Star, two Legions of Merit, twoBronze Stars with Combat “V,” and thePurple Heart. In addition to numerousother personal decorations, ColonelRipley was the recipient of the SouthVietnamese Army Distinguished Ser-vice Order and Cross of Gallantry withGold Star. There were few Marineswith more decorated combat servicethan John Ripley.

Always interested in leadership,history, and education while on

active duty, in retirement, Colonel

Ripley focused his vast energy in theseparticular fields and served as presi-dent of Southern Virginia College inBuena Vista, Virginia, and HargraveMilitary Academy before he acceptedthe position as director of the MarineCorps History and Museums Divisionin 1999. While director, he was instru-mental in executing plans to create theNational Museum of the Marine Corps,which opened to wide acclaim on 10

November 2006. Fully retiring fromfederal service in 2005, Colonel Ripleyremained an active lecturer on MarineCorps history.

Recently plagued with failing healthdue to liver disease he likely con-

tracted while on duty in Vietnam,Colonel Ripley’s personal courage anddignity were evident to all as heendured two liver transplants. Duringone particularly grim hospital staywhen it appeared that the redoubtablecolonel might not survive, he was vis-ited by General James L. Jones, the32d Commandant of the MarineCorps, and the Marine Corps colorsergeant who had the Corps’ officialBattle Colors in tow. Posting the colorsergeant with the colors insideColonel Ripley’s room, the Comman-dant remarked that “the colors don’tleave the room until you do.”According to Colonel Ripley’s son,Thomas, the sight of the Marine CorpsBattle Colors near his bedside gavehim the will to live on—and he did.This single episode epitomizes justhow important Colonel Ripley was tohis beloved Corps and his country. Hewill be dearly missed. �1775�

Col John W. Ripley

At the 3d Battalion (Vietnamese Marine Corps) commandpost at Dong Ha, the American, second from the left, is then-Capt Ripley. Bending over the map is the battalion com-

mander, Maj Le Ba Binh. Note the number of radios used tocontrol the unit and the M113 armored personnel carrier.

David Burnett Contact Press Images


What was the key terrain, whatwas the effect of weather,

where were the enemies’ forcesdeployed, what were their capabili-ties, how did they react to friendlyforces, and what was the opposingcommander thinking? These are ques-tions that historians and intelligenceanalysts ponder. Historians determinewhat happened in the past, whileintelligence analysts concentrate onthe present and the future. Historyand intelligence follow similarprocesses to different ends. These dis-ciplines apply critical thinking skills to“direct, collect, process, and dissemi-nate.” Within the intelligence commu-nity of the United States, a number ofhistorians are contemplating thesegoals.The Director of National Intelli-

gence sponsors a Senior HistorianPanel with representatives from thevarious agencies and services thatcomprise the community. Citing theNational Security Act of 1947 asamended on 29 August 2007, Directorof National Intelligence J. MichaelMcConnell approved IntelligenceCommunity Directive Number 108,which stated the community “has anobligation to learn from its history andits performance and to document itsactivities.” With this directive, eachagency or organization should estab-lish and maintain a professional his-torical capability, consisting of a for-mal history office as appropriate, todocument, analyze, and advance anunderstanding of its history and that ofits predecessors. This included theMarines, with the History Divisionproviding representation for theDirector of Intelligence, Headquarters,U.S. Marine Corps, Brigadier GeneralRichard M. Lake.The Marine Corps intelligence com-

munity consists of a variety of individ-ual disciplines, units, and institutions.These have evolved over time, begin-ning with individual participation inthe Office of Naval Intelligence since

talion and companies, tactical elec-tronic warfare and unmanned aerialvehicle squadrons, and special opera-tions or specialized reconnaissanceunits. This includes not just those withthe “O2” intelligence military occupa-tional specialties, but all of those whomake up the activities involvedregardless of their assigned occupa-tion. Some specialties and subspecial-ties such as counterintelligence andinterrogator-translators are small innumbers but high in demand. OtherMarines serve individual assignmentoutside of the Marine Corps for othergovernment agencies. All of thesehave their own history and heritagefrom earlier organizations and individ-uals. This is in part underscored by theDirector of Intelligence’s reading list.

At first, documenting these dis-parate efforts seems daunting,

particularly since in the U.S. ArmedServices, intelligence is not an end initself but a part of staff support tocommanders. But a review of the

1882 and as defense attachés withAmerican embassies to foreign nationswith the Department of State. Many ofthe technical aspects of intelligenceare products of the scientific advancesin the 19th and 20th centuries such asphotography, communications andsignals intercepts, and the variety ofsurface and airborne platforms. Otherskills have a longer heritage, includingcartography, reconnaissance, interro-gation, and translation techniques. Inthis century, all of these disciplines arenow more in demand than ever beforewith the Global War on Terrorism andwidespread deployment of Marineforces on worldwide missions.At present in the Marine Corps,

there are those involved in reconnais-sance, surveillance, and intelligenceactivities to include Headquarters, U.S.Marine Corps Intelligence Division,the Marine Corps Intelligence Activity,the various schools and trainingdetachments, intelligence and intelli-gence support battalions, radio battal-ions, Marine cryptologic security bat-

From the Chief Historian

Intelligence Community Historyby Charles D. Melson

Chief Historian

A Marine intelligence specialist uses an interrogater and translator to questionChinese prisoners of war captured in Korea during the 1950s conflict. Combatinformation gathered from a broad range of sources is analyzed to provideinformation to Marine commanders about what is happening on “the other sideof the hill” in enemy territory. Department of Defense Photo


existing Marine Corps HistoricalProgram, put forward under MCOP5750, indicates that if applied dili-gently, the story of the activities of theMarine Corp intelligence communitycould be fully documented. First andforemost, records management acrossthe board causes documents and files(electronic and otherwise) to beretired for disposition through theMarine Corps and eventually theNational Archives and Records Admin-istration. Next, scheduled reportingmonthly, biannually, or annually isrequired through the annual summaryof activities and command chronologyprogram that also serves as the meansto forward essential documentation aswell as formatted reports for historicpurposes. All of these vary in quantityand quality and have handling andstorage concerns that have to be metfor subsequent use. This is a com-mand responsibility that applies to theheadquarters staff, commands, andunits down to the battalion or squad-ron level. In addition, there is a rele-vant section of all Marine Corps com-mands and units with assigned staffsfor the assigned intelligence officers tomake their input to commandchronologies. In one recent case, aMarine division used its intelligenceofficer to draft the narrative of thecommand’s combat operations. Thesecommand chronologies are collectedand reside with the Library of theMarine Corps, Alfred M. GrayResearch Center at Quantico, Virginia.At the Marine Corps History

Division, color-bearing units have lin-eage and honors certificates prepared

with relevant unit reference files,including relevant unit awards. At theHistory Division, information of previ-ous units can also be found. Bio-graphic files exist for distinguishedMarines, and the commemorativenaming program provides opportuni-ties for recognizing those individualswho made contributions to their field.Previous public affairs orders requiredcolonels and above to maintain andsubmit biographic forms. (This nolonger occurs, requiring a reducedcollection effort.) Intelligence Marinessuch as Colonel William A. Eddy,Colonel Peter J. Ortiz, and GeneralAlfred M. Gray Jr. have been recog-nized in this way. A certain number ofsubject matter files exist, includingfiles for intelligence, signals-intelli-gence, and reconnaissance, that are

being digitized and placed upon theHistory Division’s SharePoint portalwith access for Common Access Cardholders. The digitized History Divisionpublications are also accessible in thismanner and are word-searchable forselected topics.With the growth and increased

contribution of the Marine Corps’intelligence community in recentyears, a focus on its past is in order.The current historical program pro-vides the structure and resources forthis, if systematically pursued, and ifindividuals take advantage of theseresources for their research. The vari-ous intelligence veterans groups havebeen active in putting together oralhistory or self-history memoirs, per-sonal papers, and personal narrativesthat eventually will also reside at theGray Research Center. One intelli-gence Marine, Lieutenant ColonelJohn J. Guenther (Ret), is engaged inputting together an intelligenceanthology that has promise for subse-quent publication. Additional full-timeor even part-time personnel resourcesare needed to allow a dedicated focuson this unique part of the MarineCorps contribution to national de-fense. These assets do not reside with-in the History Division’s current struc-ture or mission. In addition, necessarysecure storage and communicationsdoes not exist to accomplish anythingbut a superficial documentation of theMarine intelligence effort and history.Follow-up and focus are needed togenerate the synergy that this commu-nity requires and deserves.

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Center for Cryptologic HistoryCenter for the Study of IntelligenceDepartment of EnergyDepartment of Homeland SecurityDepartment of TreasuryDefense Intelligence AgencyDepartment of StateDrug Enforcement AdministrationFederal Bureau of Investigation

National Geospatial Intelligence AgencyNational Reconnaissance OfficeOffice of the Director, National IntelligenceU.S.Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Security AgencyU.S.Army Intelligence and Security CommandU.S. Coast GuardU.S.Marine Corps Director of IntelligenceU.S. Navy Office of Naval Intelligence

The National Intelligence Community Represented by the Senior Historian’s Panel

Current Intelligence Specialties in the U.S. Marine Corps

Air IntelligenceAir-Ground Task Force IntelligenceCounterintelligenceGeographic IntelligenceGround Intelligence

Human IntelligenceImagery IntelligenceSignals Intelligenceand Civilian Marines in Government Service


Major John L. Plaster, USAR(Retired). The History of Snipingand Sharpshooting (Boulder, Colo:Paladin Press, 2008). ISBN 13: 978-1-58160-632-4.

Major John Plaster has done itagain! He previously present-

ed the “A to Z” of the techniques ofmilitary and police sniping in hisbook The Ultimate Sniper (PaladinPress, 1993, 2006). His current workprovides the backstory of the devel-opment of sharpshooting to currentmodern precision sniping. His focusis on the integrated evolution oftechnology and techniques to showwhy we are where we are todaywith this vital battlefield skill. This isa one-stop reference for the militaryor police sniper, riflemen of all call-ings, and for the historian andenthusiast. It is a combination ofresearch and experience withoutequal and a must for riflemen andsnipers in order to know yourselfand your enemy. Skilled and trainedriflemen can still dominate the bat-tlefield, particularly in irregular com-bat.Where his first book was focused

on “tactics, techniques, and proce-dures” in use, this new volume isbased on the background study thatled to the current state of the art.Military sniping has been a wartimeskill that has an on-and-off-againdevelopment that comes to the forewhen bullets are flying but suffersfrom budget cuts when peacetimefiscal restraints and shortsightednessare the reality. The U.S. MarineCorps began its renaissance of thisbattlefield skill in 1977 at Quantico,Virginia’s Weapons Training Battal-ion. Other American Armed andPolice Forces followed from thisexample. Yet as Plaster shows, thisis backed by a long tradition of rifleshooting. The volume consists of sixparts organized in chronologicalorder. These developments are

described with research, examples,and extensive illustrations. The workis indexed and is documented by abibliography.The book starts with a 1400s ref-

erence to a rifled bore firearm thatallowed an increase in accuracy topredictable standards. The authortraces these developments to asharpshooting revolution in the1700s when a distinct class of rifle-man emerged from the massedranks of musket-firing infantry. AsMarines, we should appreciate thissharpshooting function performed

aboard ship by continental soldiersof the sea. At a time when the mus-ket was valued more as a platformfor the bayonet, sharpshooters hittargets they deliberately aimed at—officers, couriers, and gun crews.While the focus of the book is onAmerican developments, the influ-ence of overseas experience is notneglected, as Plaster considers whathappened in the United Kingdom,Europe, and elsewhere with thedevelopment of riflemen as lightinfantry, jaegers, and rangers (thesource of the Marine Corps “rifle”green uniforms with black buttonsand emblems). About half the bookis devoted to developments through

the U.S. Civil War. The remainder ofthe book considers the modern peri-od of 20th century developments,both irregular and conventional con-flicts.The core of Plaster’s book begins

with sharpshooting in transition andends with sniping in the 21st centu-ry. This is the period when firearmsand optical technology developed tothe point that scientific snipingemerged from the art of sharpshoot-ing. This was from World Wars Iand II, Korea, Vietnam, and currentconflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan thatwitnessed the combination of fieldcraft, scouting, patrolling, observa-tion, and shooting techniques.Personalized vignettes considersharpshooting and sniper pioneersFerguson, Berdan, York, Zaitsev,Wermuth, Janis, Hathcock, andLand. One of these, Major (Ret)Edward J. Land Jr. (currently theNational Rifle Association’s secre-tary), wrote: “There are manyauthors who have published workson sniping based on old memoriesor anecdotes. However, John hasdone his homework . . . John’s infor-mation is right on the money inevery respect.”Plaster’s research was based on

his background in Vietnam with theMilitary Advisory Command Vietnam“Studies and Observation Group”and a career as a precision shootingadvocate and instructor with mili-tary, police, and contract organiza-tions. In the current Global War onTerrorism, he has been challengedby “Juba,” the mythical terroristsniper of Baghdad. Plaster’s re-sponse was to train more Americansnipers and sharpshooters with thementality that “hits count” in thelong war.As such, this work is highly rec-

ommended to Marines as the bestsingle-volume source of informationon this essential skill and trade of“every Marine a rifleman.” �1775�

Book Review

“OnTarget”by Charles D. Melson

Chief Historian


Hammerless Pocket Automatic in.380-caliber, serial number 97058,was reportedly in the “wrong hands”in 1930.When introduced in 1908, the

.380 Hammerless Pocket Automaticwas identical to the .32-caliber pistolalready in production by Colt. Thegreat firearms designer John M.Browning and William M. Thomas ofthe Union Metallic Cartridge Com-pany collaborated on the design ofthe new .380 cartridge. It had morestopping power and was superior tothe smaller .32 cartridge. Combinedwith the light handy pistols cham-bered for it, the .380-caliber quicklybecame popular. Introduced inEurope by Fabrique Nationale in1912, the round became known asthe 9mm Kurz, or “short,” on thatcontinent.

Colt advertising of the daydescribed the Hammerless Pock-

et Automatic as a well-balanced,lightweight arm—compact in design,smooth, and “flat as a book”—pow-erful, accurate, and utterly depend-able. It is easy to see the appeal thepistol had on both sides of the law.

Through its many distributors in theU.S., Colt shipped firearms for saleto Mexico and Central and SouthAmerica.From March 1929 to January 1931,

General Douglas C. McDougal, wasdirector-in-chief of the GuardiaNacional de Nicaragua. Born in SanFrancisco in 1876, McDougal wasappointed a second lieutenant on 12March 1900. Known for his out-standing shooting ability, GeneralMcDougal was an influential mem-ber of Marine Corps’ shooting teamsand was captain of the first MarineCorps’ rifle team to win the NationalMatch. Clearly, he was no stranger toa wide range of firearms.One of General McDougal’s guns,

a Colt .380 Hammerless PocketAutomatic, came to the NationalMuseum of the Marine Corps in 1974through his family with the follow-ing notation: “Taken from a murder-er in Nicaragua in 1930.” HowGeneral McDougal and the accused“murderer” came to meet isunknown.What we do know is that General

McDougal was awarded the Distin-guished Service Medal by thePresident of the United States andthe Medal of Distinction and Medalof Merit by a grateful President ofNicaragua. General McDougalserved a long and honorable careerand retired on 1 January 1940 withthe rank of Major General. He diedon 20 January 1964.

In honor of General McDougal, thestaff at the National Museum willexhibit two rifles built and used byhim during his illustrious competi-tive shooting career. Both rifles willbe displayed in the competitivemarksmanship case in the “First toFight—Age of Expansion” gallery.This gallery, along with two others,will tell the story of the Marine Corpsfrom 1775 through World War I andwill open in April 2010. �1775�

One of the Colt handguns in thecollection of the National

Museum of the Marine Corps madeits way from the Colt factory inHartford, Connecticut, to the junglesof Nicaragua, into the hands of aU.S. Marine general. Most of thedetails surrounding this journey arelost to history, but the curators aredefinitely intrigued and want toknow more about its provenance.Colt handguns have a rich histori-

cal tradition, as well as great com-mercial and military appeal. Indeed,the Colt is one of the most easily rec-ognized products of U.S. manufac-ture and figures prominently inAmerican material culture. No othercountry can boast of a single groupof firearms so widely known, used,or sought after. Unfortunately, theColt handgun has not always beenused by honorable, law-abiding citi-zens. Gangsters, thieves, murderers,and other unsavory characters havefrequently wielded Colt handgunsagainst the side of law and order andan innocent population. Sometimesthese weapons were obtained byopen purchase, capture, or outrighttheft. The Museum’s Colt Model 1908

National Museum of the Marine Corps

In theWrong Hands: A Colt Pocket Pistolby Alfred V. Houde Jr.Curator of Ordnance

Colt Hammerless Pocket Automatic serial number 97058Photo by Alfred V. Houde Jr.


The deployment of Osprey-flyingVMM-263 into Iraq and into com-

bat in October 2007 was the culmina-tion of 25 years of effort by the MarineCorps to obtain tiltrotor technology forits operating forces. The Osprey’sincreased range and speed mark it asa generational step forward in assaultsupport capability. Lieutenant GeneralGeorge J. Trautman, head of Marineaviation, remarked that the Osprey“collapsed the al-Anbar battlespace,like making Texas seem like RhodeIsland.”Although Marine leaders had

shown a strong interest in tiltrotortechnology earlier, especially after thea tiltrotor prototype, the XV-15, beganflying in the mid-1970s, official MarineCorps commitment began in late 1982when Lieutenant General William H.Fitch, then deputy chief of staff foraviation, signed the operationalrequirement for the aircraft that wouldeventually become the MV-22 Osprey.

The story of how the Osprey got fromoperational requirement to combat isa complex and convoluted one. Manydedicated Marines, from ranking offi-cers at Headquarters to air crews,made important contributions towardthat goal. Often overlooked in thisstory is one key group—the aircraftmechanics. At a critical juncture in thedevelopment of the Osprey, a smallgroup of warrant officers and non-commissioned officers, all experi-enced in aircraft maintenance, recom-mended making necessary changes tothe aircraft that resulted in a bettercombat-capable Osprey.There were several occasions when

the Osprey program almost died, aswhen Dick Cheney, then the secretaryof defense, cancelled the program inlate 1989. At no time during the 25-year developmental history of theOsprey, however, was it as close todead as it was after the two crashes inApril and December 2000. Squadron

morale was entirely deflated in MarineMedium Tiltrotor Training Squadron204 (VMMT-204), the squadronresponsible for flying and testing theOsprey at that time. The squadron ral-lied, though, and out of VMMT-204and other units, a group of experi-enced Marine aircraft mechanics,some who had been with the Ospreyprogram since its earliest days, inte-grated with Bell-Boeing engineers anddesigners to affect key changes in theMV-22. One of them, Gunnery Ser-geant Terrence L. Steele, expressedthe mechanics’ perspective on theirmission: “We took the initiative, wewere down there for a reason, andthat was to make a better product.”Besides initiative, the Marines

brought a Marine Corps work ethicand real-world experience in aircraftmaintenance, specifically on theOsprey, to the Bell-Boeing team. TheMarine mechanics helped improve therouting of critical hydraulic lines,

Histories Branch

“Marines Have Always Believed in this Aircraft”:Marine Mechanics Helped Rescue the Osprey

by Dr. Fred H. AllisonHistorian

Ospreys in flight from Squadron VMM-263


especially in the engine housings.While the hydraulic line layout lookedgood on an engineer’s computer, itdid not necessarily mesh well withother systems when stuffed into thetight confines of the engine housings.The Bell-Boeing team members madethe necessary changes: they estab-lished clearance specifications forlines, wrapped the lines in compositematerial to prevent chaffing, and reor-ganized the engine housings, decreas-ing the hydraulic line by 14 feet.Another key change that the

Marines initiated, fought for, andattained was the installation of clamshell doors on the engine housings tofacilitate inspections. Now aircraftmechanics can release four fastenersto open the clam shells and exposehalf of the inner components of the

engine housing for inspection. Prior tothis change, about 60 mini-mark 4 fas-teners had to be unscrewed to take offan engine housing panel.These are a couple of examples of

the substantial changes wrought in theOsprey’s redesign, resulting from theMarine/Bell-Boeing integration. Therewere others, including softwarechanges. But these changes serve topoint out that despite the seeminghopelessness of the situation in late2000, Marine mechanics accepted thechallenge of redesigning the Osprey.They had much invested in theOsprey; many had been with the pro-gram from the beginning and haddeveloped a personal attachment andloyalty to their aircraft. As ChiefWarrant Officer-2 James Mabe attest-ed, “Marines have always believed in

this aircraft. We have always believedin this technology.”In the case of these Marines, this

affinity had an extra dimension. Mostof them had friends who had beenkilled in Osprey crashes. Some ofthem were first on the scene at thecrash sites. Seeing the Osprey succeedwould in a way ensure that their fel-low Marines did not die in vain, thebattle had not been lost. They alsowere cogently aware that this was thefirst time that the Marine Corps hadgone it alone on the development ofan aircraft. The Marine Corps hadcommitted to the MV-22 Osprey; pro-ducing a combat-operational aircraftmeant mission accomplishment. AsMabe expressed it, “With Marines, ifyou give them a mission, they aregoing to make it happen.” �1775�

Marines have a superb reputationfor quality air support, the abili-

ty to put steel on targets close toground Marines. Marines often havehad to be innovative and creative inadapting their aircraft or associatedequipment to best do this. A case inpoint is bomb racks, ordinary piecesof equipment that nevertheless arecritical for close air support.In the earliest days of Marine avia-

tion, Marines improved air support bymaking better bomb racks in the field.Evidence of this is found in LieutenantGeneral Lewis B. “Chesty” Puller’s oralhistory. In 1919, Puller was in Haiti asan enlisted Marine commanding acompany of gendarmerie. A pilot inthe Marine squadron that was there toprovide air support was LieutenantLawson M. H. Sanderson. Both Pullerand Sanderson would have notewor-thy Marine Corps careers. Puller roseto three-star rank and is the icon of aMarine combat leader; his NavyCrosses bear witness to that.Sanderson retired a major general andcommanded a number of Marine airunits during World War II. Sandersonis best remembered as an innovator.During this Haiti tour, he was creditedwith pioneering dive or glide bomb-

ing techniques. According to Puller,they worked together on a bomb rackfor the JN-4 “Jennies,” the biplane thatthe Marines were flying in Haiti at thattime. Here’s how Puller described it:“A truckload of bombs reached

Mirebalais, [Haiti] and [Major E. A.]Osterman [a ground officer] said, ‘Trythe bombs.’ And Sanderson returned

to Osterman, ‘We have no bombracks.’ [The model of Jennies that theMarines had at that time in Haiti didnot have bomb racks, but the DH-4s(de Havillands) that did have bombracks were on the way.] Ostermansaid, ‘Improvise bomb racks.’ Well, Iwent with Lieutenant Sanderson. Heasked me if I had any ideas. My replywas ‘No, I’ve never even seen a bombrack.’ Well, he said, ‘I got an idea.’ Wewent to the mail tent and got two mailsacks . . . and then we went to thequartermaster and got four lengths ofwindow sashing cord; they were bothabout six feet long. From the quarter-master we went to the shoe shop. Inthose days, every company had a cob-bler; we had him secure two pieces ofwindow cord to the open ends of thesack. Then we went out to the airstrip,it was only a couple of hundred yardsfrom camp. And Sanderson with theuse of nails and bolts secured theclosed end of the sack under the fuse-lage. And he found cleats and put onein the cockpit. That would raise themouth of the sack and secure it in thecockpit. Then we went and got abomb—it weighed either 27 or 32pounds . . . that’s all they weighed,that’s the biggest we had—put that in

Histories Branch

Marine Innovators and the Creation of Bomb Racksby Dr. Fred H. Allison, Historian

One Marine F4U Corsair squadronthat Charles Lindbergh visited in hisMarshall Island tour in the fall of1944 was Major Rudy York’s VMF-224.In this photo, Lindbergh is on the leftand York on the right.


the sack and secured the open end bythe piece of sash cord into the cock-pit. There was an old French fort builton the hillside overlooking Mirebalais;and we flew over the fort, andSanderson says, ‘Unleash it when Ihold up my right hand.’ We flew overand I untied the damn sash cord and Ileaned over to take a look, and youcould see that mail sack just [open].The bomb floated out of there and wegot a near miss . . . didn’t miss far.”

This was a very temporary andprimitive substitute for a bomb

rack. In World War II, however,Marines in combat adapted their fight-ers to drop bombs better and thusplayed a part in turning one of thebest fighters of the era, the F4UCorsair, into a great fighter/bomber.The first Corsairs that the Marines

flew, the F4U-1s, were as one pilotdescribed it: “clean, slick, and astraight fighter.” The plane’s onlyarmament was six wing-mounted 50-caliber machine guns, which couldspew 40 pounds of lead every threeseconds. But these Corsairs could notdrop bombs. Not having bombs wasfine for the Marine squadrons thatflew in the Solomon Island campaignwhere the fight was against enemy air-craft. However, in the Marshall

Islands, Marine Corsair squadrons’main mission was striking bypassedJapanese island bases to keep themsubdued and isolated. The Marinesneeded to drop bombs and thereforeneeded bomb racks.It is not clear exactly who first built

bomb racks for the Corsair. Onesource says it was a Navy fightersquadron, VF-17, the “Jolly Rogers”flying in the Solomon Islands. Notedaviation historian Barrett Tillman,however, credits aircraft mechanics inVMF-111, a Marshall Islands-basedMAG-31 squadron commanded byMajor J. Frank Cole, with building thefirst bomb racks. By 18 March 1944,VMF-111 flew their first mission with1,000-pound bombs hung on theirCorsairs with field-engineered bombracks. Major John M. Elliott, an avia-tion historian who spent his MarineCorps career with aviation ordnanceand Corsair squadrons, surmises thatsince the Corsair was “built like aMack truck,” and bomb racks alreadyexisted on other aircraft, what theMAG-31 Marines did was make anadapter or brace that could beattached to the rear engine mount andthe wing main spar in the fuselagefrom which a standard Navy MK-51bomb rack could be hung.Aircraft manufacturers employed

civilian technical representatives tovisit forward bases to find out whatimprovements were needed. One ofUnited Aircraft Corporation’s (the par-ent company of Chance-Vought,which built the Corsair) technical rep-resentatives was none other thanCharles Lindbergh. In late 1944,Lindbergh visited the Marinesquadrons on Marshall Islands and didsome field engineering with bombracks so the Corsair could carry a big-ger bomb load.

Lindbergh not only queried Marinepilots about the Corsair and itsneeded improvements, but he flewcombat missions with them—some-thing he was not supposed to do as acivilian and celebrity whose capturewould have been a tremendous coupfor the Japanese. Working with a“young Lieutenant Clark,” they builtan adapter for a bomb rack that wasstout enough to carry a 2,000-poundbomb. He then “tested” it by droppinga 2,000-pound bomb on a Japaneseantiaircraft installation on Wotje Atoll.Lindbergh noted in his diary that “sofar as we know, this is the first time a2,000 pound bomb has been droppedby a fighter.” A few days later,Lindbergh flew a mission with a 2,000-pound bomb and two 1,000-pound-

Marine Corps Corsairs, November 1944, somewhere in the Pacific carrying bombs hung from field-engineered bomb racks.Official Marine Corps Photo


ers—a phenomenal load for a fighter.He then flew a mission with theMarines, salvoing all 4,000 pounds ona Japanese gun installation on WotjeAtoll.

With the military working withindustry representatives, it was

not long before aircraft manufacturersincluded bomb racks and other adap-tations on newer variants of theCorsair. Marine fighter pilots employedit in the ground attack role with goodeffect in the war’s closing battles in thePhilippines and Okinawa, and fiveyears later in the Korean War.Less than 10 years after the Korean

War, Marines again built bomb racks inthe field to make their aircraft, nowjets, into better close air support plat-forms. Again, Marines were flying anaircraft, the A-4 Skyhawk, that was notoptimized for supporting troops. TheSkyhawk’s primary mission was as anuclear bomber. Captain William H.Fitch, a future lieutenant general,served in 1959 as a test pilot in theU.S. Navy’s aviation test squadron, VX-5, at China Lake, California. Herecalled the emphasis at that time onnuclear warfare and lack of interest inconventional tactics: “After doing hun-dreds of flights in VX-5, with loft

maneuvers, high dive, cruise control,and aerial refueling, I was convincedthat we could go to that nuclear warand do a great job of defeating theenemy with nuclear weapons . . . mostof us felt [however] that use of nukeswas improbable. We felt that conven-tional warfare was what we needed tobe concerned with.”The A-4 could carry only three

bombs, one hung on each of itspylons, which would have been plen-ty if they were nuclear devices, butthese were not nearly enough bombsfor close air support missions. CaptainFitch came up with an idea to create a“rack on a rack,” a bomb rack thatcould carry multiple bombs attachedto the A-4’s factory installed pylons.He shared his idea with anotherMarine VX-5 test pilot, Major K. P.Rice. Rice was enthusiastic, and theywent to work developing a multiplecarriage bomb rack. Fitch had the sup-port and protection of VX-5’s com-manding officer, Commander Dale W.Cox Jr. (USN), who saw the value ofthe multiple carriage bomb rack. AtFitch’s suggestion, Cox kept knowl-edge of the project from the Navy’sBureau of Naval Weapons. Fitch andCox wanted to have “the momentumof fleet support, both Marine and Navy

aviation, so that the Bureau of NavalWeapons couldn’t turn it over tobureaucrats and keep it on the shelffor years.”With Captain Fitch and Major Rice

advising, squadron metalsmiths andavionics personnel built the multiplecarriage bomb racks around Aero 15racks and wiring harnesses salvagedfrom junked AD-1 Skyraiders. Theonly new materials required werechannel iron and steel tubing. Theyproduced three multiple carriagebomb racks at a cost of less than$3,000. On 30 September 1959, onlythree months after developing theidea, Fitch made the first test flightwith a multiple carriage bomb rack.The multiple carriage bomb rack wassolid, weighing about 500 pounds.Fitch made a high-speed, low-altitudepass in front of control tower person-nel at Charlie Range at China Lake inan A-4, and the rack held together.The next day, Fitch dropped six MK-81(250 pound) inert bombs using themultiple carriage bomb rack. “Itworked great,” he recalled. In follow-ing flights, Fitch flew with wing-mounted multiple carriage bombracks, which also worked well.Captain Fitch, Major Rice, and Com-mander Cox a few years later attaineda U.S. patent for the multiple carriagebomb rack.

Douglas Aircraft Company, whichbuilt the A-4, took Fitch’s idea and

began mass-producing bomb racks,increasing its bomb carrying capacityfrom 3 to 16. From the Douglas rackscame the ubiquitous multiple ejectorracks and triple ejector racks used onVietnam-era attack jets of all services—F-4s, A-4s, A-6s and even B-52s—which increased the bomb carryingcapacity of these aircraft many fold.For Marines, the best use of bombs

was and still is in support of troops,and therefore, bomb racks are essen-tial. As such, when aircraft weren’t ini-tially designed with bomb racks,Marine innovators created bomb racksthat not only improved the functional-ity of their aircraft, but fulfilled thedynamic role of close air support sonecessary to the ground missions ofMarines in various climes and areas ofthe world. �1775�

Underside of A-4 with multiple carriage bomb racks during an early test flight,flown by the racks’ developer, then-Capt Fitch, 19 November 1959.

Photo provided by LtGen William H. Fitch


Lieutenant Colonel Christopher S.Dowling, commander of the 3d

Battalion, 5th Marines, stationed inFallujah, had a dilemma. The culturaland religious custom that prohibits aman from touching any woman who isnot his wife led to the cursory search-ing of women passing through entrycontrol points. This development hadresulted in a lack of security becauseinsurgents used women to smuggle inillegal items. Although women Marineswere placed at such points, their otherresponsibilities prevented them frombecoming full-time searchers. Lieuten-ant Colonel Dowling realized that theseMarines needed to train Iraqi womenwho could adequately search otherwomen entering the city. He needed toinitiate a plan that would keep the citysafe while also respecting Iraqi tradi-tion.In December 2007, a select group of

seven women military personnel fromCombat Logistics Battalion 8 wereformed into the Sisters of Fallujah train-ing team, under First LieutenantStephanie P. Drake, and were attachedto the 3d Battalion, 5th Marines. Theirgoal was to train more than 20 localIraqi women, the Sisters of Fallujah, tosearch women entering the city. ChiefWarrant Officer-2 Brian P. Callaway,officer in charge of the training pro-gram, was the liaison between theteam and 3d Battalion, 5th Marines,and in charge of the Marines’ trainingand logistics. He explained in a recentinterview that in order to train femaleIraqis, “I needed to have a female train-ing team.”Training from the women Marines

accommodated Iraqi culture and pre-sented an opportunity neither groupwould ever forget. The training teammembers included six Marines (FirstLieutenant Stephanie P. Drake, StaffSergeant Sonya T. Hampton, SergeantMonica C. Hardin, Lance CorporalCassandra B. Hoffman, and Corporals

Rachael C. Henderson and Valarie J.Ward) and Hospital Corpsman 3rdClass Ali M. Bates (USN). FirstLieutenant Drake had the opportunityto hand-select whom she wanted to goand what she described as “an amazinggroup.”According to First Lieutenant Drake,

“having some people with experiencein different areas really helped.” Shedescribed some of the attributes in arecent interview with the HistoryDivision’s Oral History program. Sheobserved that Corporal Ward “is veryexperienced with weapons and her jobis to fix them and account for themwhereas my military police [LanceCorporal Hoffman] knew her policingtactics. She knew how to search; sheknew how to incorporate that part ofher knowledge into what we weredoing.” Drake added that “my twoother Marines were there because theyhad gone on so many female searchteams, they knew exactly what theywere doing, and they could relate it to

the actual search environment thatthose women were going to be in.”The Marines embraced the opportu-

nity to participate on the training team.Corporal Ward was “more than willing”when recommended to First LieutenantDrake. “It’s a chance of a lifetime towork with these women . . . I was actu-ally going to . . . be able to make achange and hopefully set forth a newpattern,” recalled Lance CorporalHoffman. Corporal Henderson saidshe “got lucky” and happened to be inthe right place at the right time. A staffsergeant said she would ask the nextnoncommissioned officer she cameacross. It happened to be CorporalHenderson, who “jumped” at thechance to participate. Like SergeantHardin, all were “excited” to join theteam.The Sisters of Fallujah team trained

internally before linking up with 3dBattalion, 5th Marines, about twoweeks prior to meeting the Iraqiwomen. Under the instruction of Chief

Oral History

Women Marines Train the Sisters of Fallujahby Sara C. Pappa, Virginia E. Reynolds, and Laura J. Thiessen

History Division Interns

Top Row, Left to Right: HM3 Ali M. Bates; 1stLt Stephanie P. Drake; SSgt Sonya T.Hampton; LCpl Cassandra B. Hoffman; Bottom Row, Left to Right: Cpl Valarie J.Ward; Cpl Rachael C. Henderson; Sgt Monica C. Hardin.


Warrant Officer-2 Callaway, theMarines practiced combat marksman-ship since they were operating in thebattalion’s area of operations. Theyalso learned the standard operatingprocedures of 3d Battalion, 5thMarines. According to Callaway, “it is3/5’s responsibility that they areprepped for combat.”Teaching in Fallujah required special

preparation on behalf of the Marines.Chief Warrant Officer-2 Callaway pre-pared the program’s curriculum andbasic lesson plan, derived from themanual used by the Iraqi Police ForceAcademy, and helped train the Sistersof Fallujah training team. Lecture top-ics included search techniques—bodyand vehicular—as well as communica-tion, history, and weapons handling.Hospital Corpsman 3d Class Bates’ pri-mary duties were to provide medicalsupport and teach women’s health andfirst-aid courses to the women. TheMarines, having served at entry controlpoints themselves, drew from theirexperiences to help teach the Sisters ofFallujah. First Lieutenant Drake madethe courses flexible and the informa-tion more accessible for the Iraqis byreplacing words with images. She stat-ed that “my Marines and my sailor dida fantastic job. They just started show-ing them, demonstrating to them evenwithout any way to communicate tothem verbally.”Employing women Marines also

encouraged “serious cultural bonding,”according to Chief Warrant Officer-2Callaway. Although the training periodfor the Sisters of Fallujah lasted only sixdays, it was time enough to build arelationship. He stated that “it worksout a lot better when you have thefemales there to train the female Iraqisbecause they have things to relate toand they can share things culturally.”The joint effort also permitted theMarines to see the women in a newlight. Corporal Ward felt it was easy toconnect with the Iraqi women because,to a certain extent, both were mis-judged. Lance Corporal Hoffmanremembered a lesson she learnedwhen the Marines were teaching take-downs. “I had one take me to theground, and she was a lot strongerthan I thought she would be. I knownot to underestimate them.” First

Lieutenant Drake felt that “as much aswe were teaching them, we learned alot about them on the whole . . . It wasreally interesting to see their personali-ties.”

The training that the Sisters ofFallujah received made for a

smooth transition to their duties atentry control points. Their presencealso lifted responsibility from theMarines. Sergeant Hardin recalled that“it made it easier for us because we justhad to supervise what they were doingand make sure they were doing it right.We didn’t have to take our eyes offanything at any time. We could watchthem and watch what was going on allat the same time.” Just one day aftertheir graduation, the Sisters of Fallujahprevented a woman from entering thecity with a large sum of money,demonstrating both the need and effec-tiveness of the program. Also, Iraqiwomen were surprised but pleased tobe searched by other Iraqi women andpreferred this arrangement.Success did not come without some

difficulty and challenges along way.On the first day, the Marines foundthemselves without an interpreter orelectricity for their image-richPowerPoint slide show. Also, the Iraqiwomen, not driven by a Westerner’ssense of time, were not always punctu-al by the Marines’ standards. More seri-ous concerns were threats of attacks,forcing the team to relocate frequently.The language barrier was the most tax-ing for the women Marines. It waschallenging and frustrating to teach

through an interpreter. Corporal Warddescribed it as being “mentallyexhausting,” and Sergeant Hardinfound it “frustrating.” By using practi-cal teaching techniques, the problemsencountered did not prove insur-mountable. Hands-on demonstrations,and hand and arm signals were usedthroughout the training. Marines incor-porated experienced-based learning,broke into smaller groups, and eventaught one on one.The women Marines enjoyed seeing

the Iraqi women, usually submissiveand mild in public, come together inone room, talking and laughing andbecoming “feisty” and “active.” FirstLieutenant Drake said that “youlearned a lot about them that youwouldn’t have learned just riding bythem in a truck.” The training team wasalso glad it was given the opportunityto help the Iraqi women take control oftheir city’s security. Lance CorporalHoffman stated that “I know that Ihelped these women help themselvesin a sense in keeping their city safe andI made a difference.” In addition, theMarines took great pride in the fact thatthey were doing something a maleMarine could not do. HospitalCorpsman 3rd Class Bates felt that theexperience afforded her “the potentialto stand out as a female,” and CorporalHenderson believed that the Marines’accomplishment was “something to beproud of.” Chief Warrant Officer-2Callaway summed up the experienceby stating that “they were outstandingMarines, and I have the utmost respectfor them.” �1775�

Top Row, Left to Right: Cpl Valarie J. Ward; SSgt Sonya T. Hampton; CWO-2 BrianP. Callaway; 1stLt Stephanie P. Drake, Bottom Row, Left to Right: LCpl CassandraB. Hoffman; Sgt Monica C. Hardin; Cpl Rachael C. Henderson; HM3 Ali M. Bates.


In November 2004, after a seven-month unilateral cease-fire following

Operation Vigilant Resolve, the U.S.Marines experienced the most intenseurban fighting in Fallujah, Iraq, sincethe battle to retake Hue City, Vietnam,in 1968. However, the two hard-foughtbattles for Fallujah in 2004, along withthe numerous engagements with Iraq’scommitted insurgents, are only part ofthe Marines’ story in Iraq. The otherpart of the story is how the Marinestook the initiative with the civil affairscomponent of their mission and creat-ed relationships that helped transformal-Anbar Province and Fallujah.Fallujah, once considered the symbol-ic epicenter of Iraq’s bitter and bloodyinsurgency, is now representative ofthe Marines’ efforts to bring securityand stability to the region. Their suc-cess is as significant to Marine Corps’history as the two vicious battles in2004.Located along the Euphrates River

valley 40 miles west of Baghdad,Fallujah is an important political andeconomic center with a population of

around 250,000. Since ancient times,Fallujah has been a dangerous andunruly city. Its proximity to Baghdadalong the important trade routes lead-ing from Syria and Jordan made it acrossroads for the smuggling trade.Amid this environment, Fallujah’stribes competed for business and polit-ical power, and organized crimethrived. With 72 major mosques andthree Islamic colleges, Fallujah wasIraq’s Wahhabi capital. Under SaddamHussein, Fallujah’s Wahhabi elementposed a threat to the Ba’ath Partyregime, causing Hussein to stationmany of his best Republican Guardtroops on a cluster of bases outside thecity, along with the Iranian divisioncomposed of defectors and expelleddissidents belonging to theMujahadeen-e-Khalq. Besides theWahhabi and criminal elements,Fallujah’s volatility and anti-Westernresentment had been increased byclashes with the British during theBritish Mandate and World War II, byan errant bomb that killed civiliansduring the Gulf War, and by a decade

of sanctions and inspections by theUnited Nations.When U.S. Army soldiers arrived in

April 2003, they were never able tofully pacify the city. The Fallujans, likeother Sunnis and Ba’athists, believedthat they were the target of the warand protested the Coalition invasion.Many vowed revenge for the loss ofincome, pensions, and the humiliationof Coalition occupation. A number ofleading Ba’athists, who had enjoyedpaternalistic privilege and protectionunder Hussein, continued to fightalongside Iraqi nationalists, SaddamFedayeen, secret police, and foreignfighters who came to Iraq to fight theenemies of Islam. Many former gener-als and officers, who held key posi-tions in Hussein’s military, along witharound 40,000 troops they once com-manded on the bases outside Fallujah,also joined the growing insurgency.

Aweek after Baghdad’s fall, on 28April 2003, Hussein’s birthday, a

protest in Fallujah turned into a fightbetween Fallujan insurgents and U.S.soldiers. Clashes became more com-mon and more violent as the insur-gents ignored the laws of war by usingcivilians to mask their attacks andmovements while baiting U.S. soldiersto return fire. Soon, U.S. forces couldno longer move through Fallujah with-out incident, and danger kept Westernjournalists away. Amid this environ-ment, Iraq’s insurgency grew. Fallujahbecame the base of operations forinsurgent groups to launch attacks onthe Shi’a to prevent them from attain-ing power and against Coalition targetsto erode both international and U.S.public support. The insurgents alsosought to exert control over the citythrough intimidation that includedmurdering Iraqis working for theCoalition for their “collaboration.”Along with the terror campaigns,Fallujah’s insurgent leaders made

Field History

Marines and the Transformation ofal-Anbar Province, 2004–2008

By CWO-4 Timothy S. McWilliamsField Historian

Marines with the 1st Battalion, 3d Marines, Bravo Company, in Fallujah walkaway after clearing a house and gathering intelligence and weapons.

Photo by LCpl Jeremy W. Ferguson


effective use of propaganda to achievetheir goals, attributing any incidentsresulting in civilian casualties, regard-less of who caused them, to U.S. forcesand embedding Arab journalists intotheir operations. Meanwhile, Fallujah’slarger tribes, along with Ba’athists,criminal gangs, and foreign-supportedSalafi groups competed for control ofthe city. The secular Ba’athists wantedto regain their power, while the Salafisand foreign insurgent groups soughtcreation of an Islamic state in Iraq withBaghdad as its capital.Over the next 11 months, con-

frontations between U.S. forces andFallujans became more frequent andintense. Although U.S. soldiers suc-ceeded in capturing or killing manyBa’athist leaders, Wahhabists like AbuMusab al-Zarqawi began to gain con-trol of Iraq’s Sunni insurgency. More-over, while the U.S. Army viewed itswork as a success, many Iraqis per-ceived the U.S. Army’s tactics and useof force as both excessive and insensi-tive to their culture, which furtheralienated the population and aidedinsurgent recruitment.

When Marines returned to Iraq inMarch 2004 to provide security

and stability to a region, Fallujahearned a worldwide reputation for vio-lence and danger. When the Marinesof Regimental Combat Team-1 tookover responsibility of Fallujah from theU.S. Army’s 82d Airborne on 28 March2004, they had already endured 36hours of fighting. Three days later, on31 March 2004, Fallujah became thecenter of the media’s spotlight wheninsurgents ambushed and killed fourAmerican contractors working forBlackwater USA. Al-Jazeera’s images ofcharred, mutilated bodies being pulledapart and hung from a bridge over theEuphrates River elicited U.S. publicanger—and a strong U.S. response.Multi-National Coalition commandersordered Marines to secure the city andclear it of insurgents. With few Westernjournalists on the scene, al-Jazeera andthe Arab media dominated combatcoverage in a way favorable to theinsurgents and reported the false insur-gent claims of excessive force and tar-geting civilians. These erroneousreports increased Iraqi public anger,

and the Multi-National Coalition com-manders ordered the Marines to endtheir assault. The unilateral cease-firethat followed Operation VigilantResolve allowed insurgents to regroup,impose Islamic Shari’a law on the city,and delayed decisive operations thatfinally came in November underOperation al-Fajr, or New Dawn,which finally brought a decisive mili-tary victory and paved the way for suc-cessful Iraqi elections in 2005.Although Fallujah received much of

the world’s attention, it was not theonly hostile city in western Iraq at thetime. Marines also engaged tenaciousinsurgents in cities along the EuphratesRiver valley from ar-Ramadi, capital ofthe province, to the Syrian borderwhere foreign fighters continued toenter the country. Many of these cities,including those such as ar-Rutbah onthe main highway to Jordan, acted ashubs for foreign fighters entering fromSyria. Outside al-Anbar Province, sec-tarian violence increased as Sunni andShi’a groups vied for control ofBaghdad. In August 2004, Marineshelped put down the Mahdi Militiarebellion in an-Najaf, which at the timewas the latest in a series of efforts ledby Shi’a cleric Muqtada al-Sadr toassert Shi’a supremacy in Iraq.For the next two years after

Operation al-Fajr, Iraqis in al-AnbarProvince remained isolated and largelydid not participate in the landmarkelections of 2005. Like Fallujah, insur-gents in Ramadi declared Shari’a lawand began to assert control over the

population through murder and intim-idation. Over the course of 2005,Marines engaged in several operations(New Market, Matador, and SteelCurtain) to destroy al-Qaeda in Iraqand other insurgent networks, alongwith cutting the influx of foreign fight-ers coming into Iraq from Syria.Meanwhile, Civil Affairs teams contin-ued to engage the population, providehumanitarian assistance, and rebuildinfrastructure. Information operationspursued a course of public diplomacyto convey the consistent message thatU.S. forces wanted to help stabilizeand improve the region and were notthere for long-term occupation or toproselytize the population. When al-Qaeda in Iraq’s leader, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, succeeded in destroying theal-Askari, or Golden Mosque, inSamarra on 22 February 2006, violenceacross all of Iraq increased significant-ly. Although Marines continued opera-tions into 2006, by the end of 2006,many U.S. and Iraqi officials had writ-ten al-Anbar Province off as uncontrol-lable.

What those officials did not realizewas that a transformation in al-

Anbar Province was already takingplace. Al-Qaeda in Iraq’s brutality andindiscriminate attacks against civilianscaused resentment, and the local tribesbegan to resist al-Qaeda in Iraq.Meanwhile, the relentless efforts of theMarines to purge al-Qaeda in Iraq fromthe province had weakened insurgentnetworks. Ongoing humanitarianoperations and engagement efforts,coupled with a consistent message ofgood will backed by consistentactions, had begun to erode long-standing cultural barriers and improvecredibility with the people.In Ramadi, 3d Battalion, 8th

Marines, working with the U.S. Army’s1st Brigade Combat Team (BCT), 1stArmor Division, conducted aggressivecounterinsurgency operations that notonly weakened al-Qaeda in Iraq andother insurgent groups but also soughtto engage key provincial and triballeaders. Sheikh Abdul Satter abu Risha,who had lost his father and threebrothers to al-Qaeda in Iraq murder,was receptive to this effort and forgedan alliance with the 1st BCT to recruit

The King Faisal Bridge, named afterthe first king of Iraq, King Faisal I, isshown below at the rededication of thebridge on 5 April 2008. The bridgemade headlines in 2004 when fourBlackwater USA employees’ bodieswere hung from the bridge.

Photo by Capt Estban T. Vickers


more Iraqi police. As police recruit-ment grew, al-Qaeda in Iraq retaliatedin a manner that only served tostrengthen tribal resolve in Ramadi—bombing police stations and murder-ing a leading sheikh.

When 1st Battalion, 6th Marines(1/6) replaced 3/8, they worked

with the 1st BCT and Iraqi Army unitsto expel al-Qaeda in Iraq from the cityfrom September through December2006. They sealed the city and con-trolled access through checkpoints,searching everyone who entered andrequiring identification cards for allIraqis. Marines also divided cities intoneighborhoods or precincts to controlmovement, and Marines moved fromhardened bases into smaller outpostswithin these “gated communities,”where they lived with the Iraqi policeand conducted joint patrols to engagethe population and root out remaininginsurgents. At the same time, Marinesand soldiers engaged in humanitarianand reconstruction operations thathelped prevent al-Qaeda in Iraqattacks and regain popular support.Meanwhile, many of the tribal militiaswho helped expel al-Qaeda in Iraqfrom the population centers becamewhat came to be called the Sons ofIraq, who patrolled their own neigh-borhoods and staffed the checkpointsbetween precincts inside the cities.These tribal efforts not only improvedthe quality of life, but also broughtnormalcy and hope to Iraqis in al-Anbar Province. With securityimproved, children returned to school,and many adults, throughout theprovince, returned to one of the 17

campuses of al-Anbar University.As more tribes joined the Sahwa or

the Awakening movement, U.S.Marines and soldiers and their Iraqipartners secured the populations incities and towns up the EuphratesRiver valley and across al-AnbarProvince. Iraqi police and military

forces quickly grew as the Awakeninggained momentum, and U.S. Army andMarine transition teams provided thenecessary training for the Iraqi policeand military to defeat al-Qaeda in Iraq.By living and working with the Iraqis,mentoring them, and setting examplesfor them to follow, U.S. Marines andsoldiers built camaraderie, trust, andrespect. The Iraqis, Marines, and sol-diers played soccer and volleyballtogether and enjoyed conversationsand friendships. It was common for anIraqi soldier to protect a U.S. Marine orsoldier during an engagement by plac-ing his own body as a shield, andsome even gave their lives to saveAmerican friends. Some U.S. Marinesand soldiers risked their lives to saveIraqi friends. These relationships notonly contributed to the improved pro-ficiency of the province’s police andmilitary, but also allowed Marines toturn to the outlying areas to destroyremaining al-Qaeda in Iraq cells hidingin the desolate desert regions.

Having been taught the fundamen-tals of Arabic and Iraqi culture,

U.S. Marines and soldiers engaged thepopulation daily as they patrolled thestreets with Iraqi police. They succeed-ed in building trust among Iraqis andfrequently played soccer with Iraqichildren or were invited into Iraqihomes for meals and tea. Meanwhile,commanders engaged local sheikhsand government leaders. In the eyes ofmany, Americans were no longer seenas the enemy or occupier but as part-ners and friends, working toward com-mon goals of keeping Iraqis safe whileworking toward a secure and stable

Gen John F. Kelly, CommandingGeneral, Multinational Force-West, onright, and SgtMaj Neil O’Connell,Multinational Force-West, on left,cases the colors signifying the transferof Multinational Force-West’s head-quarters to al-Asad Air Base. Kellyordered the closing of Camp Fallujahand the base to be handed back to theIraqis. More than 8,000 Marines fromthe camp have been relocatedthroughout al-Anbar Province or senthome.

Photo by MSgt Willie Ellerbrook

Documentation of Marines in Iraq

The Marine Corps History Division continues itsefforts to document Marine engagement in Iraq. Its

field historians have collected more than 4,500 inter-views to date. Among the People: U.S. Marines in Iraq,by Lieutenant Colonel David A. Benhoff, a field histori-an with the History Division, is one of first publishedworks to document the positive impact of civil affairsefforts in al-Anbar Province (published in 2008 byMarine Corps University Press).The History Division has published U.S. Marines in

Iraq, 2003: Anthology and Annotated Bibliography(2006) and U.S. Marines in Iraq: Basrah, Baghdad, and

Beyond (2007), with follow-on operational volumes inthe works. A battle study of Marines in the August 2004fight for an-Najaf is at press, and others on Fallujah andan-Nasiriyah are nearing completion, as are books onthe Aviation Combat Element and Combat ServiceSupport in Operation Iraqi Freedom I, SpecialOperations Command Detachment One, and a narrativeoverview of Marines in Iraq for the 2003-2006 period.U.S. Marines and Irregular Warfare, 1898–2007:Anthology and Selected Bibliography, newly publishedby Marine Corps University Press, includes two articleson Iraq.


The “Annual Chronology of theMarine Corps” serves as a valuable

source of information on significantevents and dates in contemporaryMarine Corps history. Since 1982, theHistorical Reference Branch of theMarine Corps History Division hascompiled the yearly chronology byresearching numerous primary andsecondary sources each week. Thefollowing excerpts highlight key

part of the Bataan Expeditionary StrikeGroup (ESG), taking with it the firstMarine Special Operations Company(MSOC) to ever be deployed.10 January – President George W.Bush announced plans to increase theend strength size of the Army andMarine Corps. The following day,Defense Secretary Robert M. Gatesproposed adding 65,000 soldiers and27,000 Marines over the next five

Marine Corps Chronology

Highlights From the 2007 Annual Chronologyby Kara R. NewcomerReference Historian

future. With new confidence in theirpolice and military, residents ofRamadi were not only pointing outweapons caches but also insurgentsand their supporters.As security improved, Coalition

forces and other U.S. agencies in theform of Provincial ReconstructionTeams worked closely with the Iraqisto improve al-Anbar Province throughsix social processes—security, essentialservices and infrastructure, local gov-ernment, the economy, communica-tion, and the rule of law. This U.S.-Iraqi cooperation created new hospi-tals, schools, and government build-ings, along with urban renovation pro-grams that erased signs of fighting andhostility. These combined efforts alsoimproved roads, railways, and bridgesand built new power plants andsewage treatment facilities, oil refiner-ies, and fuel distribution centers.Since 2004, Marines and other agen-

cies made great strides in improvinggovernance and the rule of law byhelping the Iraqis build provincial andmunicipal governments that providedself-governance, self-reliance, and—importantly—reconciliation. Althoughthe citizens of al-Anbar Province large-ly abstained from participation in the2005 elections, tribal leaders becamesupportive of the democratic processbecause they were included in it. As aresult, new political parties emergedand became active in Iraq’s politicalprocess. Women, once excluded fromgovernance and the debate on impor-tant issues, began participating in Iraqi

government and society. Similarly, thelegal system of al-Anbar Provincebecame more robust with improve-ments in the courts, police forces, andcorrections programs. By mid-2008,Iraqi police independently patrolledcity streets and manned checkpoints,the Iraqi Highway Patrol coveredmajor roadways, and the Iraqi Armyconducted independent operationsagainst al-Qaeda in Iraq, other insur-gents, and criminal groups.

As a result of the security and sta-bilization efforts of the Marines, U.S.agencies, and the Iraqis themselves,other effects from the six socialprocesses began to transform al-AnbarProvince. U.S. agencies helped createbusiness development centers toenable Iraqi entrepreneurs in obtainingmicro-financing and foreign invest-ment while encouraging wealthy Iraqisto invest in their country’s future.Improved communication outlets, suchas radio, television, newspaper, maga-zine, and the Internet, helped theIraqis break free of the former state-dominated media and provided themeans to educate and illuminate thecitizens of al-Anbar Province on thecurrent issues in Iraqi as well as inother countries throughout the world.These new communication mecha-nisms allowed the local leaders of al-Anbar Province to engage the peoplein ways never seen before. U.S. andIraqi cooperation also developed adultliteracy and vocational training pro-grams and civil service organizationslike the Iraqi Women’s Engagement

Program that helped empower Iraqiwomen and meet the needs of wid-ows, the disabled, and the elderly.By January 2008, U.S. soldiers and

Marines could walk the streets ofRamadi without helmet or flak jackets,and all of al-Anbar Province had fol-lowed Ramadi’s lead. Al-Qaeda in Iraqwas effectively defeated in al-AnbarProvince and its ideology essentiallyrejected among the majority of thepopulation. Marines reduced theirpresence in the cities and began turn-ing more responsibility over to theIraqis. On 1 September 2008, MajorGeneral John F. Kelly formally turnedover the governance of al-AnbarProvince to Ma’amoun Sami Rashid al-Awani, governor of al-Anbar Province,and turned over security to MajorGeneral Murthi Mush’hen Almhalawi,commanding general for all IraqiSecurity Forces. Al-Anbar Provincebecame the 11th of 18 provinces to behanded back to Iraqi control. On 14November 2008, Marines turned overCamp Fallujah to Iraqis in anothermilestone.Al-Anbar Province has been trans-

formed from a hostile, politicallyintractable region, written off as a lostcause by many U.S. and Iraqi leaders,to a politically and economicallymaturing region that is the model forthe rest of Iraq. Although the U.S.Marines were not alone in theirendeavors to stabilize and secure theprovince, their efforts helped to ener-gize the process toward Iraqi self-gov-ernment and self-sufficiency. �1775�

entries from the 2007 Chronology,including the ongoing OperationsIraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom.To see past annual chronologies aswell as the complete 2007 Chron-ology, please visit the FrequentlyRequested section of the HistoryDivision’s website at <www.history.usmc.mil>.5 January – The 26th MarineExpeditionary Unit (MEU) deployed as


years at a cost of $10 billion annually.

11 January – President George W.Bush presented the Medal of Honor toCorporal Jason L. Dunham’s familyduring a White House ceremony.Corporal Dunham, who died ofwounds sustained in combat in April2004, was not only the first Marine toreceive the nation’s highest militaryaward for valor for Operation IraqiFreedom, but also the first Marine toreceive the award for any action since1970.

19 January – The Marine Corpschanged its policy and will no longerautomatically deactivate a reserveMarine who becomes pregnant onactive duty per Marine AdministrativeMessage (MarAdmin) 027/07.

2 February – The countries ofAzerbaijan, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,Senegal, Tanzania, and Tunisia wereadded to the list of designated areas ofeligibility for Marines to receive theGlobal War on Terrorism Expedi-tionary Medal. It was the third timethe list of eligible countries has been

expanded for the medal since its intro-duction in 2004.

7 February – Five Marines and twosailors were killed when their MarineCH-46 Sea Knight helicopter was shotdown by insurgents about 20 milesnorthwest of Baghdad, Iraq. It wasthe fifth U.S. helicopter to be shotdown in a three-week period.

9 February – II Marine ExpeditionaryForce (MEF) assumed command ofMulti-National Force-West from I MEFin Iraq’s al-Anbar Province. The lastof I MEF Marines were able to returnhome to Camp Pendleton, California,by 15 February.

4 March – Marines with the MarineCorps Forces Special OperationsCommand (MarSoc) opened fire,killing at least eight Afghan civilians ineastern Afghanistan. Different ver-sions of the events led to tensionsbetween U.S. forces and the localpopulation, with the Marine unit beingexpelled from the country later in themonth by the Army general in charge.The incident also sparked an investi-gation into whether the Marinesresponded with appropriate force toan ambush or if they had opened firewithout provocation.

21 March – Major William D. ChesarekJr. was awarded the British Distin-guished Flying Cross (DFC) in a cere-mony at Buckingham Palace, London,by Queen Elizabeth II. Major Chesarekwas serving as an exchange officerwith the British 847 Naval AirSquadron and was deployed to Iraqwith that unit. His actions on 10 June2006 supporting British ground troopslead to him becoming the firstAmerican since World War II toreceive a British DFC.1 April – The Marine Corps officiallystood up the Wounded WarriorsRegiment, whose mission was to helpinjured Marines through their recoveryand an often difficult bureaucracy.The regiment is headquartered atMarine Corps Base (MCB) Quantico,Virginia, but has two established bat-talions, one on the West Coast andanother on the East Coast.

18 April – The Marine Corps formallyreactivated the 1st Battalion, 9thMarines, in a ceremony at CampLejeune, North Carolina. The reactiva-

tion was originally slated for 2005 butwas delayed due to manpower andequipment issues. The battalion hadbeen deactivated in September 1994.

25 April – Sergeant Major Carlton W.Kent assumed the position as the 16thSergeant Major of the Marine Corps,replacing Sergeant Major John L.Estrada. Sergeant Major Estrada laterretired from the Marine Corps in June2007 after 34 years of service.

4 May – The Marine Corps Reservepromoted its first female reservist tobrigadier general during a ceremonyin Arlington, Virginia. Colonel TracyL. Garrett, who was the acting com-manding general for 4th MarineLogistics Group in New Orleans,Louisiana, was slated to take over ashead of Marine Corps MobilizationCommand in Kansas City, Missouri,following her promotion.

5 May – Brigadier General Edwin H.Simmons, former director of theMarine Corps’ History and MuseumsDivision, well-respected author andhistorian, passed away at the age of85. Brigadier General Simmons servedin the Marine Corps during World WarII, Korea, and Vietnam, retired after 36years in uniform, and then servedanother 17 years as a civil servant. Hewas buried with full military honors inArlington National Cemetery, Arling-ton, Virginia, on 25 July 2007.

15 June – MarAdmin 364/07announced the awarding of the NavyUnit Commendation to 1st Battalion,3d Marines, for service from 26December 2005 to 31 May 2006 during

Official Marine Corps Photo 070418-3790H-M-001

A Marine from 1st Battalion, 9thMarines, marches with a companyguidon during the pass in review atthe unit’s reactivation ceremony on18 April 2007.

Maj William D. Chesarek Jr. becamethe first American since World War IIto be awarded the British Distin-guished Flying Cross for his actionsduring combat. Maj Chesarek servedin Iraq as an exchange officer with theBritish 847 Naval Air Squadron.Official Marine Corps Photo 070321-M-3892P-001


Operation Enduring Freedom inAfghanistan.

28 June – President George W. Bushnominated Navy Admiral Michael G.Mullen to be chairman of the JointChiefs of Staff and Marine GeneralJames E. Cartwright to serve as vicechairman. Originally, General PeterPace was expected to be renominatedfor another two-year term as chair-man, but Secretary of Defense RobertM. Gates instead recommendedAdmiral Mullen after concluding thatGeneral Pace’s Senate confirmationprocess would be too contentious.

13 July – The Marine Corps reactivated2d Battalion, 9th Marines, in a cere-mony at Camp Lejeune. The unitabsorbed the men assigned to theAnti-Terrorism Battalion that wasdeactivated the same day and was partof the Marine Corps’ long-range plansto increase its end strength numbers.

14 July – Regimental Combat Team 2began Operation Mawtini along theEuphrates River in Iraqi towns longused as insurgent sanctuaries. Theoperation involved more than 9,000U.S. and Iraqi troops and was aimed atestablishing control in remote areas ofwestern al-Anbar Province.31 August – General James E.Cartwright was sworn in as the eighthvice chairman of the Joint Chiefs ofStaff (JCS) by Defense SecretaryRobert M. Gates at a ceremony held atthe Pentagon. General Cartwright hadbeen serving as vice chairman sincehis confirmation by the Senate on 3August, but his official ceremony wasdelayed until his family could be inattendance. It was the first time in his-tory that two Marine officers held thetop two military spots since GeneralPeter Pace was still serving as chair-man of the JCS.

17 September – Marine MediumTiltrotor Squadron 263 (VMM-263)became the first combat squadron todeploy with the MV-22 Osprey air-craft. VMM-263 departed from MarineCorps Air Station at New River, NorthCarolina for a seven-month deploy-ment to Iraq in support of OperationIraqi Freedom. The first of theOspreys landed in Iraq in earlyOctober.

1 October – Africa Command

(AfriCom) was stood up as the newestregionally focused major Departmentof Defense command. The commandwas created to help tackle diplomaticinitiatives, humanitarian aid, andcounterterrorism operations in all ofAfrica except Egypt, which remainedunder the control of U.S. CentralCommand.

10 October – Lieutenant GeneralJames N. Mattis ordered that a court ofinquiry be convened to investigate theactions of a Marine Corps specialoperations company on 4 March 2007in Afghanistan, which left several civil-ians dead and wounded. The court ofinquiry is a rarely convened high-leveladministrative investigatory body andnot a criminal proceeding.

11 October – The U.S. Naval Academyagreed to temporarily return to SouthKorea (initially for a two-year period)a Korean flag captured by Marinesduring a brief 1871 battle. The giantbanner had been displayed in theNaval Academy museum since under-going preservation treatments in 1913.The 1871 Korean Campaign occurredwhen U.S. officials sought to openwhat was then Korea to trade andresulted in six Marines receiving theMedal of Honor.

2 November – Marines, assigned toTask Force National Capital Region,were deployed to Iraq for sevenmonths. Made up of more than 200Marines, nearly all volunteers, fromvarious commands in the Washington,D.C., area, the unit was formed inJune in order to give Marines a chanceto deploy from usually non-deploy-able duty stations such as MarineCorps Base, Quantico.

17 November – Marines and sailorswith the 13th MEU returned home toCamp Pendleton following a seven-month deployment to the Persian Gulfwith the Bonhomme Richard ESG(Expeditionary Strike Group) thatincluded a ground combat tour inIraq.

17 November – Marines with 1stMarine Special Operations Battalion(1st MSOB), U.S. Marine Corps Forces,Special Operations Command, re-turned to Camp Pendleton followingthe unit’s historic first deployment.While deployed, 1st MSOB conductedspecial operations in the Philippinesand Afghanistan.31 December – The strength of theU.S. Armed Forces was 1,409,897, ofwhom 186,342 were U.S. Marines.

�1775�

Defense Imagery Photo 071110-M-7404B-075

Two MV-22B Ospreys from Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 263 (VMM-263) refuel atAl Asad Air Base, Iraq. VMM-263 was the first combat squadron to deploy withthe aircraft.


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